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Abstract
The changing focus and approach of geomorphic research suggests that the time is opportune for a summary of the state of discipline.
The number of peer-reviewed papers published in geomorphic journals has grown steadily for more than two decades and, more importantly, the diversity of authors with respect to geographic location and disciplinary background (geography, geology, ecology, civil engineering, computer science, geographic information science, and others) has expanded dramatically. As more good minds are drawn to geomorphology, and the breadth of the peer-reviewed literature grows, an effective summary of contemporary geomorphic knowledge becomes increasingly difficult.
The fourteen volumes of this Treatise on Geomorphology will provide an important reference for users from undergraduate students looking for term paper topics, to graduate students starting a literature review for their thesis work, and professionals seeking a concise summary of a particular topic. Information on the historical development of diverse topics within geomorphology provides context for ongoing research; discussion of research strategies, equipment, and field methods, laboratory experiments, and numerical simulations reflect the multiple approaches to understanding Earth’s surfaces; and summaries of outstanding research questions highlight future challenges and suggest productive new avenues for research. Our future ability to adapt to geomorphic changes in the critical zone very much hinges upon how well landform scientists comprehend the dynamics of Earth’s diverse surfaces. This Treatise on Geomorphology provides a useful synthesis of the state of the discipline, as well as highlighting productive research directions, that Educators and students/researchers will find useful.
- Geomorphology has advanced greatly in the last 10 years to become a very interdisciplinary field. Undergraduate students looking for term paper topics, to graduate students starting a literature review for their thesis work, and professionals seeking a concise summary of a particular topic will find the answers they need in this broad reference work which has been designed and written to accommodate their diverse backgrounds and levels of understanding
- Editor-in-Chief, Prof. J. F. Shroder of the University of Nebraska at Omaha, is past president of the QG&G section of the Geological Society of America and present Trustee of the GSA Foundation, while being well respected in the geomorphology research community and having won numerous awards in the field. A host of noted international geomorphologists have contributed state-of-the-art chapters to the work. Readers can be guaranteed that every chapter in this extensive work has been critically reviewed for consistency and accuracy by the World expert Volume Editors and by the Editor-in-Chief himself
- No other reference work exists in the area of Geomorphology that offers the breadth and depth of information contained in this 14-volume masterpiece. From the foundations and history of geomorphology through to geomorphological innovations and computer modelling, and the past and future states of landform science, no "stone" has been left unturned!
"…the information is comprehensive, and the set successfully pulls together an overview of existing geomorphic knowledge. Given the multidisciplinary nature of the field, this resource will be useful to students in geology, geography, and environmental sciences."Summing Up: Highly recommended. --CHOICE Reviews Online, June 2014
"…the readership is expected to range from undergraduates looking for material for their term papers to professionals seeking pointers to productive future research directions…it should be an invaluable source of information on the geomorphological processes that Holocene scientists encounter and often need to know more about." --The Holocene, April 2014
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| e9780123747396v1 | 1 | ||
| Front Cover | 1 | ||
| TREATISE ON GEOMORPHOLOGY | 4 | ||
| CONTENTS | 6 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 8 | ||
| VOLUME EDITORS | 10 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1 | 12 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 14 | ||
| PREFACE | 28 | ||
| FOREWORD | 30 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology | 32 | ||
| 1.1.1 Introduction to Geomorphology | 32 | ||
| 1.1.2 Establishment of the Discipline | 34 | ||
| 1.1.3 Cycle and Process: Early and Middle Twentieth-Century Trends | 35 | ||
| 1.1.4 Climate and Humans: Late Twentieth and Early Twenty-First-Century Trends | 36 | ||
| 1.1.5 Historical and Conceptual Foundations | 37 | ||
| 1.1.5.1 The History of Geomorphology | 37 | ||
| 1.1.5.1.1 The scientific roots of geomorphology before 1830 | 37 | ||
| 1.1.5.1.2 Major themes in British and European geomorphology in the nineteenth century | 37 | ||
| 1.1.5.1.3 Geomorphology and nineteenth-century explorations of the American West | 37 | ||
| 1.1.5.1.4 Geomorphology in the first half of the twentieth century | 37 | ||
| 1.1.5.1.5 The mid-twentieth revolution in geomorphology | 37 | ||
| 1.1.5.1.6 Geomorphology in the late twentieth century | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.2 Changing Concepts and Paradigms | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.2.1 Philosophy and theory in geomorphology | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.2.2 Spatial and temporal scales in geomorphology | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.2.3 Tectonism, climate, and geomorphology | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.2.4 Process in geomorphology | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.2.5 Denudation, planation, and cyclicity: myths, models, and reality | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.2.6 Sediments and sediment transport | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.2.7 Systems and complexity in geomorphology | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.2.8 Geomorphology and late Cenozoic climate change | 38 | ||
| 1.1.5.3 Investigative Traditions and Changing Technologies | 39 | ||
| 1.1.5.3.1 The field, the first and latest court of appeal: an Australian cratonic landscape and its wider relevance | 39 | ||
| 1.1.5.3.2 Laboratory and experimental geomorphology: examples from fluvial and aeolian systems | 39 | ||
| 1.1.5.3.3 Present research frontiers in geomorphology | 39 | ||
| 1.1.5.3.4 Geomorphology for future societies | 39 | ||
| References | 39 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 41 | ||
| 1.2 The Scientific Roots of Geomorphology before 1830 | 42 | ||
| 1.2.1 Introduction | 44 | ||
| 1.2.1.1 The Twin Roots of Geomorphology | 44 | ||
| 1.2.2 The Distant Past | 44 | ||
| 1.2.2.1 The Classical World of the Mediterranean Basin | 45 | ||
| 1.2.2.2 Early Science in Islamic and Eastern Cultures | 45 | ||
| 1.2.2.3 Medieval and Renaissance Science in Europe | 45 | ||
| 1.2.3 Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, 1600-1830 | 46 | ||
| 1.2.3.1 The Scientific Revolution in Seventeenth-Century Europe | 46 | ||
| 1.2.3.2 The Enlightenment of the Eighteenth Century | 46 | ||
| 1.2.4 Roots in Historical Earth Science, 1600-1830 | 48 | ||
| 1.2.4.1 The Time Factor and Earth’s Age | 48 | ||
| 1.2.4.2 Catastrophism | 49 | ||
| 1.2.4.3 Uniformitarianism | 51 | ||
| 1.2.5 Roots in Classical Mechanics, 1600-1830 | 55 | ||
| 1.2.5.1 Fluid Dynamics and Fluvial and Aeolian Processes | 55 | ||
| 1.2.5.2 Soil Mechanics and Slope Processes | 59 | ||
| 1.2.5.3 Coastal Processes and Glacier Mechanics | 61 | ||
| 1.2.6 Prospects for Geomorphology after 1830 | 61 | ||
| 1.2.6.1 Catastrophism: Descent and Resurrection | 61 | ||
| 1.2.6.2 Uniformitarianism: Rigidity and Flexibility | 62 | ||
| 1.2.6.3 Toward a Dynamic Geomorphology | 63 | ||
| 1.2.7 Conclusion | 64 | ||
| References | 65 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 67 | ||
| 1.3 Major Themes in British and European Geomorphology in the Nineteenth Century | 68 | ||
| 1.3.1 Introduction | 68 | ||
| 1.3.2 The Glacial Theory: A Preposterous Notion | 69 | ||
| 1.3.2.1 Glaciation beyond Europe | 70 | ||
| 1.3.2.2 The Eventful Ice Age | 70 | ||
| 1.3.3 Beyond the Ice Sheets: The Seeds of Climatic Geomorphology and Climate Change | 71 | ||
| 1.3.3.1 Extra-Glacial Phenomena and the Germination of Climatic Geomorphology | 71 | ||
| 1.3.3.2 Loess | 71 | ||
| 1.3.3.3 Deserts | 72 | ||
| 1.3.3.4 Coral Reefs and other Tropical Coastal Features | 73 | ||
| 1.3.3.5 Deep Weathering, Laterite, and the Tropics | 74 | ||
| 1.3.4 River Valleys and the Power of Fluvial Denudation | 75 | ||
| 1.3.5 The Decay of Rocks | 77 | ||
| 1.3.6 Mountain-Building | 78 | ||
| 1.3.7 Conclusion | 79 | ||
| References | 80 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 83 | ||
| 1.4 Geomorphology and Nineteenth-Century Explorations of the American West | 84 | ||
| 1.4.1 Introduction | 84 | ||
| 1.4.2 Pre-Nineteenth Century | 85 | ||
| 1.4.3 Lewis and Clark | 86 | ||
| 1.4.4 Fur Trappers and Traders | 87 | ||
| 1.4.5 Army Topographers | 88 | ||
| 1.4.6 Geographical and Geological Field Surveys | 89 | ||
| 1.4.7 G.K. Gilbert | 90 | ||
| 1.4.8 Concluding Comments | 92 | ||
| References | 92 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 94 | ||
| 1.5 Geomorphology in the First Half of the Twentieth Century | 95 | ||
| 1.5.1 Introduction | 96 | ||
| 1.5.2 William Morris Davis and a Paradigm for Geomorphology | 96 | ||
| 1.5.3 Davisian Reasoning | 98 | ||
| 1.5.4 Articulation of the Davisian Paradigm | 98 | ||
| 1.5.4.1 The Davisian Cycle for Arid Regions | 99 | ||
| 1.5.4.2 Davis on Coastal Geomorphology | 99 | ||
| 1.5.4.3 Davis on Glaciers and Glacial Geomorphology | 99 | ||
| 1.5.4.4 Davisian Theory Applied to Karst Topography | 99 | ||
| 1.5.4.5 Davis and Coral Atolls | 100 | ||
| 1.5.5 Tectonic Considerations in Relation to Davisian Theory | 100 | ||
| 1.5.6 Local Opposition to Davis | 101 | ||
| 1.5.7 Davisian Doctrines Applied Overseas: Some Examples | 101 | ||
| 1.5.7.1 Australasia | 101 | ||
| 1.5.7.2 Britain | 101 | ||
| 1.5.7.3 France | 102 | ||
| 1.5.7.4 China | 102 | ||
| 1.5.8 German Opposition to Davisian Ideas: Walther Penck’s Alternative | 102 | ||
| 1.5.9 Germany and America: Differences of Opinion | 104 | ||
| 1.5.10 Lester King in Africa: Davis Rewritten | 105 | ||
| 1.5.11 Periglacial Geomorphology | 107 | ||
| 1.5.12 The Beginnings of Quantitative and Experimental Geomorphology | 107 | ||
| 1.5.13 Stream Patterns and Drainage Development | 111 | ||
| 1.5.14 Landforms Produced by Etching | 111 | ||
| 1.5.15 The Movement of Sand and Soil by Wind: Bagnold’s Investigations | 112 | ||
| 1.5.16 Conclusion | 113 | ||
| References | 114 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 116 | ||
| 1.6 The Mid-Twentieth Century Revolution in Geomorphology | 117 | ||
| 1.6.1 Introduction | 119 | ||
| 1.6.2 The Quantitative Revolution | 119 | ||
| 1.6.3 The Process Revolution | 122 | ||
| 1.6.4 Theoretical Reappraisals | 129 | ||
| 1.6.4.1 Equilibrium and Grade | 129 | ||
| 1.6.4.2 Systems Theory | 130 | ||
| 1.6.4.3 Time, Space, and Thresholds | 130 | ||
| 1.6.5 The Plate-Tectonic Revolution | 132 | ||
| 1.6.6 The Climate-Change Revolution | 133 | ||
| 1.6.7 The Revolution in Geochronology | 134 | ||
| 1.6.8 Conclusion | 136 | ||
| References | 136 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 138 | ||
| 1.7 Geomorphology in the Late Twentieth Century | 139 | ||
| 1.7.1 Introduction | 140 | ||
| 1.7.2 New Technologies in Geomorphology | 140 | ||
| 1.7.3 Process Geomorphology | 141 | ||
| 1.7.3.1 Fluvial Geomorphology | 142 | ||
| 1.7.3.2 Coastal Geomorphology | 143 | ||
| 1.7.3.3 Aeolian Geomorphology | 143 | ||
| 1.7.3.4 Modeling | 145 | ||
| 1.7.4 Landscape Development and Tectonic Geomorphology | 145 | ||
| 1.7.5 Chaos, Self-Organized Criticality, and Non-linear Dynamic Systems | 146 | ||
| 1.7.6 Connecting to Ecology: Biogeomorphology | 148 | ||
| 1.7.7 Conclusions | 150 | ||
| References | 150 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 154 | ||
| 1.8 Philosophy and Theory in Geomorphology | 155 | ||
| 1.8.1 Introduction | 155 | ||
| 1.8.2 Distinguishing between Philosophy and Theory | 155 | ||
| 1.8.3 Approaching Geomorphology | 156 | ||
| 1.8.4 The Two Geomorphologies Problem | 157 | ||
| 1.8.5 The Geomorphic Frame of Systems Analysis | 158 | ||
| References | 159 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 160 | ||
| 1.9 Spatial and Temporal Scales in Geomorphology | 161 | ||
| 1.9.1 Introduction | 161 | ||
| 1.9.2 Changing Foci of Time and Space | 162 | ||
| 1.9.2.1 Evolution to Processes | 162 | ||
| 1.9.2.2 Processes to Systems | 163 | ||
| 1.9.2.3 Systems to Complexity | 163 | ||
| 1.9.3 Conceptualizing Time and Space in Geomorphology | 163 | ||
| 1.9.3.1 Absolute Time and Absolute Space | 164 | ||
| 1.9.3.1.1 Absolute time and temporal scales | 164 | ||
| 1.9.3.1.2 Absolute space and spatial scales | 165 | ||
| 1.9.3.2 Relative Space and Time (Space-Time) | 167 | ||
| 1.9.3.2.1 Relative time(-space) | 168 | ||
| 1.9.3.2.2 Relative space(-time) | 169 | ||
| 1.9.3.2.3 Relative space-time | 170 | ||
| 1.9.3.3 Relational Spacetime | 171 | ||
| 1.9.4 Spacetime Scales: Where and How Do We Go From Here? | 172 | ||
| 1.9.5 Conclusion | 173 | ||
| References | 174 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 176 | ||
| 1.10 Tectonism, Climate, and Geomorphology | 177 | ||
| 1.10.1 Introduction | 179 | ||
| 1.10.2 Tectonism and Tectonic Change | 180 | ||
| 1.10.2.1 Tectonic Concepts - Stabilism versus Mobilism | 180 | ||
| 1.10.2.2 The Mechanics of Plate Tectonics | 180 | ||
| 1.10.2.3 Plate Interiors | 182 | ||
| 1.10.2.4 Plate Margins | 185 | ||
| 1.10.3 Weather, Climate, and Climate Change | 186 | ||
| 1.10.3.1 The Nature of Weather and Climate | 186 | ||
| 1.10.3.2 Early Explanations of Climate Change | 186 | ||
| 1.10.3.3 Probable Causes of Climate Change | 191 | ||
| 1.10.4 Tectonism, Climate, and Geomorphology: Spatial Considerations | 191 | ||
| 1.10.4.1 Latitude and Location | 191 | ||
| 1.10.4.2 Continentality versus Oceanicity | 192 | ||
| 1.10.4.3 Ocean Gateways and Land Corridors | 195 | ||
| 1.10.4.4 Continental Elevation and Relief Barriers | 195 | ||
| 1.10.4.5 Nature and Extent of Vegetation Cover | 195 | ||
| 1.10.5 Tectonism, Climate, and Geomorphology: Temporal Changes since 300Ma | 195 | ||
| 1.10.5.1 The Nature and Rate of Change | 196 | ||
| 1.10.5.2 The Supercontinent of Pangea | 196 | ||
| 1.10.5.3 Opening of the Atlantic Ocean and Tethys | 198 | ||
| 1.10.5.4 Opening of the Southern Ocean | 201 | ||
| 1.10.5.5 Uplift of North America’s Western Cordillera | 201 | ||
| 1.10.5.6 Uplift of the Andes | 204 | ||
| 1.10.5.7 Uplift of the Eurasian Cordillera and Tethys Closure | 207 | ||
| 1.10.5.8 Closure of the Central American Isthmus | 209 | ||
| 1.10.5.9 Volcanism | 210 | ||
| 1.10.6 Geomorphic Feedbacks to Climate and Tectonism | 212 | ||
| 1.10.6.1 Denudation, Sedimentation, and Isostasy | 213 | ||
| 1.10.6.2 Biogeochemical Feedbacks | 216 | ||
| 1.10.6.3 Relative Sea-Level change | 216 | ||
| 1.10.7 Conclusion | 217 | ||
| References | 217 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 220 | ||
| 1.11 Process in Geomorphology | 221 | ||
| 1.11.1 Introduction | 222 | ||
| 1.11.2 Conceptions of Process at the Inception of Geomorphology | 222 | ||
| 1.11.3 Evolving Conceptions of Process in Geomorphology | 223 | ||
| 1.11.4 Strahler and the Foundation of the Process Paradigm | 224 | ||
| 1.11.5 Systems and Process | 226 | ||
| 1.11.6 The Mechanics and Mathematics of Process | 227 | ||
| 1.11.7 Elaboration of the Process Paradigm | 227 | ||
| 1.11.7.1 Challenges to Equilibrium | 227 | ||
| 1.11.7.2 Nonlinear Behavior: Thresholds and Complex Response | 228 | ||
| 1.11.7.3 Nonlinear Dynamical Systems | 229 | ||
| 1.11.7.4 Process and Measurements | 229 | ||
| 1.11.7.5 Process and Mathematical Modeling | 229 | ||
| 1.11.7.6 Process Criticisms | 230 | ||
| 1.11.7.7 Process Expanded | 230 | ||
| 1.11.8 Philosophical Perspectives on Process | 231 | ||
| 1.11.9 Conclusion | 233 | ||
| References | 233 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 235 | ||
| 1.12 Denudation, Planation, and Cyclicity: Myths, Models, and Reality | 236 | ||
| 1.12.1 Introduction | 240 | ||
| 1.12.2 Denudation: Foundations of the Concept before 1830 | 240 | ||
| 1.12.3 Planation: A Prolonged Debate, 1830-1960 | 243 | ||
| 1.12.3.1 Marine Planation | 243 | ||
| 1.12.3.2 Subaerial Planation | 244 | ||
| 1.12.3.2.1 Peneplanation | 246 | ||
| 1.12.3.2.2 Pediplanation | 247 | ||
| 1.12.3.2.3 Panplanation | 247 | ||
| 1.12.3.2.4 Eolation | 248 | ||
| 1.12.3.2.5 Glacial planation | 248 | ||
| 1.12.3.2.6 Cryoplanation | 248 | ||
| 1.12.3.2.7 Etchplanation | 248 | ||
| 1.12.3.3 Compound Planation | 249 | ||
| 1.12.4 Cyclicity in Geomorphology | 250 | ||
| 1.12.4.1 Early Concepts of Earth Cycles | 250 | ||
| 1.12.4.2 The Cycle Mania of the Nineteenth Century | 251 | ||
| 1.12.4.3 The Ascent and Supremacy of the Davisian Cycle of Erosion, 1880-1930 | 251 | ||
| 1.12.4.4 The Descent of the Davisian Cycle of Erosion, 1930-1960 | 254 | ||
| 1.12.4.5 Alternative Planation Cycles during the Davisian Hegemony | 255 | ||
| 1.12.5 The Quest for Reality | 255 | ||
| 1.12.5.1 The Penckian Model | 255 | ||
| 1.12.5.2 Crustal Mobility - Plate Tectonics | 256 | ||
| 1.12.5.3 Process and Form Revisited | 257 | ||
| 1.12.5.4 Crustal Instability - Denudation and Isostasy | 258 | ||
| 1.12.6 Conclusion | 260 | ||
| References | 260 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 263 | ||
| 1.13 Sediments and Sediment Transport | 264 | ||
| 1.13.1 Introduction | 265 | ||
| 1.13.2 Key Concepts | 266 | ||
| 1.13.2.1 The Froude Number | 266 | ||
| 1.13.2.2 The Reynolds Number | 266 | ||
| 1.13.2.3 The Prandlt and von Kármán Boundary-Layer Concepts | 266 | ||
| 1.13.2.4 Nikuradse’s Sand Grain Roughness | 267 | ||
| 1.13.2.5 The Rouse Number | 268 | ||
| 1.13.3 The Properties of Sediment | 269 | ||
| 1.13.3.1 Particle Size and Its Measurement | 269 | ||
| 1.13.3.1.1 Particle-size scales | 269 | ||
| 1.13.3.1.2 Particle-size measurement | 271 | ||
| 1.13.3.2 Particle Shape | 272 | ||
| 1.13.3.2.1 Sphericity | 272 | ||
| 1.13.3.2.2 Roundness | 274 | ||
| 1.13.3.3 Sediment Size Distributions | 274 | ||
| 1.13.4 Initiation of Sediment Motion | 276 | ||
| 1.13.4.1 The Hjulström Curve | 276 | ||
| 1.13.4.2 The Shields Curve | 277 | ||
| 1.13.4.3 Bagnold’s (1936) Equation | 279 | ||
| 1.13.5 Sediment Transport | 279 | ||
| 1.13.5.1 Grove Karl Gilbert | 279 | ||
| 1.13.5.2 Ralph Alger Bagnold | 282 | ||
| 1.13.5.3 Douglas Lamar Inman | 284 | ||
| 1.13.6 Conclusions | 284 | ||
| References | 284 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 287 | ||
| 1.14 Systems and Complexity in Geomorphology | 288 | ||
| 1.14.1 The Complexity of Landscapes | 289 | ||
| 1.14.1.1 Models of Landscapes | 290 | ||
| 1.14.2 Early Work on Systems and Complexity | 291 | ||
| 1.14.2.1 The Systems Approach to Science | 291 | ||
| 1.14.2.2 Deterministic Chaos and Fractals | 291 | ||
| 1.14.2.3 Self-Organization and Emergence in Complex Systems | 292 | ||
| 1.14.2.3.1 Positive and negative feedback | 292 | ||
| 1.14.2.3.2 Complexity and scale | 293 | ||
| 1.14.2.3.3 Emergence | 293 | ||
| 1.14.2.3.4 Self-organized criticality | 293 | ||
| 1.14.2.3.5 Why is self-organization surprising? A matter of thermodynamics | 294 | ||
| 1.14.2.3.6 Cellular automata models of self-organizing complex systems | 294 | ||
| 1.14.2.3.7 Context and boundaries in self-organizing systems | 295 | ||
| 1.14.3 Systems and Complexity in Geomorphology | 295 | ||
| 1.14.3.1 Field and Laboratory Studies of Self-Organization in Landscapes | 295 | ||
| 1.14.3.1.1 Early observations | 295 | ||
| 1.14.3.1.2 Geomorphological studies | 296 | ||
| 1.14.3.1.3 Self-organized criticality | 296 | ||
| 1.14.3.2 Self-Organizing Complex Systems Approaches to Landscape Modeling | 296 | ||
| 1.14.3.2.1 A first generation of geomorphological models of self-organizing complex systems | 296 | ||
| 1.14.3.2.2 A second generation of geomorphological models of self-organizing complex systems | 297 | ||
| 1.14.4 Discussion | 297 | ||
| 1.14.4.1 Does Landscape Complexity Arise from Underlying Simplicity? | 297 | ||
| 1.14.4.1.1 A possible return to simplicity for landscape models | 297 | ||
| 1.14.4.1.2 Landscape polygenesis and palimpsests | 297 | ||
| 1.14.4.1.3 A tradeoff? The complications of an underlying simplicity | 298 | ||
| 1.14.4.1.4 Simplicity: a faith-based hope? | 298 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 299 | ||
| References | 299 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 301 | ||
| 1.15 Geomorphology and Late Cenozoic Climate Change | 302 | ||
| 1.15.1 Introduction | 305 | ||
| 1.15.2 Climatic Geomorphology | 306 | ||
| 1.15.3 Late Cenozoic Climates and Climate Change | 307 | ||
| 1.15.3.1 A Primer on Earth’s Climates | 307 | ||
| 1.15.3.2 A Primer on Climate Change | 307 | ||
| 1.15.3.3 Early Foundations of Paleoclimatology | 310 | ||
| 1.15.3.4 Revolution in Paleoclimatology, Paleooceanography, and Geochronology | 312 | ||
| 1.15.3.5 Modeling | 314 | ||
| 1.15.4 Marine Archives | 315 | ||
| 1.15.5 Ice-Core Archives | 320 | ||
| 1.15.6 Lake Archives | 322 | ||
| 1.15.7 Aeolian Archives | 327 | ||
| 1.15.7.1 Loess and Loess-like Deposits | 328 | ||
| 1.15.7.2 Sand Dunes and Sand Sheets | 329 | ||
| 1.15.8 Relevance of Climate Archives to Geomorphology | 330 | ||
| 1.15.8.1 Climate Archives as Geomorphic Indicators | 330 | ||
| 1.15.8.2 Geomorphic Links to Climate Cycles | 332 | ||
| 1.15.9 Conclusion | 333 | ||
| References | 334 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 337 | ||
| 1.16 The Field, the First, and Latest Court of Appeal: An Australian Cratonic Landscape and its Wider Relevance | 338 | ||
| 1.16.1 Introduction | 338 | ||
| 1.16.2 Bornhardts and Associated Features | 340 | ||
| 1.16.2.1 Description | 340 | ||
| 1.16.2.2 Origin of Bornhardts | 341 | ||
| 1.16.2.3 Bornhardts as Congeners of Corestone Boulders | 341 | ||
| 1.16.2.4 Bornhardts as Two-Stage Forms: Field Tests and Evidence | 343 | ||
| 1.16.2.5 Scarp Recession and Exposure of the Weathering Front | 343 | ||
| 1.16.3 Domical Bornhardts and the Origin and Age of Sheet Fractures | 344 | ||
| 1.16.3.1 Sheet Fractures - Offloading Questioned | 344 | ||
| 1.16.3.2 Sheet Fractures as Planes of Dislocation | 345 | ||
| 1.16.4 Other Aspects of Bornhardts | 346 | ||
| 1.16.4.1 Do Bornhardts have Roots? | 346 | ||
| 1.16.4.2 Bornhardt Variants - Climatic Impacts and Partial Etching | 347 | ||
| 1.16.5 Flared Slopes and their Significance | 347 | ||
| 1.16.5.1 Origin | 348 | ||
| 1.16.5.2 Evidence Of and From Protection | 349 | ||
| 1.16.6 Age Considerations | 349 | ||
| 1.16.6.1 Exhumed Forms | 349 | ||
| 1.16.6.2 Stratigraphic/Topographic Dating | 349 | ||
| 1.16.6.3 Stepped Inselbergs and Episodic Exposure | 350 | ||
| 1.16.6.4 Survival | 351 | ||
| 1.16.7 Conclusions | 352 | ||
| References | 352 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 355 | ||
| 1.17 Laboratory and Experimental Geomorphology: Examples from Fluvial and Aeolian Systems | 356 | ||
| 1.17.1 Philosophical Basis | 357 | ||
| 1.17.2 Origin and Evolution of Hardware Modeling of Fluvial and Aeolian Systems | 358 | ||
| 1.17.3 Advantages of Hardware Models over Field Experiments | 360 | ||
| 1.17.4 Challenges in Scaling Laboratory Experiments | 361 | ||
| 1.17.5 The Nuts and Bolts of Hardware Simulation in Geomorphology | 362 | ||
| 1.17.5.1 Facilities | 362 | ||
| 1.17.5.1.1 River modeling flumes | 362 | ||
| 1.17.5.1.2 Hydraulic flumes | 364 | ||
| 1.17.5.1.3 Wind tunnels | 365 | ||
| 1.17.5.2 Instrumentation | 367 | ||
| 1.17.5.2.1 Measurement of fluid motion: Water | 367 | ||
| 1.17.5.2.2 Measurement of fluid motion: Air | 368 | ||
| 1.17.5.2.3 Measurement of fluid motion: Leading edge technologies | 369 | ||
| 1.17.5.2.4 Measurement of sediment motion | 371 | ||
| 1.17.5.2.5 Measurement of bed morphology | 372 | ||
| 1.17.6 Transformative Concepts | 374 | ||
| 1.17.7 The Future of Experimentation in Geomorphology | 375 | ||
| 1.17.8 Concluding Remarks | 375 | ||
| References | 376 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 378 | ||
| 1.18 Present Research Frontiers in Geomorphology | 380 | ||
| 1.18.1 Introduction | 381 | ||
| 1.18.2 Research at the Interface of Geomorphology and Ecology | 382 | ||
| 1.18.2.1 You Say Biogeomorphology, I Say Ecohydrology... | 382 | ||
| 1.18.2.2 Concepts and Progress in Biogeomorphological Interaction Modeling | 384 | ||
| 1.18.2.3 Data Acquisition: Survey Technologies for High-Resolution Biogeomorphological Data | 385 | ||
| 1.18.3 Integrative Thinking - Earth System Science and Landscape Evolution | 385 | ||
| 1.18.3.1 Earth System Science and Geomorphology | 385 | ||
| 1.18.3.2 Extraterrestrial Geomorphology: ESS by Analogy | 386 | ||
| 1.18.3.3 Modeling Landscapes and Complex Systems | 387 | ||
| 1.18.4 Geospatial Data Applications | 388 | ||
| 1.18.5 Dealing with Threats to Coastal Environments: Better Understanding of Coastal Processes and Geomorphology | 390 | ||
| 1.18.5.1 Rock Coast Geomorphology | 390 | ||
| 1.18.5.2 Technologies for Detecting, Monitoring, and Modeling Coastal Geomorphology | 391 | ||
| 1.18.6 Aeolian Research: New Impetus, New Technologies, and an Emerging Force | 392 | ||
| 1.18.7 Dating Agencies: Advances in Methods and Data Handling | 394 | ||
| 1.18.7.1 OSL or Optical Dating | 394 | ||
| 1.18.7.2 Exposure Dating Using Terrestrial Cosmogenic Nuclides (TCN) | 395 | ||
| 1.18.7.3 Age Models | 396 | ||
| 1.18.8 Concluding Remarks | 396 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 397 | ||
| References | 397 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 406 | ||
| 1.19 Geomorphology for Future Societies | 408 | ||
| 1.19.1 Introduction | 411 | ||
| 1.19.2 Geomorphology Past and Present | 411 | ||
| 1.19.2.1 Past Geomorphology | 412 | ||
| 1.19.2.2 Present Geomorphology | 412 | ||
| 1.19.3 The Future I: Environmental Challenges to Society | 413 | ||
| 1.19.3.1 Human Population: Recent Trends and Future Projections | 413 | ||
| 1.19.3.2 Climate Change | 413 | ||
| 1.19.3.3 Relative Sea-Level Change | 414 | ||
| 1.19.3.4 Seismicity and Volcanism | 414 | ||
| 1.19.3.5 Water Issues | 415 | ||
| 1.19.3.6 Changing Land-Cover and Land-Use Practices | 415 | ||
| 1.19.4 The Future II: The Research Role of Geomorphology | 416 | ||
| 1.19.4.1 Climate Change | 416 | ||
| 1.19.4.1.1 Glaciation | 418 | ||
| 1.19.4.1.2 Permafrost | 418 | ||
| 1.19.4.1.3 Rivers | 419 | ||
| 1.19.4.1.4 Wind | 419 | ||
| 1.19.4.2 Relative Sea-Level Change | 419 | ||
| 1.19.4.3 Seismicity and Volcanism | 420 | ||
| 1.19.4.4 Water Resources | 421 | ||
| 1.19.4.5 Sea Ice, Land Cover, and Land-Use Practices | 424 | ||
| 1.19.4.5.1 Sea ice and snow cover | 424 | ||
| 1.19.4.5.2 Vegetation cover and fire | 424 | ||
| 1.19.4.5.3 Vegetation clearance | 424 | ||
| 1.19.4.5.4 Agricultural land use | 425 | ||
| 1.19.4.5.5 Mining | 428 | ||
| 1.19.4.5.6 Roads, railways, seaports, and airports | 428 | ||
| 1.19.4.5.7 Urban and industrial land use | 429 | ||
| 1.19.5 The Future III: Applied Geomorphology | 429 | ||
| 1.19.5.1 People and Environment: An Historical Perspective on Planning and Management | 429 | ||
| 1.19.5.2 Education | 431 | ||
| 1.19.5.3 Engineering Geomorphology: Solutions and Limitations | 431 | ||
| 1.19.5.4 Planning | 433 | ||
| 1.19.5.5 Environmental Management | 436 | ||
| 1.19.6 Conclusion | 439 | ||
| References | 439 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 441 | ||
| e9780123747396v2 | 442 | ||
| Front Cover | 442 | ||
| TREATISE ON\rGEOMORPHOLOGY | 445 | ||
| CONTENTS | 447 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 449 | ||
| VOLUME EDITOR | 451 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 2 | 453 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 455 | ||
| PREFACE | 469 | ||
| FOREWORD | 471 | ||
| 2.1 Quantitative Modeling of Geomorphology | 473 | ||
| 2.1.1 Introduction | 473 | ||
| 2.1.2 Structure of this Volume | 475 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 476 | ||
| References | 477 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 477 | ||
| 2.2 Nine Considerations for Constructing and Running Geomorphological Models | 478 | ||
| 2.2.1 Introduction | 479 | ||
| 2.2.2 Model Construction | 481 | ||
| 2.2.2.1 Suitability of the Model for the Question and Observational Data at Hand | 484 | ||
| 2.2.2.2 Model Parsimony | 486 | ||
| 2.2.2.3 Dimensional Analysis | 487 | ||
| 2.2.2.4 Benchmarks | 488 | ||
| 2.2.2.5 Other Model Construction Issues | 489 | ||
| 2.2.3 Running the Model | 489 | ||
| 2.2.3.1 Sensitivity Analysis | 490 | ||
| 2.2.3.2 Calibration | 490 | ||
| 2.2.3.3 Observation and Model Data Exploration | 492 | ||
| 2.2.3.4 Uncertainty Assessment | 494 | ||
| 2.2.3.5 Alternative Models, Data, and Questions | 496 | ||
| 2.2.4 Concluding Remarks | 497 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 497 | ||
| References | 497 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 500 | ||
| 2.3 Fundamental Principles and Techniques of Landscape Evolution Modeling | 501 | ||
| 2.3.1 Fundamental Processes and Equations | 501 | ||
| 2.3.1.1 Conservation of Mass and Overland/Open-Channel Flow | 501 | ||
| 2.3.1.2 Soil Production and Colluvial Transport on Hillslopes | 502 | ||
| 2.3.1.3 Erosion and Deposition by Overland and Open-Channel Flow | 505 | ||
| 2.3.2 Solution Methods | 506 | ||
| 2.3.2.1 Methods for Diffusive Equations | 506 | ||
| 2.3.2.2 Methods for Advective Equations | 506 | ||
| 2.3.2.3 Methods for Solving Nonlinear Equations | 508 | ||
| 2.3.2.4 Combining Process Models and Minimizing Grid-Resolution Dependence | 509 | ||
| 2.3.3 Conclusions | 514 | ||
| References | 514 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 515 | ||
| 2.4 A Community Approach to Modeling Earth- and Seascapes | 516 | ||
| 2.4.1 Background | 516 | ||
| 2.4.2 Concept of a Community Modeling System | 517 | ||
| 2.4.3 Open-Source and Readily Available Code | 517 | ||
| 2.4.4 Community Modeling and the CSDMS Approach | 517 | ||
| 2.4.5 Challenges | 520 | ||
| 2.4.6 Summary | 520 | ||
| References | 520 | ||
| e9780123747396v3 | 693 | ||
| Front Cover | 693 | ||
| TREATISE ON GEOMORPHOLOGY | 696 | ||
| CONTENTS | 698 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 700 | ||
| VOLUME EDITOR | 702 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 3 | 704 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 706 | ||
| PREFACE | 720 | ||
| FOREWORD | 722 | ||
| 3.1 Remote Sensing and GIScience in Geomorphology: Introduction and Overview | 724 | ||
| 3.1.1 Introduction | 726 | ||
| 3.1.2 Geospatial Technology and Fieldwork | 726 | ||
| 3.1.3 Remote Sensing and Geomorphology | 728 | ||
| 3.1.3.1 Photography and Videography | 728 | ||
| 3.1.3.2 Imaging Spectroscopy | 729 | ||
| 3.1.3.2.1 Sensor parameters | 729 | ||
| 3.1.3.2.2 Reflectance properties and applications | 730 | ||
| 3.1.3.3 Microwave Remote Sensing | 733 | ||
| 3.1.3.4 The Atmosphere and Climate Forcing | 733 | ||
| 3.1.3.5 Land-Cover Assessment and Mapping | 735 | ||
| 3.1.3.6 Near-Surface Geophysics | 735 | ||
| 3.1.4 GIS and Geomorphology | 735 | ||
| 3.1.4.1 Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) | 736 | ||
| 3.1.4.2 Terrain Analysis | 736 | ||
| 3.1.4.3 Landform Mapping | 737 | ||
| 3.1.4.4 Spatial Hydrology | 738 | ||
| 3.1.4.5 Erosion Modeling | 740 | ||
| 3.1.4.6 Natural Hazards | 741 | ||
| 3.1.4.7 Visualization | 742 | ||
| 3.1.5 Conclusions | 743 | ||
| References | 744 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 747 | ||
| 3.2 Ground, Aerial, and Satellite Photography for Geomorphology and Geomorphic Change | 748 | ||
| 3.2.1 Introduction | 749 | ||
| 3.2.2 Data Acquisition | 749 | ||
| 3.2.2.1 Photographic Scale | 752 | ||
| 3.2.2.2 Temporal Coverage | 753 | ||
| 3.2.2.3 Digital Cameras and Videography | 754 | ||
| 3.2.2.3.1 Gigapan technology | 755 | ||
| 3.2.2.4 Thermal Imaging Technology and Geomorphology | 756 | ||
| 3.2.3 Image Interpretation | 756 | ||
| 3.2.3.1 Change Detection | 757 | ||
| 3.2.4 Conclusions | 761 | ||
| References | 763 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 764 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 765 | ||
| 3.3 Microwave Remote Sensing and Surface Characterization | 766 | ||
| 3.3.1 Types of Microwave Sensors | 768 | ||
| 3.3.2 Microwave Remote-Sensing Principles | 770 | ||
| 3.3.2.1 Frequency or Wavelength Considerations | 770 | ||
| 3.3.2.2 Resolution | 771 | ||
| 3.3.2.2.1 Beam-limited resolution | 771 | ||
| 3.3.2.2.2 Pulse-limited resolution | 771 | ||
| 3.3.2.3 Polarization | 772 | ||
| 3.3.2.4 Scattering, Surface Compositions, and Surface Roughness | 773 | ||
| 3.3.3 Altimeters | 774 | ||
| 3.3.3.1 Theory of Operation | 774 | ||
| 3.3.3.2 Example Echo Profile | 776 | ||
| 3.3.3.3 Geomorphological Applications | 779 | ||
| 3.3.4 Synthetic-Aperture Radars | 780 | ||
| 3.3.4.1 Theory of Operation | 781 | ||
| 3.3.4.2 Geomorphological Applications | 785 | ||
| 3.3.5 Stereo SAR | 788 | ||
| 3.3.5.1 Theory of Operation | 788 | ||
| 3.3.5.2 Geomorphological Applications | 791 | ||
| 3.3.6 Interferometric SAR | 792 | ||
| 3.3.6.1 Theory of Operation | 792 | ||
| 3.3.6.2 Geomorphological Applications | 797 | ||
| 3.3.7 Summary | 798 | ||
| References | 800 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 801 | ||
| 3.4 Remote Sensing of Land Cover Dynamics | 803 | ||
| 3.4.1 Introduction | 803 | ||
| 3.4.2 Remote Sensing of Land Cover | 804 | ||
| 3.4.2.1 Discrete Information and Hard Classification | 804 | ||
| 3.4.2.2 Landscape Metrics and Biophysical Change | 805 | ||
| 3.4.2.3 Soft and Fuzzy Classification | 805 | ||
| 3.4.2.4 Change Detection | 805 | ||
| 3.4.2.5 Spatial and Temporal Scale | 806 | ||
| 3.4.2.6 Surface Dynamics and Land Cover | 806 | ||
| 3.4.2.7 Impervious Surfaces and Runoff | 807 | ||
| 3.4.3 Case Studies | 807 | ||
| 3.4.3.1 Coastal Impervious Runoff | 807 | ||
| 3.4.3.2 Shoreline Change Analysis using a Multitemporal Radar | 811 | ||
| 3.4.3.3 Dynamic Feature Extraction: Riverine Flood Inundation | 811 | ||
| 3.4.4 Land-Cover Change Modeling | 814 | ||
| 3.4.4.1 Emergence and Milestones | 814 | ||
| 3.4.4.2 Proximate and Ultimate Drivers of Land Change | 818 | ||
| 3.4.4.3 Modeling Approaches | 819 | ||
| 3.4.4.3.1 Spatial modeling approaches | 819 | ||
| 3.4.4.3.1.1 Multicriteria evaluation | 820 | ||
| 3.4.4.3.1.2 Statistical regression | 820 | ||
| 3.4.4.3.1.3 Dynamic spatial simulation | 821 | ||
| 3.4.5 Future Research Directions | 821 | ||
| References | 822 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 825 | ||
| 3.5 Near-Surface Geophysics in Geomorphology | 826 | ||
| 3.5.1 Introduction | 827 | ||
| 3.5.2 Gravity | 828 | ||
| 3.5.2.1 Strengths | 829 | ||
| 3.5.2.2 Limitations | 829 | ||
| 3.5.2.3 Gravity Case Studies | 829 | ||
| 3.5.2.3.1 Faulting | 829 | ||
| 3.5.2.3.2 Volcanic processes | 829 | ||
| 3.5.2.3.3 Topography and weathering | 830 | ||
| 3.5.2.3.4 Slope processes | 832 | ||
| 3.5.2.3.5 Coastal processes and sea-level change | 832 | ||
| 3.5.2.3.6 Glacial and periglacial processes | 832 | ||
| 3.5.3 Magnetics | 832 | ||
| 3.5.3.1 Strengths | 832 | ||
| 3.5.3.2 Limitations | 833 | ||
| 3.5.3.3 Case Studies | 833 | ||
| 3.5.3.3.1 Faulting | 833 | ||
| 3.5.3.3.2 Volcanic processes | 833 | ||
| 3.5.3.3.3 Topography and weathering | 833 | ||
| 3.5.3.3.4 Glacial and periglacial processes | 833 | ||
| 3.5.4 Resistivity and EM Methods | 833 | ||
| 3.5.4.1 Strengths | 835 | ||
| 3.5.4.2 Limitations | 835 | ||
| 3.5.4.3 Case Studies | 835 | ||
| 3.5.4.3.1 Faulting | 835 | ||
| 3.5.4.3.2 Volcanic processes | 835 | ||
| 3.5.4.3.3 Topography and weathering | 835 | ||
| 3.5.4.3.4 Slope processes | 835 | ||
| 3.5.4.3.5 Coastal processes | 836 | ||
| 3.5.4.3.6 Fluvial processes | 836 | ||
| 3.5.4.3.7 Glacial and periglacial processes | 836 | ||
| 3.5.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar | 836 | ||
| 3.5.5.1 Strengths | 838 | ||
| 3.5.5.2 Limitations | 838 | ||
| 3.5.5.3 Case Studies | 838 | ||
| 3.5.5.3.1 Faulting | 838 | ||
| 3.5.5.3.2 Volcanic processes | 838 | ||
| 3.5.5.3.3 Topography and weathering | 838 | ||
| 3.5.5.3.4 Slope processes | 840 | ||
| 3.5.5.3.5 Coastal processes and sea-level change | 842 | ||
| 3.5.5.3.6 Aeolian processes | 842 | ||
| 3.5.5.3.7 Fluvial processes | 842 | ||
| 3.5.5.3.8 Glacial and periglacial processes | 842 | ||
| 3.5.6 Seismic Methods | 842 | ||
| 3.5.6.1 Strengths | 844 | ||
| 3.5.6.2 Limitations | 844 | ||
| 3.5.6.3 Case Studies | 844 | ||
| 3.5.6.3.1 Faulting | 844 | ||
| 3.5.6.3.2 Volcanic processes | 845 | ||
| 3.5.6.3.3 Topography and weathering | 845 | ||
| 3.5.6.3.4 Slope processes | 845 | ||
| 3.5.6.3.5 Coastal processes and sea-level change | 845 | ||
| 3.5.6.3.6 Fluvial processes | 845 | ||
| 3.5.6.3.7 Glacial and periglacial processes | 845 | ||
| 3.5.7 Combining Geophysical Methods | 845 | ||
| 3.5.8 Discussion and Conclusions | 846 | ||
| 3.5.8.1 Practical Considerations | 846 | ||
| 3.5.8.2 Integrating Geophysics, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information Systems | 848 | ||
| References | 848 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 852 | ||
| 3.6 Digital Terrain Modeling | 853 | ||
| 3.6.1 Introduction | 854 | ||
| 3.6.2 Background | 854 | ||
| 3.6.3 DTM Representation | 856 | ||
| 3.6.3.1 Land Surface | 856 | ||
| 3.6.3.2 Scales and Land Surface | 857 | ||
| 3.6.3.3 Data Structures | 861 | ||
| 3.6.3.3.1 Raster (grid) | 861 | ||
| 3.6.3.3.2 Triangulated irregular network (TIN) | 863 | ||
| 3.6.3.3.3 Contour lines | 863 | ||
| 3.6.3.3.4 Breaklines | 863 | ||
| 3.6.3.3.5 Mass points | 863 | ||
| 3.6.4 Data Sources | 864 | ||
| 3.6.4.1 Terrestrial Laser Scanning Techniques | 864 | ||
| 3.6.4.2 Terrestrial Photogrammetry Techniques (TPT) | 866 | ||
| 3.6.4.3 Airborne Laser Scanning | 867 | ||
| 3.6.4.4 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar | 868 | ||
| 3.6.5 Preprocessing | 869 | ||
| 3.6.5.1 Point-Cloud Reduction Techniques | 870 | ||
| 3.6.5.1.1 Decimation | 870 | ||
| 3.6.5.1.2 Filtering | 870 | ||
| 3.6.5.1.3 Segmentation | 871 | ||
| 3.6.5.2 Surface Interpolation | 871 | ||
| 3.6.6 DTM Error Assessment | 873 | ||
| 3.6.6.1 Error Issues | 873 | ||
| 3.6.6.1.1 Global errors | 873 | ||
| 3.6.6.1.2 Local errors | 874 | ||
| 3.6.6.1.3 Systematic errors | 874 | ||
| 3.6.7 Geomorphological Applications | 874 | ||
| 3.6.7.1 High-Resolution DTMs | 875 | ||
| 3.6.7.2 High-Resolution DTMs and Scale | 877 | ||
| 3.6.7.3 Data Fusion | 877 | ||
| 3.6.7.4 Temporal Data Acquisition | 877 | ||
| 3.6.8 Conclusions | 878 | ||
| References | 879 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 884 | ||
| 3.7 Geomorphometry | 885 | ||
| 3.7.1 Introduction | 886 | ||
| 3.7.2 Digital Terrain Modeling | 887 | ||
| 3.7.2.1 Representation | 887 | ||
| 3.7.2.2 Data Capture | 888 | ||
| 3.7.2.3 Data Preprocessing and DEM Construction | 890 | ||
| 3.7.2.4 Error and Artifacts | 891 | ||
| 3.7.3 Land-Surface Parameters | 892 | ||
| 3.7.3.1 Primary Parameters | 892 | ||
| 3.7.3.2 Secondary Land-Surface Parameters | 896 | ||
| 3.7.3.2.1 Hydrology | 896 | ||
| 3.7.3.2.2 Climatology | 898 | ||
| 3.7.4 Land-Surface Objects and Landforms | 901 | ||
| 3.7.5 Conclusions | 903 | ||
| References | 904 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 909 | ||
| 3.8 Remote Sensing and GIScience in Geomorphological Mapping | 910 | ||
| 3.8.1 Introduction | 911 | ||
| 3.8.2 Background | 913 | ||
| 3.8.2.1 Remotely Sensed Data | 913 | ||
| 3.8.2.1.1 Aerial photographs | 913 | ||
| 3.8.2.1.2 Satellite images | 913 | ||
| 3.8.2.1.3 Digital elevation models | 914 | ||
| 3.8.2.1.4 Supplementary data | 915 | ||
| 3.8.2.2 GIScience | 915 | ||
| 3.8.2.2.1 Mapping approaches | 917 | ||
| 3.8.3 Glacial Landscapes and Landforms | 917 | ||
| 3.8.3.1 Glacial Landforms | 918 | ||
| 3.8.3.2 Data Processing and Visualization | 918 | ||
| 3.8.3.2.1 Aerial photographs | 918 | ||
| 3.8.3.2.2 Satellite images | 919 | ||
| 3.8.3.2.3 Digital elevation models | 920 | ||
| 3.8.3.3 GIS-based Mapping | 921 | ||
| 3.8.4 Volcanic Terrain and Landforms | 922 | ||
| 3.8.4.1 Satellite Images | 924 | ||
| 3.8.4.2 Digital Elevation Models | 926 | ||
| 3.8.4.3 GIS-Based Mapping | 929 | ||
| 3.8.5 Landslide Mapping | 930 | ||
| 3.8.5.1 Terrestrial and Airborne Photography | 930 | ||
| 3.8.5.2 Satellite Imagery | 931 | ||
| 3.8.5.3 Digital Elevation Models | 932 | ||
| 3.8.5.3.1 LiDAR | 932 | ||
| 3.8.5.3.2 Radar | 932 | ||
| 3.8.5.3.3 ASTER | 934 | ||
| 3.8.5.3.4 Geomorphometric analysis | 934 | ||
| 3.8.5.4 GIS Modeling | 935 | ||
| 3.8.5.5 GIS-based Landslide Inventories | 935 | ||
| 3.8.5.6 GIS-based Landslide Assessment Maps | 935 | ||
| 3.8.6 Fluvial Landscapes and Landforms | 936 | ||
| 3.8.6.1 Aerial Photographs | 936 | ||
| 3.8.6.2 Airborne And Satellite Sensors | 937 | ||
| 3.8.6.3 Active Sensors | 938 | ||
| 3.8.6.4 Geographic Information Systems | 938 | ||
| 3.8.7 Conclusion | 941 | ||
| References | 942 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 949 | ||
| 3.9 GIS-Based Soil Erosion Modeling | 951 | ||
| 3.9.1 Introduction | 952 | ||
| 3.9.2 Background | 953 | ||
| 3.9.2.1 Erosion Processes | 953 | ||
| 3.9.2.2 Spatial Variability | 953 | ||
| 3.9.2.3 Temporal Variability | 953 | ||
| 3.9.2.4 GIS-Based Erosion Modeling | 955 | ||
| 3.9.3 Foundations in Erosion Modeling | 957 | ||
| 3.9.3.1 Sediment Transport and Net Erosion/Deposition Equations | 957 | ||
| 3.9.3.2 Detachment and Sediment Transport Capacities | 958 | ||
| 3.9.4 Simplified Models of Erosion Processes | 960 | ||
| 3.9.4.1 Detachment Capacity Limited Case | 960 | ||
| 3.9.4.2 Transport Capacity Limited Case | 961 | ||
| 3.9.4.3 Process-Form Relationship | 962 | ||
| 3.9.4.4 Path-Sampling Transport Modeling | 963 | ||
| 3.9.4.5 Gully Erosion | 964 | ||
| 3.9.4.6 Statistical Modeling | 965 | ||
| 3.9.4.7 Landscape Evolution Modeling | 965 | ||
| 3.9.5 GIS Implementation | 966 | ||
| 3.9.5.1 Coupling GIS and Models | 966 | ||
| 3.9.5.2 Derived Model Parameters | 967 | ||
| 3.9.5.3 Analysis and Visualization | 967 | ||
| 3.9.6 Case Studies | 967 | ||
| 3.9.6.1 North Carolina Piedmont | 968 | ||
| 3.9.6.2 Mediterranean Landscape Evolution | 971 | ||
| 3.9.7 Conclusion and Future Directions | 976 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 977 | ||
| References | 977 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 980 | ||
| 3.10 Remote Sensing and GIS for Natural Hazards Assessment and Disaster Risk Management | 982 | ||
| 3.10.1 Introduction | 987 | ||
| 3.10.2 Background | 989 | ||
| 3.10.2.1 Trends in Disaster Statistics | 989 | ||
| 3.10.2.2 Disaster-Risk Management Framework | 991 | ||
| 3.10.2.3 Risk-Analysis Framework | 993 | ||
| 3.10.3 Hazard Assessment | 994 | ||
| 3.10.3.1 Scale and Hazard Assessment | 995 | ||
| 3.10.3.2 Spatial Data for Hazard Assessment | 996 | ||
| 3.10.3.2.1 Hazard inventories and triggering events | 996 | ||
| 3.10.3.2.2 Environmental factors | 999 | ||
| 3.10.3.3 Hazard Assessment Examples | 1001 | ||
| 3.10.3.3.1 Global hazard assessment | 1001 | ||
| 3.10.3.3.2 (Inter)National hazard assessment | 1002 | ||
| 3.10.3.3.3 Provincial and municipal level | 1002 | ||
| 3.10.3.3.4 Community level | 1003 | ||
| 3.10.4 Elements-At-Risk and Vulnerability | 1004 | ||
| 3.10.4.1 Elements-At-Risk Information | 1004 | ||
| 3.10.4.1.1 Collaborative mapping and Mobile-GIS | 1004 | ||
| 3.10.4.1.2 Population data | 1004 | ||
| 3.10.4.1.3 Building data | 1006 | ||
| 3.10.4.2 Vulnerability | 1006 | ||
| 3.10.5 Multi-Hazard Risk Assessment | 1009 | ||
| 3.10.5.1 Qualitative Approaches | 1010 | ||
| 3.10.5.2 Quantitative Approaches | 1011 | ||
| 3.10.5.3 Spatial Risk Visualization | 1012 | ||
| 3.10.6 Conclusions | 1013 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 1016 | ||
| References | 1016 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1021 | ||
| 3.11 Geovisualization | 1022 | ||
| 3.11.1 Introduction | 1023 | ||
| 3.11.2 Background | 1024 | ||
| 3.11.2.1 Historical Context | 1024 | ||
| 3.11.2.2 Geomorphology and Geovisualization | 1026 | ||
| 3.11.2.3 Applications and Emergent Technologies | 1027 | ||
| 3.11.3 Visual Processing | 1028 | ||
| 3.11.3.1 Detection of Landforms | 1029 | ||
| 3.11.3.2 Image Enhancement | 1030 | ||
| 3.11.3.3 Enhancement of DEMs | 1032 | ||
| 3.11.3.3.1 Regional-residual separation | 1032 | ||
| 3.11.3.3.2 Land-surface parameters | 1033 | ||
| 3.11.3.4 Recommendations for Terrain Visualization | 1035 | ||
| 3.11.4 Visual Interaction | 1036 | ||
| 3.11.4.1 Display | 1036 | ||
| 3.11.4.2 Digitization and Overlay | 1036 | ||
| 3.11.4.3 2D to 2.5D in Space | 1037 | ||
| 3.11.4.4 3D in Space | 1038 | ||
| 3.11.4.5 Virtual Globes | 1038 | ||
| 3.11.5 Visual Outputs | 1039 | ||
| 3.11.5.1 Geomorphological Maps | 1039 | ||
| 3.11.5.1.1 Legend systems | 1039 | ||
| 3.11.5.1.2 Map design | 1039 | ||
| 3.11.5.2 Digital Mapping | 1041 | ||
| 3.11.5.2.1 Open standards | 1042 | ||
| 3.11.5.2.2 GeoPDF | 1042 | ||
| 3.11.5.2.3 Principles of web mapping and WebGIS | 1042 | ||
| 3.11.6 Conclusions | 1044 | ||
| References | 1045 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1048 | ||
| e9780123747396v4 | 1049 | ||
| Front Cover | 1049 | ||
| TREATISE ON GEOMORPHOLOGY | 1052 | ||
| CONTENTS | 1054 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 1056 | ||
| VOLUME EDITOR | 1058 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 4 | 1060 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 1062 | ||
| PREFACE | 1076 | ||
| FOREWORD | 1078 | ||
| 4.1 Overview of Weathering and Soils Geomorphology | 1080 | ||
| 4.1.1 Previous Major Works in Weathering and Soils Geomorphology | 1080 | ||
| 4.1.1.1 Relevant Topics not Covered in this Text | 1082 | ||
| 4.1.2 What Constitutes Weathering Geomorphology? | 1084 | ||
| 4.1.2.1 Weathering Voids | 1084 | ||
| 4.1.2.2 Weathering-Resistant Landforms | 1085 | ||
| 4.1.2.3 Weathering Residua: Soils and Sediments | 1085 | ||
| 4.1.2.4 Weathered Landscapes | 1085 | ||
| 4.1.3 Major Themes, Current Trends, and Overview of the Text | 1085 | ||
| 4.1.3.1 Synergistic Systems | 1086 | ||
| 4.1.3.2 Environmental Regions | 1086 | ||
| 4.1.3.3 Processes at Different Scales | 1087 | ||
| 4.1.3.4 Soils Geomorphology, Regolith, and Weathering Byproducts | 1087 | ||
| 4.1.4 Conclusion | 1088 | ||
| References | 1088 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1090 | ||
| 4.2 Synergistic Weathering Processes | 1091 | ||
| 4.2.1 Introduction | 1091 | ||
| 4.2.1.1 Definitions of Weathering and the Synergy Issues They Raise | 1091 | ||
| 4.2.2 Getting to the Heart of Weathering and Its Synergies | 1093 | ||
| 4.2.3 Scale Issues and Understanding Weathering Synergies | 1094 | ||
| 4.2.3.1 Timescales and Weathering | 1094 | ||
| 4.2.3.2 Spatial Scales and Weathering | 1095 | ||
| 4.2.4 Concepts to Help Understand Weathering Synergies across Scales | 1097 | ||
| 4.2.4.1 Nonlinear Weathering Systems | 1097 | ||
| 4.2.4.2 Weathering- and Transport-Limited Systems | 1098 | ||
| 4.2.4.3 The Critical Zone: An Aid to Understanding Weathering Synergies? | 1100 | ||
| 4.2.5 Weathering Process Synergies | 1100 | ||
| 4.2.5.1 Microscale Synergies between Weathering Mechanisms | 1100 | ||
| 4.2.5.2 Synergies between Weathering Agents and Processes | 1101 | ||
| 4.2.5.3 Synergies between Weathering Processes and Weathering Landform Evolution | 1101 | ||
| 4.2.5.4 Synergies Linking Weathering Processes Across Temporal and Spatial Scales | 1102 | ||
| 4.2.5.5 Synergies between Weathering and Erosion | 1103 | ||
| 4.2.5.6 Synergistic Weathering Processes: Toward the Future | 1103 | ||
| References | 1104 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1105 | ||
| 4.3 Pedogenesis with Respect to Geomorphology | 1106 | ||
| 4.3.1 Introduction | 1107 | ||
| 4.3.2 Pedogenic Processes | 1108 | ||
| 4.3.3 Pedogenesis and Landscape Evolution | 1108 | ||
| 4.3.3.1 Ferricrete and Laterite | 1109 | ||
| 4.3.3.2 Calcrete and Dolocrete | 1109 | ||
| 4.3.3.3 Gypcrete | 1109 | ||
| 4.3.3.4 Silcrete | 1109 | ||
| 4.3.3.5 Duricrusts and Landscape Evolution | 1110 | ||
| 4.3.4 Soil Chronosequences | 1110 | ||
| 4.3.5 Soils as Indicators of Landscape Stability | 1111 | ||
| 4.3.5.1 Landscape Evolution in the Midwestern US | 1113 | ||
| 4.3.6 Soils and Climate Change | 1114 | ||
| 4.3.7 Soil-Slope Relationships | 1114 | ||
| 4.3.7.1 The Catena Concept | 1114 | ||
| 4.3.7.2 Catenas in Different Climates | 1115 | ||
| 4.3.8 Hillslope/Soil Process Interaction | 1117 | ||
| 4.3.9 Soils and Sedimentation | 1117 | ||
| 4.3.9.1 Aeolian Sedimentation | 1117 | ||
| 4.3.9.2 Fluvial Sedimentation | 1118 | ||
| 4.3.10 Conclusions | 1119 | ||
| References | 1119 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1122 | ||
| 4.4 Nanoscale: Mineral Weathering Boundary | 1123 | ||
| 4.4.1 Introduction to Nanoscale Weathering | 1124 | ||
| 4.4.2 Nanoscale Techniques for Geomorphologists | 1124 | ||
| 4.4.2.1 Nanoscale Resolution Electron Microscopy | 1124 | ||
| 4.4.2.2 Linking Scales through Digital Image Processing | 1126 | ||
| 4.4.3 Applying Nanoscale Strategies to Contemporary Issues in Geomorphic Weathering | 1127 | ||
| 4.4.3.1 Biotic Weathering | 1128 | ||
| 4.4.3.2 Crossing the Nanoscale to Micron-Scale Threshold | 1130 | ||
| 4.4.3.3 Connecting Etching to Weathering Forms | 1131 | ||
| 4.4.3.4 Rock-Surface Alternation of Dust | 1134 | ||
| 4.4.3.5 Silica Mobility in Rock Coatings and Case Hardening | 1137 | ||
| 4.4.3.6 Thermal Stresses | 1138 | ||
| 4.4.3.7 Silica Glaze Formation on Mars by Water Vapor Deposition | 1139 | ||
| 4.4.3.8 Nanoscale View of Rock Polishing | 1140 | ||
| 4.4.4 Conclusion | 1142 | ||
| References | 1145 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1148 | ||
| 4.5 Rock Coatings | 1149 | ||
| 4.5.1 Introduction to Rock Coatings | 1150 | ||
| 4.5.2 Interpreting Rock Coatings through a Landscape Geochemistry Approach | 1150 | ||
| 4.5.2.1 First-Order Control: Geomorphic Stability | 1152 | ||
| 4.5.2.2 Second-Order Control: Subaerial Exposure of Subsurface Coatings | 1152 | ||
| 4.5.2.3 Third-Order Control: Competition from Lithobionts | 1157 | ||
| 4.5.2.4 Fourth-Order Control: Transport Pathways | 1160 | ||
| 4.5.2.5 Fifth-Order Control: Barriers to Transport | 1163 | ||
| 4.5.3 Importance of Rock Coatings in Geomorphology | 1167 | ||
| 4.5.4 Conclusion | 1169 | ||
| References | 1173 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1176 | ||
| 4.6 Weathering Rinds: Formation Processes and Weathering Rates | 1177 | ||
| 4.6.1 Introduction | 1177 | ||
| 4.6.2 Previous Research on Weathering Rinds | 1178 | ||
| 4.6.3 Temporal Changes in Rock Properties | 1178 | ||
| 4.6.4 Formation Processes of Weathering Rinds | 1183 | ||
| 4.6.5 A Porosity Concerned Model of Weathering Rind Development | 1184 | ||
| 4.6.6 Conclusions | 1187 | ||
| References | 1187 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1189 | ||
| 4.7 Tafoni and Other Rock Basins | 1190 | ||
| 4.7.1 Introduction | 1191 | ||
| 4.7.1.1 Tafoni | 1191 | ||
| 4.7.1.2 Gnamma | 1192 | ||
| 4.7.1.3 Climatic and Geographic Influences | 1193 | ||
| 4.7.2 Morphological Classification and Rate of Development | 1195 | ||
| 4.7.2.1 Tafoni | 1195 | ||
| 4.7.3 Stages of Tafone Development | 1196 | ||
| 4.7.3.1 Gnammas | 1197 | ||
| 4.7.4 Stages of Gnamma Progression | 1198 | ||
| 4.7.5 Processes of Development | 1199 | ||
| 4.7.5.1 Lithologic Influences | 1199 | ||
| 4.7.5.2 Environmental Influences and Salinity | 1201 | ||
| 4.7.5.3 Biotic Influences | 1201 | ||
| 4.7.5.4 Climate and Insolation | 1202 | ||
| 4.7.5.5 Feedback Cycles | 1203 | ||
| 4.7.6 Summary | 1204 | ||
| References | 1204 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1205 | ||
| 4.8 Weathering Mantles and Long-Term Landform Evolution | 1206 | ||
| 4.8.1 Introduction | 1206 | ||
| 4.8.2 Weathering Mantles and How They Form | 1207 | ||
| 4.8.3 Deep Weathering Through Geological Time | 1210 | ||
| 4.8.4 Etching and Stripping | 1212 | ||
| 4.8.5 Geomorphological Signatures of Etchsurfaces | 1216 | ||
| 4.8.5.1 Inselbergs | 1216 | ||
| 4.8.5.2 Multiconvex Relief | 1218 | ||
| 4.8.5.3 Basins | 1220 | ||
| 4.8.5.4 Plains | 1221 | ||
| 4.8.6 Conclusions | 1221 | ||
| References | 1221 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1223 | ||
| 4.9 Catenas and Soils | 1224 | ||
| 4.9.1 Introduction | 1225 | ||
| 4.9.2 The Catena Concept | 1225 | ||
| 4.9.3 Elements and Characteristics of Catenas | 1227 | ||
| 4.9.3.1 Summits | 1227 | ||
| 4.9.3.2 Shoulders and Free Faces | 1228 | ||
| 4.9.3.3 Backslopes | 1228 | ||
| 4.9.3.4 Footslopes | 1228 | ||
| 4.9.3.5 Toeslopes | 1228 | ||
| 4.9.3.6 Catenary Variation as Affected by Sediments and Climate | 1229 | ||
| 4.9.4 Soil Variation on Catenas - Why? | 1229 | ||
| 4.9.5 Soil Drainage Classes along Catenas | 1233 | ||
| 4.9.6 The Edge Effect | 1234 | ||
| 4.9.7 Summary | 1235 | ||
| References | 1235 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1237 | ||
| 4.10 Weathering and Hillslope Development | 1238 | ||
| 4.10.1 Introduction | 1238 | ||
| 4.10.2 Fundamentals | 1239 | ||
| 4.10.2.1 Weathering-Limited and Transport-Limited Slopes | 1239 | ||
| 4.10.2.2 Short-Term and Long-Term Controls and Feedback | 1239 | ||
| 4.10.2.3 Working Definitions | 1240 | ||
| 4.10.3 Weathering and Rock Slope Evolution | 1240 | ||
| 4.10.3.1 Strength of Weathered Rock Masses | 1240 | ||
| 4.10.3.2 Weathering-Induced Rock Slope Failures | 1242 | ||
| 4.10.3.3 Caprock Failures above Weathered Base | 1243 | ||
| 4.10.4 Deep Weathering and Landslides | 1245 | ||
| 4.10.4.1 Deep Weathering Profiles and their Properties | 1245 | ||
| 4.10.4.2 Landslides in Weathered Terrains | 1247 | ||
| 4.10.4.3 Geomorphic Signatures of Mass Movements in Weathered Materials | 1247 | ||
| 4.10.5 Weathering and Slope Landforms | 1249 | ||
| 4.10.5.1 Boulders and Boulder Fields | 1249 | ||
| 4.10.5.2 Tors | 1252 | ||
| 4.10.5.3 Flared Slopes | 1255 | ||
| 4.10.6 Conclusions | 1255 | ||
| References | 1256 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1257 | ||
| 4.11 Weathering in the Tropics, and Related Extratropical Processes | 1258 | ||
| 4.11.1 Overview | 1259 | ||
| 4.11.1.1 Heritage | 1259 | ||
| 4.11.1.2 The Tropical Geomorphic Region: Defining ’Tropical’ in Geography and Time | 1262 | ||
| 4.11.2 Weathering Processes and Their Relation to Tropical Conditions | 1263 | ||
| 4.11.2.1 Factors | 1263 | ||
| 4.11.2.2 The Processes | 1264 | ||
| 4.11.2.3 End Products of the Weathering Process | 1265 | ||
| 4.11.2.4 Rates of Weathering | 1268 | ||
| 4.11.2.5 Weathering Maxima Outside the Tropics | 1268 | ||
| 4.11.3 Weathering-Related Landforms of the Tropics | 1269 | ||
| 4.11.3.1 Weathering Voids: Solutional Landforms | 1269 | ||
| 4.11.3.2 Weathering-Resistant Landforms | 1270 | ||
| 4.11.3.3 Deep Weathering Mantles | 1271 | ||
| 4.11.4 Conclusion | 1272 | ||
| References | 1272 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1275 | ||
| 4.12 Weathering in Arid Regions | 1276 | ||
| 4.12.1 Introduction | 1277 | ||
| 4.12.2 Climate and Weathering - Presumed Connections and Observed Disparities | 1279 | ||
| 4.12.2.1 Temperature | 1279 | ||
| 4.12.2.1.1 Air temperature | 1280 | ||
| 4.12.2.1.2 Rock and sediment temperature | 1280 | ||
| 4.12.2.2 Moisture Availability | 1282 | ||
| 4.12.2.2.1 Rainfall | 1282 | ||
| 4.12.2.2.2 Dewfall and fog | 1282 | ||
| 4.12.2.2.3 Groundwater | 1283 | ||
| 4.12.3 Nature and Complexity of Weathering Processes | 1283 | ||
| 4.12.3.1 Insolation Weathering (Thermoclastis) | 1284 | ||
| 4.12.3.2 Salt Weathering | 1286 | ||
| 4.12.3.2.1 Crystallization | 1288 | ||
| 4.12.3.2.2 Hydration/dehydration phase change | 1289 | ||
| 4.12.3.2.3 Thermal expansion/contraction | 1291 | ||
| 4.12.3.2.4 Chemical dissolution effects | 1291 | ||
| 4.12.3.3 Frost (Freeze-Thaw) Weathering | 1291 | ||
| 4.12.3.4 Chemical Weathering | 1292 | ||
| 4.12.3.4.1 Mobilization and removal of elements | 1293 | ||
| 4.12.3.4.2 Mobilization and precipitation of elements | 1293 | ||
| 4.12.3.5 Biological weathering | 1294 | ||
| 4.12.3.5.1 Biochemical effects | 1295 | ||
| 4.12.3.5.2 Biophysical effects | 1296 | ||
| 4.12.4 The Desert Weathering System | 1297 | ||
| 4.12.4.1 System Components | 1297 | ||
| 4.12.4.1.1 Materials | 1297 | ||
| 4.12.4.1.2 Processes | 1297 | ||
| 4.12.4.1.3 Form/morphology | 1297 | ||
| 4.12.4.1.4 Environment | 1297 | ||
| 4.12.4.2 Desert Weathering - A Nonlinear Dynamic System? | 1297 | ||
| 4.12.4.2.1 Feedback mechanisms | 1298 | ||
| 4.12.4.2.2 Magnitude and frequency | 1298 | ||
| 4.12.4.2.3 Form convergence (equifinality) | 1298 | ||
| 4.12.4.2.4 Sensitivity and system components | 1300 | ||
| 4.12.4.3 Scale Issues (Spatial and Temporal) | 1300 | ||
| 4.12.5 Inheritance and the Concept of Palimpsest | 1301 | ||
| 4.12.6 Conclusion | 1301 | ||
| References | 1303 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1306 | ||
| 4.13 Coastal Weathering | 1307 | ||
| 4.13.1 Introduction | 1307 | ||
| 4.13.1.1 The Coastal Weathering Environment: Definition | 1307 | ||
| 4.13.1.2 Conditions in the Coastal Weathering Environment | 1308 | ||
| 4.13.2 Marine Salt in the Coastal Environment | 1309 | ||
| 4.13.2.1 The Nature of Marine Salts | 1309 | ||
| 4.13.2.2 Salts in the Atmosphere: Uptake and Transfer | 1309 | ||
| 4.13.2.3 Onshore Salt Deposition | 1310 | ||
| 4.13.2.4 Salts in Coastal Rocks | 1311 | ||
| 4.13.3 Weathering Processes Facilitated by the Coastal Environment | 1312 | ||
| 4.13.3.1 Mechanical Weathering Processes | 1312 | ||
| 4.13.3.1.1 Thermal variation | 1312 | ||
| 4.13.3.1.2 Slaking | 1312 | ||
| 4.13.3.1.3 Phase changes | 1313 | ||
| 4.13.3.2 Chemical Weathering Processes | 1314 | ||
| 4.13.3.2.1 Dissolution | 1314 | ||
| 4.13.3.3 Biological Weathering Processes | 1314 | ||
| 4.13.3.3.1 Macrobiological processes | 1314 | ||
| 4.13.3.3.2 Microbiological processes | 1314 | ||
| 4.13.3.4 Complexity and Rates of Rock Weathering by Salts | 1315 | ||
| 4.13.4 Coastal Landforms Associated with Weathering | 1316 | ||
| 4.13.4.1 Shore Platforms | 1317 | ||
| 4.13.4.2 Tafoni (Singular Tafone) | 1317 | ||
| 4.13.4.3 Honeycomb Weathering | 1318 | ||
| 4.13.5 Conclusion | 1320 | ||
| 4.13.5.1 Environmental Factors | 1320 | ||
| 4.13.5.2 Lithological Factors | 1320 | ||
| 4.13.5.3 Process Factors | 1320 | ||
| References | 1321 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1323 | ||
| 4.14 Chemical Weathering in Cold Climates | 1324 | ||
| 4.14.1 Introduction | 1325 | ||
| 4.14.2 Chemical Weathering Processes | 1325 | ||
| 4.14.2.1 Solution | 1325 | ||
| 4.14.2.2 Hydrolysis | 1325 | ||
| 4.14.2.3 Hydration | 1326 | ||
| 4.14.2.4 Ion Exchange | 1326 | ||
| 4.14.2.5 Oxidation/Reduction | 1326 | ||
| 4.14.2.6 Carbonation | 1326 | ||
| 4.14.2.7 Chelation | 1326 | ||
| 4.14.2.8 Controls on Rates of Chemical Weathering | 1326 | ||
| 4.14.3 Bedrock Weathering | 1327 | ||
| 4.14.4 Rock Coatings | 1328 | ||
| 4.14.5 Soil Development in Cold Climates | 1329 | ||
| 4.14.6 Chemical Weathering in Glacial and Proglacial Environments | 1332 | ||
| 4.14.7 Chemical Denudation in Arctic and Alpine Environments | 1332 | ||
| 4.14.8 Conclusions | 1333 | ||
| References | 1333 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1336 | ||
| 4.15 Mechanical Weathering in Cold Regions | 1337 | ||
| 4.15.1 Introduction | 1338 | ||
| 4.15.1.1 The Literature | 1338 | ||
| 4.15.1.2 Weathering Processes | 1339 | ||
| 4.15.1.3 Landforms Associated with Weathering | 1339 | ||
| 4.15.2 Weathering Processes in Cold Regions | 1339 | ||
| 4.15.2.1 Introduction | 1339 | ||
| 4.15.2.2 Frost Weathering | 1340 | ||
| 4.15.2.2.1 Background to the freeze-thaw concept | 1340 | ||
| 4.15.2.2.2 Freeze-thaw in cold regions: Laboratory studies | 1340 | ||
| 4.15.2.2.3 Thermal and moisture conditions | 1341 | ||
| 4.15.2.2.4 Rock properties | 1342 | ||
| 4.15.2.2.5 From the past to the present | 1342 | ||
| 4.15.2.3 Weathering by Wetting and Drying | 1343 | ||
| 4.15.2.4 Thermal Stress Fatigue/Thermal Shock | 1344 | ||
| 4.15.2.4.1 Thermal stress within the cold region context | 1345 | ||
| 4.15.2.5 Salt Weathering | 1345 | ||
| 4.15.2.6 Dilatation/Pressure Release | 1346 | ||
| 4.15.2.7 Where Are We at - Where Do We Go? | 1347 | ||
| 4.15.3 Landforms | 1348 | ||
| 4.15.3.1 Landform Associations | 1348 | ||
| 4.15.4 Where are We at and Where are We Going? | 1351 | ||
| References | 1351 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1355 | ||
| 4.16 Soil Chronosequences | 1356 | ||
| 4.16.1 Introduction | 1356 | ||
| 4.16.2 Soil Characteristics Supporting Chronosequence Development | 1357 | ||
| 4.16.2.1 Organic Enrichment | 1357 | ||
| 4.16.2.2 Leaching of Soluble Salts | 1357 | ||
| 4.16.2.3 Translocation of Clay Minerals | 1357 | ||
| 4.16.3 Issues Complicating the Development and Use of Chronosequences | 1358 | ||
| 4.16.4 Chronosequence Applications | 1358 | ||
| 4.16.4.1 Marine and Fluvial Terraces | 1358 | ||
| 4.16.4.2 Glacial and Periglacial Chronosequences | 1358 | ||
| 4.16.4.3 Vegetation Change and Management Issues | 1359 | ||
| 4.16.4.4 Fire Disturbance | 1360 | ||
| 4.16.4.5 Climate Change and Carbon Sequestration | 1360 | ||
| 4.16.5 Summary and Conclusion | 1361 | ||
| References | 1361 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1362 | ||
| 4.17 Weathering and Sediment Genesis | 1363 | ||
| 4.17.1 Weathering, Sediments, and the Rock Cycle | 1364 | ||
| 4.17.2 Processes: Disintegration and Chemical Alteration | 1364 | ||
| 4.17.3 Factors of Weathering Relevant to Sediment Production | 1366 | ||
| 4.17.3.1 Parent Material | 1366 | ||
| 4.17.3.2 Climate | 1366 | ||
| 4.17.3.3 Drainage and Topographic Relief | 1366 | ||
| 4.17.4 Sediment Maturity and Weathering in Transport | 1367 | ||
| 4.17.5 Types of Sediment | 1367 | ||
| 4.17.5.1 Scree (or ’talus’) and Other Rock Fragments | 1367 | ||
| 4.17.5.2 Sand | 1367 | ||
| 4.17.5.3 Silt | 1367 | ||
| 4.17.5.4 Clay | 1368 | ||
| 4.17.6 The Role of Weathering in Cementing Sediment | 1370 | ||
| 4.17.7 Summary | 1370 | ||
| References | 1370 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1372 | ||
| e9780123747396v5 | 1373 | ||
| Front Cover | 1373 | ||
| TREATISE ON\rGEOMORPHOLOGY | 1376 | ||
| CONTENTS | 1378 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 1380 | ||
| VOLUME EDITOR | 1382 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 5 | 1384 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 1386 | ||
| PREFACE | 1400 | ||
| FOREWORD | 1402 | ||
| 5.1 Dedication to Dr. Kurt Lang Frankel | 1404 | ||
| References | 1404 | ||
| 5.2 Tectonic Geomorphology: A Perspective | 1406 | ||
| 5.2.1 Introduction | 1407 | ||
| 5.2.2 Development of Tectonic Geomorphology and Advances Related to the Discipline | 1407 | ||
| 5.2.3 Recent Research Foci (Subdisciplines) | 1410 | ||
| 5.2.3.1 Landscape and Tectonic Evolution of Active Plate Margins | 1410 | ||
| 5.2.3.2 Mountain Building | 1410 | ||
| 5.2.3.3 Development of Fault and Fold Systems | 1411 | ||
| 5.2.3.4 Evolution of Passive Margins, Continental Interiors, and Plateau Uplift | 1411 | ||
| 5.2.3.5 Volcanic Geomorphology | 1411 | ||
| 5.2.3.6 Paleoseismology and Seismic Hazard Assessment | 1412 | ||
| 5.2.3.7 Tectonics, Climate Change and Erosion, and Polygenetic Landscapes | 1412 | ||
| 5.2.4 Future Advances | 1412 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1413 | ||
| References | 1413 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1415 | ||
| 5.3 Continental-Continental Collision Zone | 1416 | ||
| 5.3.1 Introduction | 1417 | ||
| 5.3.2 Southern Alps of New Zealand | 1420 | ||
| 5.3.2.1 Overview of Geology and Geomorphology | 1420 | ||
| 5.3.2.2 Steady State | 1420 | ||
| 5.3.2.3 Orography, Subduction Polarity, and Range Symmetry | 1422 | ||
| 5.3.3 Africa-Europe Collision | 1422 | ||
| 5.3.3.1 Pyrenees | 1422 | ||
| 5.3.3.1.1 Overview of geology and geomorphology | 1422 | ||
| 5.3.3.1.2 Origin and significance of low-relief surfaces | 1423 | ||
| 5.3.3.2 Alps | 1424 | ||
| 5.3.3.2.1 Overview of geology and geomorphology | 1424 | ||
| 5.3.3.2.2 Cause of recent uplift of the Alps | 1425 | ||
| 5.3.3.2.3 Range width and climate change | 1426 | ||
| 5.3.4 Arabia-Eurasia Collision | 1426 | ||
| 5.3.4.1 Overview of Geology and Geomorphology | 1426 | ||
| 5.3.4.2 Mantle Lithosphere Delamination, Uplift, and Drainage Reorganization | 1427 | ||
| 5.3.5 India-Asia Collision | 1429 | ||
| 5.3.5.1 Himalaya | 1429 | ||
| 5.3.5.1.1 Monsoon precipitation and climate-tectonic coupling | 1429 | ||
| 5.3.5.1.2 Channel flow | 1429 | ||
| 5.3.5.1.3 Syntaxes - tectonic aneurysms | 1430 | ||
| 5.3.5.2 Tibet | 1431 | ||
| 5.3.5.2.1 Paleoaltimetry | 1431 | ||
| 5.3.5.2.2 Lower crustal flow | 1431 | ||
| 5.3.5.2.3 Drainage reorganization, uplift, and crustal shear | 1432 | ||
| 5.3.5.2.4 Landslides and glacial dams | 1433 | ||
| 5.3.6 Ancient Orogens | 1433 | ||
| 5.3.7 Conclusion | 1434 | ||
| References | 1434 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1439 | ||
| 5.4 Transform Plate Margins and Strike-slip Fault Systems | 1440 | ||
| 5.4.1 Introduction | 1441 | ||
| 5.4.2 General Tectonic Setting | 1442 | ||
| 5.4.3 Advances in Studying Continental Transform Systems | 1446 | ||
| 5.4.3.1 Geochronology and Thermochronology | 1447 | ||
| 5.4.3.2 Remote Sensing | 1448 | ||
| 5.4.3.3 Tectonic Geodesy | 1449 | ||
| 5.4.4 Major Continental Transform Plate Boundaries and Strike-slip Fault Systems | 1450 | ||
| 5.4.4.1 Pacific-North America Plate Boundary | 1450 | ||
| 5.4.4.1.1 San Andreas Fault | 1451 | ||
| 5.4.4.1.2 Eastern California shear zone-Walker Lane: An Evolving Plate Boundary | 1453 | ||
| 5.4.4.1.3 Garlock Fault: An Intracontinental Transform | 1458 | ||
| 5.4.4.2 Pacific-Australian Plate Boundary | 1458 | ||
| 5.4.4.3 Caribbean-North American Plate Boundary | 1458 | ||
| 5.4.4.4 Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen Strike-slip Systems | 1458 | ||
| 5.4.4.5 Alaska | 1460 | ||
| 5.4.4.6 North and Eastern Anatolian-Dead Sea Fault System | 1460 | ||
| 5.4.4.7 Miscellaneous | 1460 | ||
| 5.4.5 Important Questions and Future Directions | 1460 | ||
| 5.4.5.1 Constancy of Seismic Strain Accumulation and Release | 1461 | ||
| 5.4.5.2 Quantifying Deformation Rates | 1462 | ||
| 5.4.5.3 Calibrating and Cross-Checking Geochronometers | 1466 | ||
| 5.4.6 Conclusions | 1468 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1469 | ||
| References | 1469 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1473 | ||
| 5.5 Tectonic Geomorphology of Passive Margins and Continental Hinterlands | 1474 | ||
| 5.5.1 Introduction | 1474 | ||
| 5.5.2 Igneous and Tectonic Processes Associated with Rifting | 1479 | ||
| 5.5.3 Prerifting Continental Topography and Elevation | 1481 | ||
| 5.5.4 Postrifting Evolution of Marginal Escarpments | 1482 | ||
| 5.5.4.1 King’s Scarp Retreat Model - Backwearing | 1482 | ||
| 5.5.4.2 Pinned Drainage Divide - Downwearing | 1482 | ||
| 5.5.4.3 Downwarping of the Continental Margin | 1483 | ||
| 5.5.4.4 Isostasy and Flexure | 1484 | ||
| 5.5.4.5 Perspectives from Integrating Low-Temperature Geochronology and Numerical Modeling | 1486 | ||
| 5.5.4.6 Sinuosity of Escarpments | 1486 | ||
| 5.5.4.7 Low-Relief Passive Margins without a Marginal Escarpment | 1486 | ||
| 5.5.5 Evolution of Continental Hinterlands | 1488 | ||
| 5.5.5.1 Cyclic Erosion | 1488 | ||
| 5.5.5.2 Dynamic Topography | 1489 | ||
| 5.5.5.3 Plate Boundary Stresses and Lithospheric Buckling | 1490 | ||
| 5.5.5.4 Implications for Continent-Wide Erosion Cycles and the Origin of Uplifts | 1491 | ||
| 5.5.6 Concluding Remarks | 1492 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1492 | ||
| References | 1492 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1495 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1495 | ||
| 5.6 Plateau Uplift, Regional Warping, and Subsidence | 1496 | ||
| 5.6.1 An Introduction to Surface and Deep Features of High Plateaus | 1497 | ||
| 5.6.1.1 Components and Scales of Landscape Dynamics | 1497 | ||
| 5.6.1.2 Definition and Types of Plateaus at Earth’s Surface | 1498 | ||
| 5.6.1.3 The Main High Plateaus | 1500 | ||
| 5.6.1.3.1 The Tibetan plateau | 1500 | ||
| 5.6.1.3.2 The Altiplano-Puna plateau | 1501 | ||
| 5.6.1.3.3 The Colorado Plateau | 1501 | ||
| 5.6.1.3.4 The Eastern Anatolian plateau | 1501 | ||
| 5.6.1.3.5 The East African and Ethiopian plateaus | 1501 | ||
| 5.6.1.3.6 The southern African plateau | 1501 | ||
| 5.6.1.4 Deep Structures of the Main High Plateaus | 1502 | ||
| 5.6.1.4.1 Continent-continent collision plateaus (Tibet and Anatolian plateaus) | 1502 | ||
| 5.6.1.4.1.1 The Tibetan Plateau | 1502 | ||
| 5.6.1.4.1.2 The Eastern Anatolian and Iranian plateaus | 1504 | ||
| 5.6.1.4.2 Ocean-continent collision plateau (The Andes) | 1504 | ||
| 5.6.1.4.3 Intraplate plateaus (Colorado and African plateaus) | 1505 | ||
| 5.6.1.4.3.1 The Colorado Plateau | 1505 | ||
| 5.6.1.4.3.2 The East African (Kenyan) and Ethiopian plateaus | 1507 | ||
| 5.6.1.4.3.3 The Southern African plateau | 1507 | ||
| 5.6.1.5 High Plateaus: Uplifted Peneplains, Growing Plateau or Applanation at High Elevation? | 1507 | ||
| 5.6.1.6 On the Existence of Past High Plateaus in the Earth History | 1509 | ||
| 5.6.2 Evidence for Plateau Uplift, Regional Warping, and Subsidence | 1510 | ||
| 5.6.2.1 Geomorphic Markers | 1510 | ||
| 5.6.2.1.1 Low-relief, high-elevation erosional surfaces | 1510 | ||
| 5.6.2.1.2 Drainage network development and reorganization on a plateau | 1511 | ||
| 5.6.2.1.3 River longitudinal profiles: Steepness indices | 1511 | ||
| 5.6.2.1.4 Longitudinal paleoprofile reconstruction of rivers | 1512 | ||
| 5.6.2.2 Paleoaltimetry from Sedimentology | 1513 | ||
| 5.6.2.2.1 Paleoaltimetry from marine sediments | 1513 | ||
| 5.6.2.2.2 Paleoaltimetry from paleohorizontality of lacustrine sediments | 1513 | ||
| 5.6.2.2.3 Paleoaltimetry from paleoslopes: Large-scale patterns of deposition | 1513 | ||
| 5.6.2.2.4 Grain size distribution in piedmont sedimentation | 1514 | ||
| 5.6.2.3 Paleoaltimetry Data Based on Paleobotany | 1514 | ||
| 5.6.2.4 Paleoaltimetry Data Based on Stable Isotopes | 1516 | ||
| 5.6.2.4.1 Paleoaltimetry data based on the stable isotopic records (delta18O and delta2H) of carbonates derived from... | 1516 | ||
| 5.6.2.4.2 Paleoaltimetry data based on the abundance of 18O13C16O (Delta47): The ’carbonate clumped’ isotope... | 1517 | ||
| 5.6.2.5 Paleoaltimetry Data Based on Paleoatmospheric Pressure from Basalt Vesicularity | 1518 | ||
| 5.6.2.6 Paleoaltimetry Data Based on Cosmogenic Nuclides | 1518 | ||
| 5.6.2.7 Cooling-History and Erosion Rates as a Proxy for Rock or Surface Uplift | 1519 | ||
| 5.6.2.7.1 Vertical profiles of thermochronological data combined with other lines of evidence as a proxy for rock and... | 1519 | ||
| 5.6.2.7.2 Horizontal profiles of thermochronological data combined with other lines of evidence as a proxy for... | 1520 | ||
| 5.6.2.7.3 Incision rates obtained from thermochronological data combined with other lines of evidence as a proxy for uplift | 1520 | ||
| 5.6.3 Tectonic Mechanisms and Associated Surface Uplift Rates for Plateau Uplift, Regional Warping, and Subsidence | 1521 | ||
| 5.6.4 Plateau Uplift and Global Climate Change | 1522 | ||
| 5.6.5 Conclusion | 1523 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1523 | ||
| References | 1523 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1530 | ||
| 5.7 Tectonic Geomorphology of Active Folding and Development of Transverse Drainages | 1532 | ||
| 5.7.1 Introduction | 1533 | ||
| 5.7.2 Lateral Propagation of Reverse Faults and Related Folds | 1533 | ||
| 5.7.3 Geomorphic Evidence of Lateral Fold Propagation | 1534 | ||
| 5.7.4 Geomorphic Methods to Analyze Laterally Propagating Folds | 1535 | ||
| 5.7.5 Santa Ynez Mountains | 1537 | ||
| 5.7.6 Complex Lateral Propagation | 1538 | ||
| 5.7.7 Development of Transverse Drainage | 1542 | ||
| 5.7.8 Directivity of Earthquake Energy and Lateral Fold Propagation: A Hypothesis of Tectonic Extrusion | 1545 | ||
| 5.7.9 Conclusions | 1548 | ||
| References | 1548 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1549 | ||
| 5.8 Volcanic Landforms and Hazards | 1551 | ||
| 5.8.1 Introduction | 1553 | ||
| 5.8.2 Tectonic Settings | 1553 | ||
| 5.8.2.1 Subduction-related Volcanism | 1553 | ||
| 5.8.2.2 Hot-Spots | 1554 | ||
| 5.8.2.3 Zones of Extension | 1555 | ||
| 5.8.3 Variety of Volcanic Landforms | 1555 | ||
| 5.8.3.1 Classification of Volcanic Landforms | 1555 | ||
| 5.8.3.2 Major Controls on Landform Types | 1555 | ||
| 5.8.3.3 Major Types of Volcanic Eruption | 1557 | ||
| 5.8.3.3.1 Pelean eruptions | 1557 | ||
| 5.8.3.3.2 Plinian eruptions | 1557 | ||
| 5.8.3.3.3 Vesuvian eruptions | 1558 | ||
| 5.8.3.3.4 Vulcanian eruptions | 1558 | ||
| 5.8.3.3.5 Strombolian eruptions | 1559 | ||
| 5.8.3.3.6 Other eruptions | 1559 | ||
| 5.8.3.4 Major Types of Volcanoes | 1560 | ||
| 5.8.3.4.1 Cinder (Scoria) cone volcanoes | 1560 | ||
| 5.8.3.4.2 Composite volcanoes | 1561 | ||
| 5.8.3.4.3 Shield volcanoes | 1563 | ||
| 5.8.3.4.4 Lava domes | 1563 | ||
| 5.8.3.4.5 Caldera versus crater | 1564 | ||
| 5.8.3.4.6 Submarine volcanoes | 1566 | ||
| 5.8.3.4.7 Mud volcanoes | 1566 | ||
| 5.8.3.4.8 Geysers, fumaroles, hot springs | 1567 | ||
| 5.8.3.4.9 Lava tubes | 1569 | ||
| 5.8.4 Evolving Volcanic Landforms | 1570 | ||
| 5.8.4.1 ParÃcutin Cinder Cone | 1570 | ||
| 5.8.4.2 Kavachi, Solomon Islands | 1572 | ||
| 5.8.4.3 Surtsey | 1572 | ||
| 5.8.4.4 Iceland | 1572 | ||
| 5.8.4.5 Kilauea | 1572 | ||
| 5.8.4.6 Mount St. Helens | 1573 | ||
| 5.8.4.7 Mount Rainer | 1574 | ||
| 5.8.4.8 Krakatau | 1574 | ||
| 5.8.4.9 Mount Etna | 1578 | ||
| 5.8.4.10 Canary Islands | 1578 | ||
| 5.8.5 Ancient Volcanic Settings | 1578 | ||
| 5.8.5.1 Supervolcanic Eruptions | 1578 | ||
| 5.8.5.1.1 Toba caldera | 1579 | ||
| 5.8.5.1.2 Yellowstone caldera | 1581 | ||
| 5.8.5.2 Flood Basalts | 1582 | ||
| 5.8.5.2.1 Columbia river basalt group | 1582 | ||
| 5.8.5.2.2 Deccan traps | 1583 | ||
| 5.8.6 Volcanic Hazards | 1584 | ||
| 5.8.6.1 Direct Hazards | 1584 | ||
| 5.8.6.1.1 Pyroclastic flow | 1584 | ||
| 5.8.6.1.2 Tephra | 1584 | ||
| 5.8.6.1.3 Direct blast | 1585 | ||
| 5.8.6.1.4 Lava flows | 1585 | ||
| 5.8.6.1.5 Dangerous gases | 1586 | ||
| 5.8.6.2 Indirect Hazards | 1586 | ||
| 5.8.6.2.1 Tephra | 1586 | ||
| 5.8.6.2.2 Lahar | 1586 | ||
| 5.8.6.2.3 Debris avalanches, landslides, and tsunamis | 1586 | ||
| 5.8.6.2.4 Climate change | 1588 | ||
| 5.8.6.3 Volcanic Hazard Mitigation | 1590 | ||
| 5.8.7 Future Challenges in the Study of Volcanic Landforms and Hazards | 1592 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1592 | ||
| References | 1592 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1595 | ||
| 5.9 Hot Spots and Large Igneous Provinces | 1596 | ||
| 5.9.1 Introduction | 1598 | ||
| 5.9.1.1 Types of Hot Spot Magmatic Structures | 1599 | ||
| 5.9.1.2 What is a Hot Spot Volcano? | 1600 | ||
| 5.9.2 Hot Spot Volcanic Chains | 1601 | ||
| 5.9.2.1 Volcanic Chain Analysis | 1601 | ||
| 5.9.2.1.1 Long-lived age-progressive volcanism | 1602 | ||
| 5.9.2.1.2 Short-lived age-progressive volcanism | 1602 | ||
| 5.9.2.1.3 No age-progressive volcanism | 1602 | ||
| 5.9.2.2 Volcanic Chain Analysis. The Hawaii-Emperor Example | 1602 | ||
| 5.9.2.2.1 Young stage of the Hawaiian chain: The Southeastern Islands, from Hawaii to Kaula | 1603 | ||
| 5.9.2.2.2 Oldest stage of the Hawaiian chain: The Northwestern Islands, from Nihoa to the Kure atoll | 1603 | ||
| 5.9.2.2.3 Emperor Chain: From Colahan to Meiji seamounts | 1603 | ||
| 5.9.2.3 Hot Spot Chains and Plate Tectonics | 1604 | ||
| 5.9.3 Hot Spot Volcanoes | 1607 | ||
| 5.9.3.1 Edifices - General Morphology | 1607 | ||
| 5.9.3.2 Construction versus Destruction | 1610 | ||
| 5.9.3.3 Model of Building | 1611 | ||
| 5.9.3.3.1 Submarine preshield stage | 1611 | ||
| 5.9.3.3.2 Shield-building stage | 1612 | ||
| 5.9.3.3.3 Postshield stage | 1612 | ||
| 5.9.3.3.4 Erosional and late volcanism | 1612 | ||
| 5.9.3.3.5 Atoll and seamounts | 1612 | ||
| 5.9.3.4 Volcanic and Tectonic Morphologies | 1612 | ||
| 5.9.3.4.1 Summit areas, calderas and pit craters | 1612 | ||
| 5.9.3.4.2 Cones, eruptive fissures and rift zones | 1615 | ||
| 5.9.3.4.3 Lava flow fields | 1618 | ||
| 5.9.3.4.4 Faults, slides, and slumps | 1619 | ||
| 5.9.3.5 Erosional Morphologies | 1620 | ||
| 5.9.3.5.1 Influence of volcano shape | 1620 | ||
| 5.9.3.5.2 Influence of volcanic activity | 1621 | ||
| 5.9.3.5.3 Influence of geology and lithology | 1621 | ||
| 5.9.3.6 Submarine Morphologies | 1624 | ||
| 5.9.3.6.1 Submarine volcanic activity | 1625 | ||
| 5.9.3.6.2 Formations built by volcaniclastic materials | 1626 | ||
| 5.9.3.6.3 Sedimentary volcaniclastic systems | 1626 | ||
| 5.9.4 Conclusion | 1630 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1631 | ||
| References | 1631 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1635 | ||
| 5.10 Tectonic Geomorphology of Normal Fault Scarps | 1637 | ||
| 5.10.1 Introduction | 1638 | ||
| 5.10.2 Basin and Range Province | 1641 | ||
| 5.10.3 Slope Retreat Versus Recline | 1642 | ||
| 5.10.4 Modeling the Decay of Transport-Limited Scarps | 1646 | ||
| 5.10.5 Limitation of the Geometric Model for Normal Fault Scarp Decay | 1649 | ||
| 5.10.6 Summary | 1651 | ||
| References | 1651 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1652 | ||
| 5.11 Landslides Generated by Earthquakes: Immediate and Long-Term Effects | 1653 | ||
| 5.11.1 Introduction | 1654 | ||
| 5.11.2 Overview of Landslide Occurrence in Earthquakes | 1654 | ||
| 5.11.2.1 Numbers and Classification of Earthquake-Induced Landslides | 1655 | ||
| 5.11.2.2 Relation of Landslide Occurrence to Ground Shaking, Topography, Materials, and Hydrologic Conditions | 1658 | ||
| 5.11.2.2.1 Distribution of landslides related to earthquake magnitude and shaking intensities | 1659 | ||
| 5.11.2.2.2 Topographic, hydrologic, and geologic indicators of landslide occurrence | 1661 | ||
| 5.11.2.2.3 Detailed landslide distribution from an individual earthquake: example from the 1989 Loma Prieta, California... | 1662 | ||
| 5.11.3 Geomorphic and Postearthquake Effects of Earthquake-Induced Landslides | 1662 | ||
| 5.11.4 Conclusions | 1666 | ||
| References | 1666 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1669 | ||
| 5.12 Paleoseismology | 1670 | ||
| 5.12.1 Introduction | 1671 | ||
| 5.12.1.1 Scope of Paleoseismology | 1672 | ||
| 5.12.1.2 Paleoseismology’s Relation to Tectonic Geomorphology | 1672 | ||
| 5.12.2 Earthquake Recurrence Models | 1673 | ||
| 5.12.2.1 Characteristic Earthquake Model | 1674 | ||
| 5.12.2.2 Time-/Slip-Predictable Model | 1675 | ||
| 5.12.3 Recent Methodological Developments in Paleoseismology | 1676 | ||
| 5.12.3.1 Remote Sensing Technologies | 1676 | ||
| 5.12.3.2 Fault Trenching | 1676 | ||
| 5.12.3.3 Numerical Dating | 1677 | ||
| 5.12.4 On-Fault Paleoseismology | 1681 | ||
| 5.12.4.1 Fault Length and Dimension | 1681 | ||
| 5.12.4.2 Timing of Paleoearthquakes and Slip per Event | 1684 | ||
| 5.12.4.3 Long-term Slip Rate | 1688 | ||
| 5.12.5 Off-Fault Paleoseismology | 1688 | ||
| 5.12.5.1 Marine Terraces | 1688 | ||
| 5.12.5.2 Paleoliquefaction Features | 1688 | ||
| 5.12.5.3 Tsunami Deposits (Tsunamiites) | 1690 | ||
| 5.12.5.4 Earthquake-Triggered Landslides | 1691 | ||
| 5.12.5.5 Earthquake-Triggered Cracks | 1693 | ||
| 5.12.6 Contribution to Seismic Hazards | 1693 | ||
| 5.12.7 Challenges | 1697 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1697 | ||
| References | 1697 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1701 | ||
| 5.13 Glacially Influenced Tectonic Geomorphology: The Impact of the Glacial Buzzsaw on Topography and Orogenic Systems | 1703 | ||
| 5.13.1 Introduction | 1703 | ||
| 5.13.2 Basics of Glacial Erosion | 1704 | ||
| 5.13.2.1 Erosional Processes | 1704 | ||
| 5.13.2.2 Glacial Erosion and Glacier Sliding | 1705 | ||
| 5.13.2.3 Rates of Glacial Erosion | 1705 | ||
| 5.13.2.4 Complexities and Exceptions | 1707 | ||
| 5.13.3 Glacial Erosion and Topography | 1707 | ||
| 5.13.3.1 Alpine Glacial Topography | 1707 | ||
| 5.13.3.2 Specific Models of Evolving Glacial Topography | 1709 | ||
| 5.13.4 Influence of Glaciers on Tectonics | 1711 | ||
| 5.13.4.1 The Glacial Buzzsaw Hypothesis | 1711 | ||
| 5.13.4.2 Glacial Erosion and Climate-Tectonic Coupling | 1714 | ||
| 5.13.4.3 Orogen and Landscape Response to Glacial Climate Change | 1715 | ||
| 5.13.5 Discussions and Conclusions | 1716 | ||
| References | 1717 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1720 | ||
| 5.14 Tectonic Aneurysms and Mountain Building | 1721 | ||
| 5.14.1 Introduction | 1722 | ||
| 5.14.2 Tectonic Aneurysm: Conceptual Model | 1724 | ||
| 5.14.2.1 Terminology | 1724 | ||
| 5.14.2.2 Geologic Expression of Tectonic Aneurysms | 1724 | ||
| 5.14.2.2.1 Physical setting | 1724 | ||
| 5.14.2.2.2 Geomorphic setting | 1725 | ||
| 5.14.2.2.3 Metamorphism | 1728 | ||
| 5.14.2.2.4 Observations in the fixed reference frame: geophysics | 1730 | ||
| 5.14.2.2.5 Timing, rate, and duration of metamorphism and exhumation | 1730 | ||
| 5.14.2.3 Discussion and Summary, Geologic Expression | 1733 | ||
| 5.14.3 Physics and Boundary Conditions of the Tectonic Aneurysm | 1735 | ||
| 5.14.3.1 Solid Earth: Mechanical Conditions for Tectonic Aneurysms | 1735 | ||
| 5.14.3.1.1 Rheological and thermal considerations | 1735 | ||
| 5.14.3.1.2 Mantle trajectory | 1737 | ||
| 5.14.3.1.3 Topographic stress | 1737 | ||
| 5.14.3.1.4 Discussion and summary of mechanical effects | 1737 | ||
| 5.14.3.2 The Surface Boundary | 1737 | ||
| 5.14.3.2.1 Erosional requirements | 1738 | ||
| 5.14.3.2.2 Energy sources and erosion | 1738 | ||
| 5.14.3.2.3 Fluvial systems | 1738 | ||
| 5.14.3.2.4 Glacial systems | 1740 | ||
| 5.14.3.2.5 Emergent behavior: Self-organized balance between uplift and erosion | 1741 | ||
| 5.14.3.2.6 Summary, surface boundary | 1743 | ||
| 5.14.4 Geodynamics of the Tectonic Aneurysm | 1743 | ||
| 5.14.4.1 Numerical Models | 1743 | ||
| 5.14.4.2 The Corner Model | 1743 | ||
| 5.14.4.3 The Generalized Macroscale Himalayan Model (GMHM) | 1743 | ||
| 5.14.4.3.1 Strain softening and drainage formation | 1745 | ||
| 5.14.4.4 Early Stages of Aneurysm Development: Southern Alaskan Example | 1745 | ||
| 5.14.4.5 Geodynamic Summary | 1747 | ||
| 5.14.5 Conclusions | 1747 | ||
| 5.14.5.1 Model Summary | 1747 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1748 | ||
| References | 1748 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1751 | ||
| 5.15 The Influence of Middle and Lower Crustal Flow on the Landscape Evolution of Orogenic Plateaus: Insights from the... | 1753 | ||
| 5.15.1 Introduction | 1754 | ||
| 5.15.2 Development and Geophysical Characteristics of the Tibetan Plateau | 1754 | ||
| 5.15.3 Gravitational Potential Energy Gradients and the Dynamics of Middle Crustal Flow | 1758 | ||
| 5.15.4 Geomorphology and Tectonics of the Tibetan Plateau | 1758 | ||
| 5.15.4.1 Long-Wavelength Topographic Variations, South to North (Transect A-Aprime) | 1759 | ||
| 5.15.4.1.1 Are E-W corrugations related to middle-lower crustal flow? | 1762 | ||
| 5.15.4.1.2 Has Tibetan middle crust extruded at the Himalayan front? | 1763 | ||
| 5.15.4.2 Long-Wavelength Topographic Variations, West to East (Transect B-Bprime) | 1764 | ||
| 5.15.4.2.1 Does the gradual west-to-east decrease in mean elevation indicate eastward flow of the middle crust? | 1764 | ||
| 5.15.4.3 Short-Wavelength Topographic Variations on the Tibetan Plateau | 1765 | ||
| 5.15.5 A Self-Consistent Model of the Cenozoic Topographic Evolution of the Tibetan Plateau, Assuming Lower and Middle... | 1765 | ||
| 5.15.6 Feedbacks among Middle-Lower Crustal Flow, Landscape Evolution, and Climate | 1766 | ||
| 5.15.7 Conclusions | 1767 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1767 | ||
| References | 1767 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1772 | ||
| 5.16 Polygenetic Landscapes | 1773 | ||
| 5.16.1 Introduction | 1775 | ||
| 5.16.2 Early Conceptual Models for Landscape Evolution | 1776 | ||
| 5.16.2.1 Davis Model: Cycle of Erosion | 1776 | ||
| 5.16.2.2 Penck Model: Uplift and Denudation Related | 1776 | ||
| 5.16.2.3 King Model: Pediplanation | 1777 | ||
| 5.16.2.4 Büdel Model: Etchplanation | 1778 | ||
| 5.16.2.5 Critique of Early Landscape Evolution Models | 1778 | ||
| 5.16.3 System and Equilibrium Models | 1778 | ||
| 5.16.3.1 Geomorphic Systems | 1778 | ||
| 5.16.3.2 Tectonic Geomorphology | 1780 | ||
| 5.16.3.3 Dynamic Equilibrium and Dynamic Meta-Stable Equilibrium | 1780 | ||
| 5.16.3.4 Time-Dependent and Time-Independent Landforms | 1780 | ||
| 5.16.3.5 Landscape Sensitivity | 1780 | ||
| 5.16.3.6 High-Magnitude-Low-Frequency Processes versus Low-Magnitude-High-Frequency Processes | 1781 | ||
| 5.16.3.7 Critique of Equilibrium Concepts | 1782 | ||
| 5.16.4 Models for Feedback between Climate and Tectonics | 1782 | ||
| 5.16.4.1 Climatic Instability and Paraglaciation | 1782 | ||
| 5.16.4.2 Glacial Buzzsaw | 1784 | ||
| 5.16.5 Relief Production | 1784 | ||
| 5.16.5.1 Unloading and Uplift | 1784 | ||
| 5.16.5.2 Tectonic Aneurysm | 1785 | ||
| 5.16.5.3 Glacial Protection | 1785 | ||
| 5.16.6 Landscape Evolution and Scale | 1785 | ||
| 5.16.6.1 Continental Scale Landscapes | 1785 | ||
| 5.16.6.2 Regional-Scale Landscapes | 1785 | ||
| 5.16.6.3 Landform Scale | 1787 | ||
| 5.16.7 Mathematical and Computational Modeling | 1787 | ||
| 5.16.8 Conclusion | 1793 | ||
| References | 1794 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 1796 | ||
| e9780123747396v6 | 1797 | ||
| Front Cover | 1797 | ||
| TREATISE ON\rGEOMORPHOLOGY | 1800 | ||
| CONTENTS | 1802 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 1804 | ||
| VOLUME EDITOR | 1806 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 6 | 1808 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 1810 | ||
| PREFACE | 1824 | ||
| FOREWORD | 1826 | ||
| 6.1 New Developments of Karst Geomorphology Concepts | 1828 | ||
| 6.1.1 Introduction | 1828 | ||
| 6.1.2 Processes of Carbonate Karst | 1829 | ||
| 6.1.3 Rates, Dates, and Evolution of Carbonate Karst | 1829 | ||
| 6.1.4 Surface Processes and Landforms in Carbonate Karst | 1830 | ||
| 6.1.5 Subsurface Processes and Landforms | 1831 | ||
| 6.1.6 Karst Variation over a Range of Environmental Settings | 1836 | ||
| 6.1.7 Noncarbonate Karst | 1838 | ||
| 6.1.8 Conclusion | 1839 | ||
| References | 1839 | ||
| e9780123747396v7 | 2311 | ||
| Front Cover | 2311 | ||
| TREATISE ON GEOMORPHOLOGY | 2314 | ||
| CONTENTS | 2316 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 2318 | ||
| VOLUME EDITORS | 2320 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 7 | 2322 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 2324 | ||
| PREFACE | 2338 | ||
| FOREWORD | 2340 | ||
| 7.1 Mountain and Hillslope Geomorphology: An Introduction | 2342 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2343 | ||
| 7.2 Regolith and Soils of Mountains and Slopes | 2345 | ||
| 7.2.1 Introduction | 2346 | ||
| 7.2.2 Mountain Types | 2346 | ||
| 7.2.2.1 Types of Slopes | 2349 | ||
| 7.2.2.2 Processes Acting on Mountain Tops and Slopes | 2349 | ||
| 7.2.2.3 Nature of Regolith on Mountains and Slopes | 2353 | ||
| 7.2.3 Summary | 2359 | ||
| References | 2359 | ||
| Relevant websites | 2359 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2360 | ||
| 7.3 Stress, Deformation, Conservation, and Rheology: A Survey of Key Concepts in Continuum Mechanics | 2361 | ||
| 7.3.1 Introduction | 2362 | ||
| 7.3.2 Continuum | 2363 | ||
| 7.3.3 Force | 2363 | ||
| 7.3.4 Stress | 2363 | ||
| 7.3.4.1 Total Stress | 2364 | ||
| 7.3.4.2 Stresses Acting on Arbitrarily Oriented Surfaces | 2365 | ||
| 7.3.4.3 Pore Water, Hydraulic Head, and Pore-Water Pressure | 2366 | ||
| 7.3.4.4 Effective Stress | 2366 | ||
| 7.3.5 Deformation | 2369 | ||
| 7.3.5.1 Normal Strain | 2369 | ||
| 7.3.5.2 Shear Strain | 2371 | ||
| 7.3.5.3 Rotation | 2371 | ||
| 7.3.5.4 Strains in an Arbitrarily Oriented Coordinate System | 2372 | ||
| 7.3.6 Rate of Deformation | 2372 | ||
| 7.3.7 Conservation | 2373 | ||
| 7.3.7.1 Conservation of Mass | 2374 | ||
| 7.3.7.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum | 2375 | ||
| 7.3.8 Constitutive Relations | 2376 | ||
| 7.3.8.1 Linearly Elastic Material | 2377 | ||
| 7.3.8.1.1 Relationships between stress and normal strain | 2377 | ||
| 7.3.8.1.2 Relationships between shear stress and shear strain | 2378 | ||
| 7.3.8.1.3 Relationship between pressure and dilatation | 2379 | ||
| 7.3.8.2 Linearly Viscous Fluid | 2379 | ||
| 7.3.8.3 Plasticity - the Coulomb Failure Rule | 2381 | ||
| 7.3.9 Example Application | 2381 | ||
| 7.3.9.1 Conservation of Momentum and Stress Equilibrium | 2381 | ||
| 7.3.9.2 Effective Stress and Effective Stress Equilibrium | 2381 | ||
| 7.3.9.3 Effective Stress and Elastic Strain | 2382 | ||
| 7.3.9.4 Displacement Formulation of Constitutive Relations and Groundwater Flow | 2382 | ||
| 7.3.10 Concluding Remarks | 2383 | ||
| References | 2383 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2384 | ||
| 7.4 Influence of Physical Weathering on Hillslope Forms | 2385 | ||
| 7.4.1 Introduction: Modes of Physical Weathering | 2385 | ||
| 7.4.2 Physical Weathering and Its Effect on Geomorphic Processes | 2386 | ||
| 7.4.2.1 Weathering Products from Physical Weathering | 2386 | ||
| 7.4.2.2 Effect of Weathering on Mass Movement (Slope Processes) | 2386 | ||
| 7.4.2.3 Strength Reduction from Weathering | 2386 | ||
| 7.4.3 Sheeting Joints from Unloading (Pressure Release) | 2387 | ||
| 7.4.3.1 Microsheeting in Granite | 2387 | ||
| 7.4.3.2 Exfoliation Rates of Sheeting Joints for Granite Dome | 2388 | ||
| 7.4.4 Effect of Slaking on Structural Landforms and Mass Movement | 2388 | ||
| 7.4.4.1 Effect of Slaking on Rock-Controlled Landforms | 2388 | ||
| 7.4.4.2 Effect of Slaking on Landslides on Mudstone Hillslopes | 2389 | ||
| 7.4.5 Effect of Crystal Growth Weathering (Salt Fretting and Frost Shattering) on Landforms and Mass Movement | 2390 | ||
| 7.4.5.1 Effect of Frost Weathering on Periglacial Landforms | 2390 | ||
| 7.4.5.2 Effect of Frost Weathering on Rockfall and Talus Slope Development | 2391 | ||
| 7.4.5.3 Effect of Salt Weathering on Tafoni and Pan Formation | 2391 | ||
| 7.4.5.4 Effect of Crystal Growth Weathering on Notch Formation | 2391 | ||
| 7.4.5.5 Effect of Frost Action and Notch Formation on Cliff Collapse | 2392 | ||
| 7.4.6 Conclusion | 2394 | ||
| References | 2395 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2396 | ||
| 7.5 Influence of Chemical Weathering on Hillslope Forms | 2397 | ||
| 7.5.1 Introduction | 2397 | ||
| 7.5.2 A General Mass Balance Model of Hillslope Evolution Including Chemical Weathering | 2397 | ||
| 7.5.2.1 The Chemical Weathering Mass-Loss Term | 2398 | ||
| 7.5.2.2 The Soil Production Term and Chemical Weathering | 2399 | ||
| 7.5.2.3 The Sediment Transport Term and Chemical Weathering | 2400 | ||
| 7.5.3 Feedbacks between Chemical Weathering and Geomorphic Processes | 2402 | ||
| 7.5.4 Conclusions | 2404 | ||
| References | 2404 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2406 | ||
| 7.6 Rates of Denudation | 2407 | ||
| 7.6.1 Introduction | 2407 | ||
| 7.6.2 A Word about Nomenclature and Units | 2408 | ||
| 7.6.3 Techniques Used to Determine Spatially Averaged Denudation Rates | 2408 | ||
| 7.6.4 Controls of Denudation Rates | 2408 | ||
| 7.6.5 Temporal and Spatial Scales of Denudation Rate Measurements | 2411 | ||
| References | 2411 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2413 | ||
| 7.7 Surface-Runoff Generation and Forms of Overland Flow | 2414 | ||
| 7.7.1 Introduction | 2414 | ||
| 7.7.2 Hillslope Hydrology, Overland Flow, and Surface Runoff | 2415 | ||
| 7.7.3 Processes That Generate Surface Runoff | 2415 | ||
| 7.7.3.1 Infiltration-Excess Overland Flow | 2415 | ||
| 7.7.3.2 Saturation-Excess Overland Flow | 2416 | ||
| 7.7.4 Factors Affecting Surface-Runoff Generation | 2417 | ||
| 7.7.4.1 Climate | 2417 | ||
| 7.7.4.2 Soil Properties and Vegetation | 2419 | ||
| 7.7.4.3 Rainfall Characteristics | 2419 | ||
| 7.7.4.4 Topography | 2420 | ||
| 7.7.4.5 Land Management | 2421 | ||
| 7.7.5 Importance of Scale and Hydrologic Connectivity | 2421 | ||
| 7.7.6 Conclusions | 2422 | ||
| References | 2422 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2425 | ||
| 7.8 Flood Generation and Flood Waves | 2426 | ||
| 7.8.1 Introduction | 2426 | ||
| 7.8.2 The Concept of Hydrological Connectivity | 2427 | ||
| 7.8.3 Flood Generation in Drylands | 2429 | ||
| 7.8.4 Flood Generation in Temperate Regions | 2430 | ||
| 7.8.5 Flood Waves | 2432 | ||
| 7.8.6 Summary and Conclusion | 2432 | ||
| References | 2433 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2435 | ||
| 7.9 Analysis of Flash-Flood Runoff Response, with Examples from Major European Events | 2436 | ||
| 7.9.1 Introduction | 2436 | ||
| 7.9.2 Runoff Generation under Intense Rainfall | 2437 | ||
| 7.9.3 Examination of Runoff Characteristics from Major Flash Floods Monitored in Europe | 2439 | ||
| 7.9.4 Location and Data Characterization | 2439 | ||
| 7.9.5 Characterizing Runoff Coefficient | 2441 | ||
| 7.9.6 Conclusions | 2442 | ||
| References | 2443 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2444 | ||
| 7.10 Conceptualization in Catchment Modeling | 2446 | ||
| 7.10.1 Introduction | 2447 | ||
| 7.10.2 Models and Simulation | 2448 | ||
| 7.10.3 Scale and Scaling | 2449 | ||
| 7.10.4 Model Error and Model Testing | 2450 | ||
| 7.10.5 Concept-Development Simulation, What If | 2451 | ||
| 7.10.5.1 Is Horton Overland Flow the Dominant Runoff-Generation Mechanism for an R-5-like Catchment? | 2451 | ||
| 7.10.5.2 What are the Upstream Hydrologic-Response and Sediment-Transport Dynamics for a Searsville-Like Dam? | 2451 | ||
| 7.10.5.3 What are the Hydrologic-Response and Sediment-Transport Dynamics for a Kaho’olawe-Like Island? | 2454 | ||
| 7.10.6 Coos Bay Case Study | 2454 | ||
| 7.10.6.1 Site Overview | 2454 | ||
| 7.10.6.2 Hydrogeologic Units | 2456 | ||
| 7.10.6.3 Hydrologic-Response Instrumentation | 2456 | ||
| 7.10.6.4 Major Conclusions from Analysis of Hydrologic Observations | 2457 | ||
| 7.10.6.5 BVP for Hydrologic Simulation | 2457 | ||
| 7.10.6.6 Hydrologic Simulation | 2457 | ||
| 7.10.6.7 Slope-Stability Assessment | 2457 | ||
| 7.10.6.8 What Was Learned from the Hydrologic Simulations and Slope Failure Assessment? | 2458 | ||
| 7.10.7 Summary | 2459 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 2459 | ||
| References | 2459 | ||
| BiographicalSketch | 2462 | ||
| 7.11 Rill and Gully Development Processes | 2463 | ||
| 7.11.1 Concepts and Classifications | 2463 | ||
| 7.11.2 Rill Development and Erosion Processes | 2465 | ||
| 7.11.3 General Approaches on Rill Erosion | 2466 | ||
| 7.11.4 Gully Development and Erosion Processes | 2467 | ||
| 7.11.5 Gully Erosion Approaches | 2468 | ||
| 7.11.5.1 Threshold Approaches | 2468 | ||
| 7.11.5.2 Gully Headwall Retreat and Sidewall Erosion | 2469 | ||
| 7.11.5.3 Estimation of Gully Erosion | 2469 | ||
| 7.11.6 Conclusions | 2470 | ||
| References | 2470 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2472 | ||
| 7.12 Land Use and Sediment Yield | 2473 | ||
| 7.12.1 Introduction | 2473 | ||
| 7.12.2 Human Impact and Land-Use Change | 2474 | ||
| 7.12.3 Field Evidence of Human-Induced Soil Erosion | 2474 | ||
| 7.12.4 Land Use and Sediment Yield at Different Spatial Scales | 2475 | ||
| 7.12.5 Quantification of Human-Induced Sediment Yield: Ways Forward | 2475 | ||
| 7.12.6 Conclusion | 2476 | ||
| References | 2476 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2478 | ||
| 7.13 Processes, Transport, Deposition, and Landforms: Quantifying Creep | 2479 | ||
| 7.13.1 Introduction | 2479 | ||
| 7.13.2 Conceptual Models for Creep | 2481 | ||
| 7.13.3 Quantifying Creep | 2483 | ||
| 7.13.3.1 Physical Tracers | 2483 | ||
| 7.13.3.2 Fallout Short-Lived Isotopes | 2484 | ||
| 7.13.3.3 Meteoric 10Be | 2485 | ||
| 7.13.3.4 OSL Dating | 2488 | ||
| 7.13.3.5 Integrating Soil Production Rates | 2489 | ||
| 7.13.4 Conclusion | 2490 | ||
| Acknowledgement | 2490 | ||
| References | 2490 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2492 | ||
| 7.14 Processes, Transport, Deposition, and Landforms: Slides | 2493 | ||
| 7.14.1 Introduction | 2493 | ||
| 7.14.2 Types of Sliding | 2493 | ||
| 7.14.2.1 Rotational Slides | 2494 | ||
| 7.14.2.2 Translational Slides | 2495 | ||
| 7.14.2.3 Compound Slides | 2496 | ||
| 7.14.2.4 Complex Slides | 2496 | ||
| 7.14.3 Initiation of Slides | 2497 | ||
| 7.14.4 Reactivation of Ancient Landslides | 2497 | ||
| 7.14.5 Concluding Remarks | 2497 | ||
| References | 2497 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2498 | ||
| 7.15 Processes, Transport, Deposition, and Landforms: Flow | 2499 | ||
| 7.15.1 Introduction: Flow Processes on Hillslopes | 2500 | ||
| 7.15.2 Size Matters: Scale Issues | 2500 | ||
| 7.15.3 Flow Types | 2501 | ||
| 7.15.3.1 Fluid Flow | 2501 | ||
| 7.15.3.2 Granular Flow | 2501 | ||
| 7.15.3.3 Grain-in-Fluid Flows | 2502 | ||
| 7.15.4 Flows on Hillslopes | 2502 | ||
| 7.15.5 Initiation of Flows | 2503 | ||
| 7.15.6 Flow Characteristics | 2504 | ||
| 7.15.7 Deposition and Entrainment in Slope Flows | 2505 | ||
| 7.15.8 Examples of Flows on Hillslopes: Debris Flows | 2505 | ||
| 7.15.9 Examples of Flows on Hillslopes: Earth Flows | 2506 | ||
| 7.15.9.1 Rapid Earth Flows | 2507 | ||
| 7.15.10 Examples of Flows on Hillslopes: Peat Flows | 2508 | ||
| 7.15.10.1 Initiation | 2508 | ||
| 7.15.10.2 Motion and Deposition | 2508 | ||
| 7.15.10.3 Geomorphic Signature | 2508 | ||
| 7.15.11 Concluding Remarks | 2509 | ||
| References | 2509 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2510 | ||
| 7.16 Processes, Transport, Deposition, and Landforms: Topple | 2512 | ||
| 7.16.1 Toppling | 2512 | ||
| References | 2514 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2514 | ||
| 7.17 Processes, Transport, Deposition, and Landforms: Rockfall | 2515 | ||
| 7.17.1 Introduction | 2515 | ||
| 7.17.2 Distribution of Rockfalls | 2516 | ||
| 7.17.3 Rockfall Inventories | 2516 | ||
| 7.17.4 Rockfall Triggers | 2517 | ||
| 7.17.5 Rockfall Movement | 2519 | ||
| 7.17.6 Talus Slopes | 2520 | ||
| 7.17.6.1 Talus Materials and Fall Sorting | 2521 | ||
| 7.17.7 Modeling of Rockfall Activity | 2521 | ||
| References | 2522 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2523 | ||
| 7.18 Long-Runout Landslides | 2524 | ||
| 7.18.1 Introduction | 2524 | ||
| 7.18.2 Catastrophic Long-Runout Landslides | 2526 | ||
| 7.18.2.1 Types and Characteristics of Long-Runout Landslides | 2526 | ||
| 7.18.2.2 Peculiarities of Volcanic Long-Runout Landslides | 2527 | ||
| 7.18.3 Causes and Triggers | 2528 | ||
| 7.18.3.1 Theories and Dynamics of Long Runout | 2529 | ||
| 7.18.3.2 Experimental and Numerical Insights | 2531 | ||
| 7.18.3.3 Geomorphic Consequences | 2532 | ||
| 7.18.3.4 Hazard Implications | 2534 | ||
| 7.18.4 Conclusions and Outlook | 2535 | ||
| References | 2537 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2539 | ||
| 7.19 Mass-Movement Causes: Overloading | 2541 | ||
| 7.19.1 Introduction | 2541 | ||
| 7.19.2 Qualitative Case Study on Overloading with Water, Road Fill, and Landslide Debris | 2542 | ||
| 7.19.3 Incorporation of Surcharge in Quantitative Slope Stability Analysis | 2543 | ||
| 7.19.4 Importance of Overloading as a Parameter Influencing Slope Stability | 2544 | ||
| References | 2545 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2546 | ||
| 7.20 Mass-Movement Causes: Water | 2548 | ||
| 7.20.1 Introduction | 2548 | ||
| 7.20.2 The Underground Material | 2548 | ||
| 7.20.3 Water and Plasticity of Soils | 2549 | ||
| 7.20.4 Pore-Water Pressure in the Void System | 2549 | ||
| 7.20.5 Water in Different Landslide Types | 2550 | ||
| References | 2551 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2552 | ||
| 7.21 Mass-Movement Causes: Changes in Slope Angle | 2553 | ||
| 7.21.1 Introduction | 2553 | ||
| 7.21.2 Slow Changes in Slope Angle | 2553 | ||
| 7.21.3 Sudden Changes in Slope Angle | 2553 | ||
| 7.21.4 Changing Slope Angles in Landscape Evolution Models | 2555 | ||
| References | 2556 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2556 | ||
| 7.22 Mass-Movement Causes: Glacier Thinning | 2558 | ||
| 7.22.1 Introduction | 2558 | ||
| 7.22.2 Landslides in Soil | 2558 | ||
| 7.22.2.1 Exposure of Glacial Sediment | 2559 | ||
| 7.22.2.2 Paraglacial Dam Break Floods and Related Debris Flows | 2559 | ||
| 7.22.2.3 Melting of Ground Ice | 2560 | ||
| 7.22.3 Landslides in Rock | 2560 | ||
| 7.22.3.1 Glacial Conditioning of Rock Masses | 2560 | ||
| 7.22.3.2 Landslides on Glacially Conditioned Rock Slopes | 2561 | ||
| 7.22.4 Conclusions | 2562 | ||
| References | 2562 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2563 | ||
| 7.23 Mass-Movement Causes: Earthquakes | 2564 | ||
| 7.23.1 Introduction | 2565 | ||
| 7.23.2 Landslide Types and Triggering Characteristics | 2565 | ||
| 7.23.3 Geographic Distributions of Landslides | 2566 | ||
| 7.23.4 Characteristics of Landslide Distributions | 2567 | ||
| 7.23.5 Geomorphic Effects of Earthquake-Triggered Landslides | 2568 | ||
| 7.23.6 Summary and Conclusion | 2569 | ||
| References | 2569 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2570 | ||
| 7.24 Mass-Movement Style, Activity State, and Distribution | 2571 | ||
| 7.24.1 Mass-Movement Style | 2571 | ||
| 7.24.1.1 Falling | 2571 | ||
| 7.24.1.2 Toppling | 2572 | ||
| 7.24.1.3 Sliding | 2572 | ||
| 7.24.1.4 Flowing | 2573 | ||
| 7.24.1.5 Spreading | 2575 | ||
| 7.24.1.6 Creeping | 2575 | ||
| 7.24.2 Activity State | 2575 | ||
| 7.24.2.1 Pre-Failure Movement | 2575 | ||
| 7.24.2.2 Failure | 2575 | ||
| 7.24.2.3 Reactivation | 2575 | ||
| 7.24.2.4 Activity State | 2576 | ||
| 7.24.3 Mass-Movement Distribution | 2576 | ||
| 7.24.3.1 Distribution of Mass-Movement Disasters | 2578 | ||
| References | 2578 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2579 | ||
| 7.25 Lateral Spreading | 2580 | ||
| 7.25.1 Introduction | 2580 | ||
| 7.25.2 Morphological Description, Causes and Evolution | 2581 | ||
| 7.25.2.1 Rock Spreading | 2582 | ||
| 7.25.2.1.1 Rock spreading in homogeneous rock masses | 2582 | ||
| 7.25.2.1.2 Rock spreading in brittle formations overlying ductile terrains | 2582 | ||
| 7.25.2.2 Soil Spreading | 2585 | ||
| 7.25.3 Hazard and Planning Implications | 2586 | ||
| References | 2587 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2588 | ||
| 7.26 Mass-Movement Hazards and Risks | 2590 | ||
| 7.26.1 Introduction | 2591 | ||
| 7.26.2 The Physical Context | 2591 | ||
| 7.26.2.1 The Energy of Processes | 2591 | ||
| 7.26.2.2 Mass Movement | 2591 | ||
| 7.26.2.3 Mass Movement in Mountains | 2591 | ||
| 7.26.3 The Human Context | 2592 | ||
| 7.26.4 Social and Physical Environmental Change | 2592 | ||
| 7.26.5 Concepts: Hazard, Risk, and Susceptibility | 2594 | ||
| 7.26.5.1 Hazard | 2594 | ||
| 7.26.5.2 Risk | 2594 | ||
| 7.26.5.3 Susceptibility | 2594 | ||
| 7.26.5.4 Vulnerability | 2594 | ||
| 7.26.6 Assessing Hazard and Risk | 2594 | ||
| 7.26.6.1 The Nature of Mass-Movement Hazard | 2595 | ||
| 7.26.6.1.1 Dynamic or static | 2595 | ||
| 7.26.6.1.2 Site specific or nonsite specific | 2595 | ||
| 7.26.6.1.3 Landslide type | 2595 | ||
| 7.26.6.1.4 Intensity of landslides | 2595 | ||
| 7.26.6.2 Where Landslides Occur: Susceptible Terrain | 2596 | ||
| 7.26.6.3 Frequency of Occurrence | 2596 | ||
| 7.26.6.4 Risk | 2597 | ||
| 7.26.7 Conclusion | 2597 | ||
| References | 2597 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2599 | ||
| 7.27 Avoidance and Protection Measures | 2600 | ||
| 7.27.1 Introduction | 2601 | ||
| 7.27.2 Risk Acceptance | 2602 | ||
| 7.27.3 Hazard Avoidance | 2602 | ||
| 7.27.4 Hazard Reduction Strategies | 2603 | ||
| 7.27.4.1 Avoiding or Reducing Landslide Occurrence | 2603 | ||
| 7.27.4.2 Slope Maintenance | 2603 | ||
| 7.27.4.2.1 Slope protection | 2604 | ||
| 7.27.4.2.2 Implementation of best practices | 2604 | ||
| 7.27.4.3 Reducing Driving Forces: Landslide Remediation | 2605 | ||
| 7.27.4.3.1 Removal of the unstable mass | 2605 | ||
| 7.27.4.3.2 Modification of the slope geometry (regrading) | 2605 | ||
| 7.27.4.3.3 Drainage | 2605 | ||
| 7.27.4.4 Increasing Resisting Forces | 2606 | ||
| 7.27.4.4.1 Internal slope reinforcement | 2606 | ||
| 7.27.4.4.2 Surface slope reinforcement | 2607 | ||
| 7.27.4.5 Reducing Landslide Severity | 2608 | ||
| 7.27.5 Strategies for Consequences Reduction | 2609 | ||
| 7.27.5.1 Reducing Vulnerability | 2609 | ||
| 7.27.5.2 Strengthening the Exposed Elements | 2609 | ||
| 7.27.5.3 Adaptation Measures | 2609 | ||
| 7.27.5.4 Protecting the Exposed Elements | 2610 | ||
| 7.27.5.5 Alert Systems | 2610 | ||
| 7.27.6 Concluding Remarks | 2611 | ||
| References | 2611 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2613 | ||
| 7.28 Numerical Modeling of Flows and Falls | 2614 | ||
| 7.28.1 Introduction | 2614 | ||
| 7.28.2 Basic Model Principles | 2615 | ||
| 7.28.2.1 The Energy-Line Method | 2615 | ||
| 7.28.2.2 Dynamic Mass Movement Modeling | 2616 | ||
| 7.28.2.3 Dynamic Flood Modeling | 2617 | ||
| 7.28.3 Modeling of Flows | 2617 | ||
| 7.28.3.1 Energy-Line-Based Models | 2617 | ||
| 7.28.3.2 Dynamic Modeling of Large-Scale Flows | 2618 | ||
| 7.28.4 Modeling of Rockfall | 2620 | ||
| 7.28.5 Future Challenges in Mass Movement Modeling | 2621 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 2622 | ||
| References | 2622 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2623 | ||
| 7.29 Changing Hillslopes: Evolution and Inheritance; Inheritance and Evolution of Slopes | 2625 | ||
| 7.29.1 Introduction | 2626 | ||
| 7.29.2 Hillslope Evolution | 2627 | ||
| 7.29.2.1 Historical Context | 2627 | ||
| 7.29.2.2 Fisher’s Cliff Retreat (1866) | 2627 | ||
| 7.29.2.3 Davis’ Graded Slopes and Their Progressive Downwearing (1899) | 2627 | ||
| 7.29.2.4 Penck’s Slope Replacement (Originally Published in 1924 in German with the Title ’Die Morphologische Analyse’,... | 2629 | ||
| 7.29.2.5 Wood’s Slope Cycle | 2629 | ||
| 7.29.2.6 King’s Parallel Slope Retreat (1953) | 2629 | ||
| 7.29.2.7 Gilbert (1877) Revisited: Hack’s Dynamic Equilibrium (1960) | 2629 | ||
| 7.29.2.8 Process-Based Modeling and the Continuity Equation | 2630 | ||
| 7.29.3 The Inheritance of Landforms Predating Plio-Pleistocene Climate Change | 2630 | ||
| 7.29.4 The Inheritance of Landforms during Glacial-Interglacial Fluctuations | 2631 | ||
| 7.29.5 Bedrock Landscapes | 2632 | ||
| 7.29.5.1 What is a Bedrock Landscape? | 2632 | ||
| 7.29.5.2 Changes from V-Shaped to U-Shaped Valleys and Back Again | 2633 | ||
| 7.29.6 Soil-Mantled Landscapes | 2635 | ||
| 7.29.6.1 Soil Production Mechanisms and Rates | 2635 | ||
| 7.29.6.2 Soil Transport Rates | 2636 | ||
| 7.29.6.2.1 The modification of soil-mantled terrain during glacial-interglacial fluctuations | 2636 | ||
| 7.29.6.3 Process-Based Models and Inheritance Timescales | 2638 | ||
| 7.29.7 Discussion and Conclusions | 2639 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 2642 | ||
| References | 2642 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2646 | ||
| 7.30 Hillslope Processes and Climate Change | 2647 | ||
| 7.30.1 Introduction | 2647 | ||
| 7.30.2 Climate Change | 2648 | ||
| 7.30.3 Landslides and Climate Coupling | 2650 | ||
| 7.30.4 Landslides and Climate Change | 2652 | ||
| 7.30.5 Landslides as Inheritance of Global and Regional Climate Change, at Different Temporal Scales | 2653 | ||
| 7.30.6 Landslides and Long-Term Climate Changes | 2654 | ||
| 7.30.7 Landslides and Short-Term Climate Variability | 2655 | ||
| 7.30.8 Hazard Issues in a Changing Environment | 2656 | ||
| References | 2657 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2659 | ||
| 7.31 Hillslope Processes in Cold Environments: An Illustration of High-Latitude Mountain and Hillslope Processes and Forms | 2661 | ||
| 7.31.1 Introduction | 2661 | ||
| 7.31.2 Weathering Processes and Regolith Formation | 2662 | ||
| 7.31.3 Slow Mass Wasting | 2668 | ||
| 7.31.3.1 Solifluction | 2668 | ||
| 7.31.3.2 Permafrost Creep and Rock Glaciers | 2670 | ||
| 7.31.3.3 Nivation and Cryoplanation | 2671 | ||
| 7.31.4 Rapid Mass Movement: Active Layer Detachment Failures | 2671 | ||
| 7.31.5 Impacts of Climate Change on Hillslope Processes and Forms | 2673 | ||
| 7.31.6 Conclusion | 2674 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 2675 | ||
| References | 2675 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2677 | ||
| 7.32 Hillslope Processes in Temperate Environments | 2678 | ||
| 7.32.1 Introduction | 2679 | ||
| 7.32.2 Overview of Hillslope Processes in Temperate Environments | 2679 | ||
| 7.32.2.1 Transport-Limited Hillslopes | 2679 | ||
| 7.32.2.2 Strength-Limited Hillslopes | 2682 | ||
| 7.32.3 Lithologic Controls | 2682 | ||
| 7.32.3.1 Bedrock Strength and Hillslope Angles | 2682 | ||
| 7.32.3.2 Bedding/Foliation Orientation | 2683 | ||
| 7.32.4 Competition between Processes on Hillslopes and in Channels | 2686 | ||
| 7.32.5 Upslope- and Downslope-Directed Coupling | 2686 | ||
| 7.32.5.1 Supply-Limited Basins - Upslope-Directed Coupling | 2686 | ||
| 7.32.5.2 Transport-Limited Basins - Downstream-Directed Coupling | 2686 | ||
| 7.32.5.3 Decoupled Hillslopes | 2689 | ||
| 7.32.6 To Thresholds and Beyond | 2689 | ||
| 7.32.7 From Hillslopes to Channels: Decreasing Sediment Discharge during the Holocene | 2689 | ||
| 7.32.8 Beneath Permafrost Elevations: Hillslope Processes in a Changing Climate | 2691 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 2693 | ||
| References | 2693 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2695 | ||
| 7.33 Semiarid Hillslope Processes | 2696 | ||
| 7.33.1 Introduction to the Semiarid Environment | 2696 | ||
| 7.33.2 Semiarid Hillslope Characteristics | 2697 | ||
| 7.33.3 Soil-Surface Characteristics and Geomorphological Processes on Semiarid Hillslopes | 2698 | ||
| 7.33.3.1 Soil-Surface Sealing and Crusting | 2698 | ||
| 7.33.3.2 Rock Fragments and Pavements | 2699 | ||
| 7.33.3.3 Processes at the Soil Surface | 2699 | ||
| 7.33.4 Effects of Plants and Geomorphological Processes | 2700 | ||
| 7.33.5 Scale Aspects of Semiarid Hillslope Processes | 2701 | ||
| References | 2702 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2703 | ||
| 7.34 Hillslope Processes in Arid Environments | 2704 | ||
| 7.34.1 Introduction | 2704 | ||
| 7.34.2 Arid Hillslope Processes | 2704 | ||
| 7.34.2.1 Wind | 2704 | ||
| 7.34.2.2 Salt | 2706 | ||
| 7.34.2.3 Water | 2709 | ||
| 7.34.2.4 Biota | 2710 | ||
| 7.34.2.5 Seismicity | 2711 | ||
| 7.34.3 Discussion | 2711 | ||
| 7.34.3.1 Effect of Precipitation on Erosion Rates and Processes | 2711 | ||
| 7.34.3.2 Inheritance of Topography and Morphology | 2712 | ||
| 7.34.4 Conclusion | 2713 | ||
| References | 2713 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2715 | ||
| 7.35 Hillslope Processes in Tropical Environments | 2716 | ||
| 7.35.1 Introduction | 2716 | ||
| 7.35.2 The Weathering Mantle and Its Origin | 2717 | ||
| 7.35.2.1 Functional Relationships between Weathering Rate and Denudation | 2717 | ||
| 7.35.3 The Role of Mass Movements in the Landscape | 2718 | ||
| 7.35.3.1 Weathering Mantles, Hillslope Hydrology, and Geotechnical Properties | 2718 | ||
| 7.35.3.2 Slope Failure Caused by Rainstorms | 2719 | ||
| 7.35.3.3 Recurrence Intervals and Aspects of the Long-Term Effects of Landsliding | 2719 | ||
| 7.35.3.4 Creep | 2720 | ||
| 7.35.4 Surface-Wash Processes on Hillslopes | 2720 | ||
| 7.35.4.1 Wash Processes and Rill Action | 2720 | ||
| 7.35.4.2 Gully Erosion | 2721 | ||
| 7.35.5 Conclusion | 2721 | ||
| References | 2721 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2722 | ||
| 7.36 Extraterrestrial Hillslope Processes | 2723 | ||
| 7.36.1 Introduction | 2723 | ||
| 7.36.2 The Effects of Gravity | 2725 | ||
| 7.36.2.1 Angle of Repose | 2725 | ||
| 7.36.2.2 Shear Strength | 2726 | ||
| 7.36.2.3 Changes in Morphology and Mass-Movement Actions | 2727 | ||
| 7.36.3 The Effect of Climate | 2728 | ||
| 7.36.3.1 Insolation | 2728 | ||
| 7.36.3.2 Atmosphere and Precipitation | 2731 | ||
| 7.36.3.3 Raindrop Impact | 2732 | ||
| 7.36.3.4 Overland Flow | 2732 | ||
| 7.36.3.5 Subsurface Flow | 2734 | ||
| 7.36.4 Summary | 2735 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 2735 | ||
| References | 2735 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2737 | ||
| e9780123747396v8 | 2738 | ||
| Front Cover | 2738 | ||
| TREATISE ON GEOMORPHOLOGY | 2739 | ||
| CONTENTS | 2743 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 2745 | ||
| VOLUME EDITORS | 2747 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 8 | 2749 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 2751 | ||
| PREFACE | 2765 | ||
| FOREWORD | 2767 | ||
| 8.1 The Development and History of Glacial and Periglacial Geomorphology | 2769 | ||
| 8.1.1 Periglacial Geomorphology | 2770 | ||
| 8.1.1.1 Introduction | 2770 | ||
| 8.1.1.2 The Historical Context | 2770 | ||
| 8.1.1.3 The Weakness of Traditional Periglacial Geomorphology | 2770 | ||
| 8.1.1.4 Periglacial Landscapes | 2771 | ||
| 8.1.1.5 Frost-Action and Cold-Climate Weathering | 2772 | ||
| 8.1.1.6 Frozen Ground | 2772 | ||
| 8.1.1.7 Periglacial Processes and Landforms | 2773 | ||
| 8.1.1.7.1 Permafrost-related processes | 2773 | ||
| 8.1.1.7.2 Azonal processes | 2773 | ||
| 8.1.1.8 Disciplinary Considerations | 2775 | ||
| 8.1.1.8.1 The growth of geocryology | 2775 | ||
| 8.1.1.8.2 The changing nature of geomorphology and quaternary science | 2776 | ||
| 8.1.1.9 Societal Relevance of Periglacial Geomorphology | 2777 | ||
| 8.1.1.9.1 Periglacial geomorphology and global climate change | 2777 | ||
| 8.1.1.9.2 Periglacial geomorphology and cold regions geotechnical engineering | 2777 | ||
| 8.1.1.9.3 Periglacial geomorphology conclusions | 2777 | ||
| 8.1.2 Glacial Geomorphology | 2778 | ||
| 8.1.2.1 Introduction | 2778 | ||
| 8.1.2.2 The Glacial Theory | 2778 | ||
| 8.1.2.3 Early Process Observations and Models | 2779 | ||
| 8.1.2.4 The Cycle of Glacial Denudation | 2779 | ||
| 8.1.2.5 Measurements, Process Models, and Landscape Development | 2779 | ||
| 8.1.2.6 Deformable Beds, Advanced Computing, and Cosmogenic Nuclides | 2780 | ||
| 8.1.2.7 Glacial Geomorphology, Tectonics, and Hazards | 2781 | ||
| 8.1.2.8 Glacial Geomorphology Conclusions | 2781 | ||
| References | 2782 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2786 | ||
| 8.2 Identifying Glacial and Interglacial Periods to Assess the Long-Term Climate History of Earth | 2787 | ||
| 8.2.1 Introduction | 2787 | ||
| 8.2.2 Direct and Indirect Glacial Evidence | 2790 | ||
| 8.2.3 Climate Models and Application to Geologic Time | 2790 | ||
| 8.2.4 Glacials and Interglacials in Gondwana | 2791 | ||
| 8.2.5 Hysteresis of Glaciations in the Permo-Carboniferous | 2792 | ||
| 8.2.6 Possibility of Glaciations in the Cretaceous | 2793 | ||
| 8.2.7 Summary | 2795 | ||
| References | 2795 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2797 | ||
| 8.3 Quaternary-Pleistocene Glacial and Periglacial Environments | 2798 | ||
| 8.3.1 Introduction | 2798 | ||
| 8.3.2 North America | 2799 | ||
| 8.3.3 Europe | 2802 | ||
| 8.3.4 Asia | 2804 | ||
| 8.3.5 Australasia | 2805 | ||
| 8.3.6 Africa | 2805 | ||
| 8.3.7 Central and South America | 2806 | ||
| 8.3.8 Antarctica | 2809 | ||
| 8.3.9 Summary and Conclusions | 2809 | ||
| References | 2809 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2812 | ||
| 8.4 Classification of Ice Masses | 2813 | ||
| 8.4.1 Introduction | 2814 | ||
| 8.4.2 Morphological Classification | 2814 | ||
| 8.4.2.1 Unconstrained by Topography | 2814 | ||
| 8.4.2.1.1 Ice sheet | 2814 | ||
| 8.4.2.1.2 Ice cap | 2814 | ||
| 8.4.2.1.3 Ice stream | 2814 | ||
| 8.4.2.1.4 Outlet glacier | 2815 | ||
| 8.4.2.1.5 Ice shelf | 2815 | ||
| 8.4.2.2 Constrained by Topography | 2816 | ||
| 8.4.2.2.1 Icefield | 2816 | ||
| 8.4.2.2.2 Valley glacier | 2816 | ||
| 8.4.2.2.3 Cirque glacier | 2817 | ||
| 8.4.2.2.4 Piedmont glacier | 2817 | ||
| 8.4.2.2.5 Hanging glacier | 2817 | ||
| 8.4.3 Thermal Classification | 2817 | ||
| 8.4.3.1 Temperate (’Warm’) | 2818 | ||
| 8.4.3.2 Cold | 2818 | ||
| 8.4.3.3 Polythermal | 2818 | ||
| 8.4.4 Conclusions | 2819 | ||
| References | 2819 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2820 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2820 | ||
| 8.5 Ice Properties and Glacier Dynamics | 2821 | ||
| 8.5.1 Deformation of Glacier Ice | 2822 | ||
| 8.5.2 Force Balance | 2822 | ||
| 8.5.3 Modeling Glacier Flow | 2823 | ||
| 8.5.3.1 Perfect Plasticity | 2823 | ||
| 8.5.3.2 Lamellar Flow | 2824 | ||
| 8.5.3.3 Basal Sliding | 2824 | ||
| 8.5.3.4 Ice Temperature | 2824 | ||
| 8.5.3.5 Lateral Drag | 2825 | ||
| 8.5.3.6 Ice-Shelf Spreading | 2825 | ||
| 8.5.3.7 Continuity | 2825 | ||
| 8.5.4 Glacier Instability | 2826 | ||
| 8.5.4.1 Subglacial Hydrology | 2826 | ||
| 8.5.4.2 Release of Back Stress | 2826 | ||
| 8.5.4.3 Marine Instability | 2826 | ||
| 8.5.5 Concluding Remarks | 2827 | ||
| References | 2827 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2828 | ||
| 8.6 Water in Glaciers and Ice Sheets | 2829 | ||
| 8.6.1 Introduction | 2829 | ||
| 8.6.2 Sources of Glacial Meltwater | 2829 | ||
| 8.6.3 Storage of Water in Glaciers | 2831 | ||
| 8.6.4 Methods of Studying Glacier Hydrology | 2831 | ||
| 8.6.5 Glacier Hydrological Systems | 2832 | ||
| 8.6.5.1 Supraglacial and Englacial Water Flow | 2832 | ||
| 8.6.5.2 Subglacial Water Flow | 2833 | ||
| 8.6.6 Subglacial Water Pressure | 2834 | ||
| 8.6.6.1 Subglacial Water Pressure and Effective Normal Pressure | 2834 | ||
| 8.6.6.2 Water Pressure Gradients | 2835 | ||
| 8.6.7 Discharge Fluctuations | 2836 | ||
| 8.6.7.1 Jökulhlaups | 2837 | ||
| 8.6.8 Glacial Meltwater Erosion | 2838 | ||
| 8.6.8.1 Mechanical Erosion | 2838 | ||
| 8.6.8.2 Chemical Erosion | 2839 | ||
| 8.6.9 Hydrological Effects on Glacier Motion | 2839 | ||
| 8.6.10 Conclusions | 2840 | ||
| References | 2840 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2841 | ||
| 8.7 Glacial Erosion Processes and Rates | 2842 | ||
| 8.7.1 Introduction | 2842 | ||
| 8.7.2 Processes of Glacial Erosion | 2843 | ||
| 8.7.3 Plucking and Entrainment of Rock Fragments by Ice | 2844 | ||
| 8.7.4 Abrasion | 2846 | ||
| 8.7.5 Rates of Glacial Erosion | 2847 | ||
| 8.7.6 Conclusion | 2849 | ||
| References | 2850 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2850 | ||
| 8.8 Erosional Features | 2851 | ||
| 8.8.1 Introduction | 2852 | ||
| 8.8.2 Small-Scale Erosional Forms | 2852 | ||
| 8.8.2.1 Striations and Chattermarks | 2852 | ||
| 8.8.2.2 s-Forms (Also Known as p-Forms) | 2852 | ||
| 8.8.3 Intermediate-Scale Forms | 2854 | ||
| 8.8.3.1 Roche Moutonnées, Whalebacks and Rock Drumlins | 2854 | ||
| 8.8.3.2 Drumlins, Crag and Tails, and Large-Scale Flutings | 2856 | ||
| 8.8.3.3 Tunnel Channels | 2858 | ||
| 8.8.4 Large-Scale Erosional Forms | 2858 | ||
| 8.8.4.1 Glacial Troughs and Fjords | 2858 | ||
| 8.8.4.2 Rock Basins | 2861 | ||
| 8.8.4.3 Knock and Lochain | 2862 | ||
| 8.8.4.4 Glacial Lakes | 2862 | ||
| 8.8.4.5 Cirques and Overdeepenings in Glacial Valleys | 2862 | ||
| 8.8.4.6 Streamlined Hills | 2863 | ||
| References | 2863 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2867 | ||
| 8.9 Erosional Landscapes | 2868 | ||
| 8.9.1 Introduction | 2868 | ||
| 8.9.2 Landscapes of Local Glaciation | 2869 | ||
| 8.9.2.1 Alpine Landscapes | 2869 | ||
| 8.9.2.1.1 Glacial cirques | 2869 | ||
| 8.9.2.1.2 Glacial valleys | 2869 | ||
| 8.9.3 Landscapes of Regional and Continental Glaciation | 2872 | ||
| 8.9.3.1 Landscape of Selective Linear Erosion | 2872 | ||
| 8.9.3.2 Landscape of Areal Scouring | 2872 | ||
| 8.9.3.3 Landscape of Little or No Erosion | 2873 | ||
| 8.9.3.3.1 Topographic perspective | 2874 | ||
| 8.9.3.3.2 Landform perspective | 2874 | ||
| 8.9.3.3.3 Process perspective | 2875 | ||
| 8.9.3.4 Landscape Distributions, The Temporal Perspective | 2875 | ||
| 8.9.4 Landscape Development and Interpretation | 2876 | ||
| References | 2878 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2879 | ||
| 8.10 Depositional Processes | 2881 | ||
| 8.10.1 Introduction | 2881 | ||
| 8.10.2 Glacial Transport | 2882 | ||
| 8.10.3 Glacial Deposition | 2882 | ||
| 8.10.3.1 Supraglacial Till | 2883 | ||
| 8.10.3.2 Subglacial Till | 2883 | ||
| 8.10.3.3 Subglacial Shear Zone | 2884 | ||
| 8.10.3.4 Changes in Subglacial Deformation Over Space and Time | 2886 | ||
| 8.10.3.5 Rheological Processes Within the Deforming Layer | 2887 | ||
| 8.10.3.6 Erosion Within the Deforming Layer | 2887 | ||
| 8.10.3.7 Hydrological Processes Within the Deforming Layer | 2888 | ||
| 8.10.3.8 Clast Movement and Till Fabric | 2888 | ||
| 8.10.4 Concluding Remarks | 2890 | ||
| 8.10.4.1 Subglacial Till | 2890 | ||
| 8.10.4.2 The Future | 2890 | ||
| References | 2891 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2894 | ||
| 8.11 Depositional Features | 2895 | ||
| Introduction | 2896 | ||
| 8.11.1 Transport | 2898 | ||
| 8.11.2 Deposition | 2899 | ||
| 8.11.2.1 Landforms/Bedforms Directly Attributable to Active/Passive Ice Activity | 2899 | ||
| 8.11.2.1.1 Drumlins | 2901 | ||
| 8.11.2.1.2 Fluted moraines, and mega-scale glacial lineations (MSGLs) | 2901 | ||
| 8.11.2.1.3 Rogen moraines | 2902 | ||
| 8.11.2.1.4 Marginal moraines | 2902 | ||
| 8.11.2.2 Landforms/Bedforms Indirectly Attributable to Active/Passive Ice Activity | 2903 | ||
| 8.11.2.2.1 Esker systems | 2904 | ||
| 8.11.2.2.2 Kames and kame terraces | 2904 | ||
| 8.11.2.2.3 Outwash fans and deltas | 2905 | ||
| 8.11.2.2.4 Till deltas/tongues and grounding-lines | 2905 | ||
| 8.11.3 Future Perspectives | 2905 | ||
| References | 2906 | ||
| 8.12 Fluvial Processes in Proglacial Environments | 2909 | ||
| 8.12.1 Introduction | 2910 | ||
| 8.12.2 Fundamentals | 2910 | ||
| 8.12.3 Glacial Effects on Water and Sediment Supply to Rivers | 2911 | ||
| 8.12.3.1 Water Supply | 2911 | ||
| 8.12.3.2 Sediment Supply | 2912 | ||
| 8.12.3.3 Topography | 2913 | ||
| 8.12.3.4 Summary | 2913 | ||
| 8.12.4 Proglacial River Morphology | 2913 | ||
| 8.12.5 Extreme Events | 2914 | ||
| 8.12.5.1 Glacier Types | 2914 | ||
| 8.12.5.2 Timescales | 2915 | ||
| 8.12.6 Examples of Proglacial Environments | 2915 | ||
| 8.12.6.1 Comparison of Franz Josef and Fox Glacier Proglacial Environments | 2915 | ||
| 8.12.6.2 Comparison of Waiho and Callery Proglacial Environments | 2916 | ||
| 8.12.7 Summary and Concluding Remarks | 2916 | ||
| References | 2918 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2918 | ||
| 8.13 Watershed Hydrology in Periglacial Environments | 2919 | ||
| 8.13.1 Why is Periglacial Hydrology Unique? | 2919 | ||
| 8.13.1.1 Water Movement | 2920 | ||
| 8.13.1.1.1 Physics | 2920 | ||
| 8.13.1.1.2 Hillslope processes | 2921 | ||
| 8.13.1.1.3 Streamflow | 2922 | ||
| 8.13.1.2 Storage | 2925 | ||
| 8.13.1.2.1 Snow | 2925 | ||
| 8.13.1.2.2 Ice | 2927 | ||
| 8.13.1.2.3 Lakes and wetlands | 2927 | ||
| 8.13.1.3 Energy Exchange | 2928 | ||
| 8.13.1.3.1 Energy balance in periglacial watersheds | 2928 | ||
| 8.13.1.3.2 Climate change and periglacial watersheds | 2930 | ||
| 8.13.2 Unique Vulnerabilities | 2931 | ||
| 8.13.2.1 Seasonal Frost Regions | 2932 | ||
| 8.13.2.2 Arctic Regions | 2932 | ||
| 8.13.2.3 Mountainous Glacier Regions | 2935 | ||
| References | 2936 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2939 | ||
| 8.14 Ground Ice and Cryostratigraphy | 2941 | ||
| 8.14.1 Introduction | 2942 | ||
| 8.14.2 Description of Ice within Frozen Ground | 2943 | ||
| 8.14.2.1 Ice Content | 2943 | ||
| 8.14.2.2 Cryostructures | 2943 | ||
| 8.14.2.3 Cryofacies | 2947 | ||
| 8.14.2.4 Ice Contacts | 2947 | ||
| 8.14.2.4.1 Freezing contacts | 2947 | ||
| 8.14.2.4.2 Thaw contacts | 2948 | ||
| 8.14.2.4.3 Erosional contacts | 2948 | ||
| 8.14.2.5 Mapping of Ground Ice | 2948 | ||
| 8.14.3 Genetic Types of Ground Ice | 2949 | ||
| 8.14.3.1 Pore Ice | 2949 | ||
| 8.14.3.2 Segregated Ice | 2950 | ||
| 8.14.3.3 Intrusive Ice | 2951 | ||
| 8.14.3.4 Wedge Ice | 2952 | ||
| 8.14.3.5 Pool Ice | 2952 | ||
| 8.14.3.6 Dilation-Crack Ice | 2953 | ||
| 8.14.3.7 Sublimation Ice | 2953 | ||
| 8.14.3.8 Buried Ice | 2953 | ||
| 8.14.3.9 Transitional, Compound, and Deformed Ice Formations | 2954 | ||
| 8.14.4 Cryostratigraphy | 2954 | ||
| 8.14.4.1 Principles | 2955 | ||
| 8.14.5 Transition Zone | 2955 | ||
| 8.14.5.1 Distribution | 2955 | ||
| 8.14.5.2 Significance | 2956 | ||
| 8.14.5.3 Origin | 2957 | ||
| 8.14.6 Massive Ice and Icy Sediments | 2958 | ||
| 8.14.6.1 Distribution and Characteristics | 2958 | ||
| 8.14.6.2 Origin of Massive Ice | 2959 | ||
| 8.14.6.2.1 Model 1: Intrasedimental massive ice | 2959 | ||
| 8.14.6.2.2 Model 2: Buried glacier ice | 2959 | ||
| 8.14.6.2.3 Model 3: Subglacial permafrost aggradation | 2960 | ||
| 8.14.6.2.4 Ice-sheet-permafrost interactions during glacial-to-interglacial cycles | 2960 | ||
| 8.14.6.3 Interpretation of Massive Ice | 2960 | ||
| 8.14.7 Ice Wedges and Soil Wedges | 2961 | ||
| 8.14.7.1 Palaeoenvironmental Significance | 2961 | ||
| 8.14.7.1.1 Ground-surface stability | 2961 | ||
| 8.14.7.1.2 Permafrost history | 2962 | ||
| 8.14.7.1.3 Relict ice wedges | 2962 | ||
| 8.14.7.1.4 Soil veins and wedges of secondary infilling (Pseudomorphs) | 2962 | ||
| 8.14.7.1.5 Relict primary sand wedges | 2962 | ||
| 8.14.7.1.6 Soil veins and small soil wedges | 2963 | ||
| 8.14.8 Yedoma and Related Deposits | 2963 | ||
| 8.14.8.1 Origin | 2963 | ||
| 8.14.8.2 Paleoenvironmental Significance | 2965 | ||
| 8.14.9 Summary and Future Research | 2965 | ||
| References | 2966 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2969 | ||
| 8.15 Permafrost: Formation and Distribution, Thermal and Mechanical Properties | 2970 | ||
| 8.15.1 Introduction | 2971 | ||
| 8.15.2 Thermal Properties of Permafrost | 2971 | ||
| 8.15.2.1 Background | 2971 | ||
| 8.15.2.2 Basics | 2972 | ||
| 8.15.3 Mechanical Properties of Permafrost | 2975 | ||
| 8.15.3.1 Background | 2975 | ||
| 8.15.3.2 Basics | 2975 | ||
| 8.15.4 The Global Distribution of Permafrost | 2977 | ||
| 8.15.4.1 Arctic and Subarctic Permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere | 2977 | ||
| 8.15.4.2 Alpine Permafrost | 2980 | ||
| 8.15.4.3 Antarctica Permafrost | 2983 | ||
| 8.15.5 Permafrost and Climate Variability | 2984 | ||
| 8.15.5.1 Observations during the Instrumental Period | 2984 | ||
| 8.15.5.2 Heat Flow and Permafrost Modeling | 2984 | ||
| 8.15.5.3 GHG Release and Permafrost | 2987 | ||
| 8.15.6 Conclusion Remark | 2987 | ||
| References | 2988 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 2990 | ||
| 8.16 Palsas and Lithalsas | 2991 | ||
| 8.16.1 Introduction | 2992 | ||
| 8.16.2 Segregation Ice | 2992 | ||
| 8.16.3 Palsas | 2993 | ||
| 8.16.3.1 Terminology | 2993 | ||
| 8.16.3.2 Forms and Dimensions | 2994 | ||
| 8.16.3.3 Peat on Palsas and Ice in Peat | 2994 | ||
| 8.16.3.4 Surface Characteristics | 2995 | ||
| 8.16.3.5 The Mineral Core, Segregation Ice, and Aggradational Ice | 2995 | ||
| 8.16.3.6 Climate and the Distribution of Palsas | 2996 | ||
| 8.16.3.7 Age of Palsas | 2996 | ||
| 8.16.3.8 Origin of Palsas | 2996 | ||
| 8.16.3.9 The Thaw of Palsas and Their Cyclic Development | 2997 | ||
| 8.16.3.10 Remnants after Melting | 2998 | ||
| 8.16.4 Lithalsas | 2998 | ||
| 8.16.4.1 Terminology | 2998 | ||
| 8.16.4.2 Morphology | 2998 | ||
| 8.16.4.3 Surface Characteristics | 2999 | ||
| 8.16.4.4 Mineral Composition and Ice Segregation | 2999 | ||
| 8.16.4.5 Climate and Lithalsa Distribution | 3000 | ||
| 8.16.4.6 Mechanism of Formation | 3000 | ||
| 8.16.4.7 Thawing of Lithalsas | 3002 | ||
| 8.16.5 Conclusion | 3002 | ||
| References | 3003 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3005 | ||
| 8.17 Rock Glaciers | 3006 | ||
| 8.17.1 Introduction | 3006 | ||
| 8.17.2 Definition | 3009 | ||
| 8.17.3 Objectives | 3010 | ||
| 8.17.4 Rock Glaciers as Part of the Mountain System | 3010 | ||
| 8.17.5 The Rock Glacier System | 3011 | ||
| 8.17.6 Form | 3012 | ||
| 8.17.7 Surface Morphology | 3012 | ||
| 8.17.8 Processes: Movement | 3013 | ||
| 8.17.9 Origin and Internal Structure | 3016 | ||
| 8.17.9.1 Ice-cored Structure | 3017 | ||
| 8.17.9.2 Ice-Cemented Structure | 3018 | ||
| 8.17.9.3 Continuum | 3019 | ||
| 8.17.10 Fabric Analysis | 3020 | ||
| 8.17.11 Distribution and Climate | 3020 | ||
| 8.17.12 Rock Glacier Age | 3021 | ||
| 8.17.13 Geophysical Methods Applied to Rock Glaciers | 3023 | ||
| 8.17.14 Rates of Flow/Creep | 3025 | ||
| 8.17.15 Hydrology | 3025 | ||
| 8.17.16 Geospatial Techniques | 3030 | ||
| 8.17.17 Climate Change and Hazards | 3031 | ||
| 8.17.18 Martian Rock Glaciers | 3034 | ||
| 8.17.19 Future Research | 3034 | ||
| References | 3035 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3041 | ||
| 8.18 Pingos | 3042 | ||
| 8.18.1 Terminology | 3043 | ||
| 8.18.1.1 Definition of Pingo | 3043 | ||
| 8.18.1.2 Seasonal Frost Mounds | 3047 | ||
| 8.18.1.3 Perennial Frost Mounds | 3047 | ||
| 8.18.2 Regional Distribution and Characteristics of Pingos | 3047 | ||
| 8.18.2.1 European Studies | 3048 | ||
| 8.18.2.1.1 Greenland | 3048 | ||
| 8.18.2.1.2 Svalbard Archipelago | 3050 | ||
| 8.18.2.2 The Origin of the Emergence Pingo Group | 3050 | ||
| 8.18.2.3 North American Studies | 3052 | ||
| 8.18.2.3.1 Origin of the broad-based mound in the North Slope, Alaska | 3054 | ||
| 8.18.2.4 Asian/Siberian Studies | 3055 | ||
| 8.18.2.4.1 Siberia | 3055 | ||
| 8.18.2.5 Central Asia | 3055 | ||
| 8.18.2.6 Outer Solar System | 3057 | ||
| 8.18.2.7 Mars | 3057 | ||
| 8.18.2.7.1 Polar PLFs: Large impact craters | 3057 | ||
| 8.18.2.7.2 Mid-latitude PLFs: Utopia Planitia | 3058 | ||
| 8.18.2.7.3 Equatorial PLFs: A range of contexts | 3059 | ||
| 8.18.3 Geographic Characteristics of a Forming Pingo | 3059 | ||
| 8.18.3.1 Open-System Pingo | 3059 | ||
| 8.18.3.2 Closed-System Pingo | 3059 | ||
| 8.18.4 Hydrology of the Pingo | 3060 | ||
| 8.18.4.1 Groundwater Pressure | 3060 | ||
| 8.18.4.2 Ice Formation | 3060 | ||
| 8.18.5 Future Research | 3062 | ||
| References | 3063 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3065 | ||
| 8.19 Patterned Ground and Polygons | 3066 | ||
| 8.19.1 Introduction and Scope | 3066 | ||
| 8.19.2 Background | 3067 | ||
| 8.19.3 Observation and Classification | 3068 | ||
| 8.19.4 Monitoring and Experimentation | 3072 | ||
| 8.19.5 Theory and Numerical Modeling | 3073 | ||
| 8.19.6 Conclusion | 3078 | ||
| References | 3078 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3080 | ||
| 8.20 Thermokarst Terrains | 3081 | ||
| 8.20.1 Introduction | 3082 | ||
| 8.20.2 Thermokarst Landforms | 3082 | ||
| 8.20.3 Degradation Processes and Stages | 3088 | ||
| 8.20.4 Factors Affecting Permafrost Degradation | 3089 | ||
| 8.20.5 Conclusions | 3091 | ||
| References | 3091 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3092 | ||
| 8.21 Thermokarst Lakes, Drainage, and Drained Basins | 3093 | ||
| 8.21.1 Permafrost and Thermokarst Lakes in the Arctic and Subarctic | 3094 | ||
| 8.21.2 Regional and Global Importance of Thermokarst Lakes | 3094 | ||
| 8.21.3 Distribution of Thermokarst Lakes in the Arctic and Subarctic | 3096 | ||
| 8.21.4 Thermokarst Lake Formation and Morphology | 3099 | ||
| 8.21.5 Hydrological Dynamics of Thermokarst Lakes | 3104 | ||
| 8.21.6 Oriented Thermokarst Lakes | 3106 | ||
| 8.21.7 Drainage of Thermokarst Lakes | 3108 | ||
| 8.21.8 Drained Thermokarst Lake Basins and Thermokarst Lake Cycle | 3113 | ||
| 8.21.9 Outlook | 3116 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 3117 | ||
| References | 3117 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3121 | ||
| 8.22 Thermokarst and Civil Infrastructure | 3122 | ||
| 8.22.1 Introduction | 3124 | ||
| 8.22.2 Active Layer | 3125 | ||
| 8.22.2.1 Definition | 3125 | ||
| 8.22.2.2 Physical Active-Layer Processes | 3126 | ||
| 8.22.2.2.1 Propagation of thawing and freezing fronts | 3126 | ||
| 8.22.2.2.2 Zero-curtain effect | 3126 | ||
| 8.22.2.2.3 Ice segregation | 3127 | ||
| 8.22.2.2.4 Frost heave and thaw subsidence | 3127 | ||
| 8.22.2.2.5 Cryoturbation | 3127 | ||
| 8.22.2.3 Active-Layer Thickness | 3127 | ||
| 8.22.3 Transition Zone | 3128 | ||
| 8.22.4 Thermokarst | 3129 | ||
| 8.22.4.1 Definitions | 3129 | ||
| 8.22.4.2 Causes of Thermokarst | 3129 | ||
| 8.22.4.2.1 Ground ice | 3129 | ||
| 8.22.4.2.2 Ground ice quantity | 3129 | ||
| 8.22.4.2.3 Types of ground ice | 3130 | ||
| 8.22.4.2.4 Increase in active-layer thickness | 3130 | ||
| 8.22.4.3 Thawing Processes and Thermokarst | 3131 | ||
| 8.22.4.3.1 Erosional processes | 3131 | ||
| 8.22.4.3.2 Subsidence processes | 3132 | ||
| 8.22.5 Engineering in Permafrost Regions | 3134 | ||
| 8.22.5.1 Background | 3134 | ||
| 8.22.5.2 Permafrost and Civil Infrastructure | 3134 | ||
| 8.22.5.2.1 Roads, runways, and railways | 3134 | ||
| 8.22.5.2.2 Buildings | 3135 | ||
| 8.22.5.2.3 Municipal services | 3136 | ||
| 8.22.5.2.4 Oil and gas pipelines | 3136 | ||
| 8.22.5.2.5 Mining | 3137 | ||
| 8.22.5.2.6 Agriculture | 3137 | ||
| 8.22.6 Conclusions | 3138 | ||
| References | 3138 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3140 | ||
| 8.23 Mass Movement Processes in the Periglacial Environment | 3142 | ||
| 8.23.1 Introduction | 3143 | ||
| 8.23.2 Slope Stability and Thaw Consolidation and their Role in Periglacial Mass Wasting | 3143 | ||
| 8.23.2.1 Slope Mechanics | 3144 | ||
| 8.23.2.1.1 Shear strength and strength | 3144 | ||
| 8.23.2.1.2 Ice segregation and frost heaving | 3145 | ||
| 8.23.2.1.3 Soil consolidation and material strength during thaw | 3145 | ||
| 8.23.3 Classification and Processes of Mass Wasting | 3146 | ||
| 8.23.3.1 Slow Mass Movement Types | 3146 | ||
| 8.23.3.1.1 Creep | 3146 | ||
| 8.23.3.1.2 Solifluction | 3147 | ||
| 8.23.3.2 Rapid Mass Movement | 3148 | ||
| 8.23.3.2.1 Rockfalls | 3148 | ||
| 8.23.3.2.2 Snow avalanches | 3149 | ||
| 8.23.3.2.3 Slushflows | 3150 | ||
| 8.23.3.2.4 Retrogressive thaw slumps | 3150 | ||
| 8.23.3.2.5 Active layer detachment failures | 3150 | ||
| 8.23.4 Mass Wasting Deposits in a Paleoenvironmental Context | 3151 | ||
| 8.23.5 The Role of Periglacial Mass Wasting as an Indicator of Global Environmental Change | 3154 | ||
| 8.23.6 Conclusion | 3155 | ||
| References | 3155 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3159 | ||
| 8.24 Evolution of Slopes in a Cold Climate | 3160 | ||
| 8.24.1 Introduction | 3161 | ||
| 8.24.2 Cryoplanation Mechanism and Landforms | 3161 | ||
| 8.24.2.1 Cryopediments | 3162 | ||
| 8.24.2.2 Cryoplanation Terraces | 3162 | ||
| 8.24.2.2.1 Morphology and controlling factors | 3162 | ||
| 8.24.2.2.2 Processes and (paleo)climatic significance | 3163 | ||
| 8.24.3 Talus Slopes, Including Stratified Slope Deposits | 3163 | ||
| 8.24.3.1 Definition and Geographic Distribution | 3163 | ||
| 8.24.3.2 Morphology and Processes | 3165 | ||
| 8.24.3.2.1 Rockfall as primary process and resulting morphology | 3165 | ||
| 8.24.3.2.2 Secondary reworking processes: Debris flows and snow avalanches | 3165 | ||
| 8.24.3.3 Surface Processes and Constitutive Materials | 3165 | ||
| 8.24.3.4 Stratified Slope Deposits within Talus Landforms (Including the Grèzes Litées) | 3167 | ||
| 8.24.3.4.1 Definition and geographical distribution | 3167 | ||
| 8.24.3.4.2 Bedding and sedimentary structures | 3167 | ||
| 8.24.3.4.3 Forming processes | 3167 | ||
| 8.24.3.5 Talus-Slope Evolution | 3169 | ||
| 8.24.3.5.1 Rates of debris supply/rockwall retreat and paraglacial activity | 3169 | ||
| 8.24.3.5.2 Paleoenvironmental implications of talus slopes and stratified slope deposits | 3170 | ||
| 8.24.4 Blockfields | 3171 | ||
| 8.24.4.1 Definition and Geographic Distribution | 3171 | ||
| 8.24.4.2 Form Characteristics | 3171 | ||
| 8.24.4.3 Block Accumulation Processes | 3173 | ||
| 8.24.4.4 Origin, Age, and Paleoenvironmental Significance of Autochthonous Blockfields | 3173 | ||
| 8.24.4.4.1 The Quaternary periglacial model - short to mid-term formation | 3173 | ||
| 8.24.4.4.2 The pre-Pleistocene (Neogene) model - long-term formation | 3174 | ||
| 8.24.4.4.3 A unified scheme of blockfield formation: Neogene inheritance and Quaternary development | 3175 | ||
| 8.24.5 Block Streams | 3175 | ||
| 8.24.5.1 Definition and Geographic Distribution | 3175 | ||
| 8.24.5.2 Form Characteristics | 3176 | ||
| 8.24.5.3 Processes | 3178 | ||
| 8.24.5.4 (Paleo)Climatic Meaning and Dating of Relict Block Streams | 3178 | ||
| 8.24.6 Research Perspectives | 3179 | ||
| References | 3180 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3183 | ||
| 8.25 Aeolian Processes in Periglacial Environments | 3184 | ||
| 8.25.1 Introduction | 3184 | ||
| 8.25.2 Background | 3187 | ||
| 8.25.3 Why Is There Aeolian Activity In Periglacial Environments? | 3188 | ||
| 8.25.3.1 Wind | 3188 | ||
| 8.25.3.2 Sediment Supply | 3189 | ||
| 8.25.3.3 Moisture | 3191 | ||
| 8.25.4 Cold-Climate Aeolian Features | 3192 | ||
| 8.25.4.1 Adhesion Laminae | 3192 | ||
| 8.25.4.2 Niveo-Aeolian Sediments | 3193 | ||
| 8.25.4.3 Abraded Surfaces | 3193 | ||
| 8.25.4.4 Secondary Effects | 3194 | ||
| 8.25.5 Summary | 3195 | ||
| References | 3195 | ||
| 8.26 Climate Change Impacts on Cold Climates | 3198 | ||
| 8.26.1 Introduction - Cold Climate Regions | 3198 | ||
| 8.26.2 Impact of Climate Change on the Glacial System | 3202 | ||
| 8.26.2.1 Introduction | 3202 | ||
| 8.26.2.2 From Greenhouse to Icehouse: the Onset of Cenozoic Ice Sheets | 3203 | ||
| 8.26.2.3 Establishment of Hyperarid, Polar-Desert Conditions in Antarctica | 3210 | ||
| 8.26.2.4 Ice Sheets Fluctuations | 3211 | ||
| 8.26.2.5 Holocene Glacier Variations | 3211 | ||
| 8.26.3 Climate Change and Sea Level in Cold Regions | 3212 | ||
| 8.26.4 Climate Change and Permafrost Dynamics | 3214 | ||
| 8.26.5 Biologic Bellwether of Climatic Changes in Cold Regions | 3214 | ||
| 8.26.5.1 Adélie Penguin Colonies and the Heritage of Penguin Settling in Antarctica | 3217 | ||
| 8.26.5.2 Southern Elephant Seals on the Antarctic Coasts | 3218 | ||
| 8.26.5.3 Response of Adélie Penguins and Southern Elephant Seals to Climate and Habitat Changes | 3220 | ||
| References | 3223 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3227 | ||
| 8.27 Geomorphology and Retreating Glaciers | 3228 | ||
| 8.27.1 Introduction | 3228 | ||
| 8.27.2 Moraines and the Thermal Regime Process-Form Continuum | 3229 | ||
| 8.27.3 Glacifluvial Landform-Sediment Assemblages | 3232 | ||
| 8.27.4 Landsystems in Deglaciated Terrain | 3232 | ||
| 8.27.4.1 High-relief Terrain | 3232 | ||
| 8.27.4.2 Intermediate-relief Terrain | 3235 | ||
| 8.27.4.3 Low-relief Terrain | 3236 | ||
| 8.27.4.4 Glaciers and Overdeepenings | 3239 | ||
| 8.27.4.5 Surging Glaciers | 3240 | ||
| 8.27.5 Landsystem Superimposition and Spatio-temporal Change | 3242 | ||
| References | 3244 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3246 | ||
| 8.28 The Glacial and Periglacial Research Frontier: Where from Here? | 3247 | ||
| 8.28.1 Introduction | 3247 | ||
| 8.28.2 The Glacial Research Frontier - Status | 3248 | ||
| 8.28.3 The Periglacial Research Frontier - Status | 3253 | ||
| 8.28.4 Permafrost-Glacier Interactions | 3255 | ||
| 8.28.5 Comparing the Glacial and Periglacial Geomorphology Research Frontiers - Focus and Scale | 3256 | ||
| 8.28.6 Where from Here? | 3257 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 3260 | ||
| References | 3260 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3267 | ||
| e9780123747396v9 | 3268 | ||
| Front Cover | 3268 | ||
| TREATISE ON\rGEOMORPHOLOGY | 3271 | ||
| CONTENTS | 3273 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 3275 | ||
| VOLUME EDITOR | 3277 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 9 | 3279 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 3281 | ||
| PREFACE | 3295 | ||
| FOREWORD | 3297 | ||
| 9.1 Treatise on Fluvial Geomorphology | 3299 | ||
| 9.1.1 Introduction and Overview | 3299 | ||
| Reference | 3302 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3303 | ||
| 9.2 A River Runs Through It: Conceptual Models in Fluvial Geomorphology | 3304 | ||
| 9.2.1 The Geomorphic Field Problem | 3304 | ||
| 9.2.2 Hierarchy of Analysis Frameworks | 3305 | ||
| 9.2.2.1 Level 1: Fundamental Physical Frameworks | 3305 | ||
| 9.2.2.2 Level 2: Geological Analysis Frameworks | 3305 | ||
| 9.2.2.3 Level 3: Fundamental Concepts in Fluvial Geomorphology | 3306 | ||
| 9.2.3 A Braided River of Conceptual Models in Fluvial Geomorphology | 3307 | ||
| 9.2.3.1 The Master Braids: Gilbert and Davis | 3307 | ||
| 9.2.3.1.1 The Balance of Forces | 3307 | ||
| 9.2.3.1.2 The Cycle of Erosion | 3308 | ||
| 9.2.3.2 Secondary Channels: Conceptual Models from the Golden Age of Geomorphology | 3309 | ||
| 9.2.3.2.1 The Graded River | 3309 | ||
| 9.2.3.2.2 Lane’s (and Borland’s) Balance | 3310 | ||
| 9.2.3.2.3 Dynamic Equilibrium and Thresholds | 3310 | ||
| 9.2.3.2.4 Analysis of Hydraulic Geometry | 3311 | ||
| 9.2.3.2.5 Frequency and Magnitude of Geomorphic Processes | 3312 | ||
| 9.2.3.2.6 Bankfull Flow as an Indicator of Channel-Forming Processes | 3313 | ||
| 9.2.3.3 The Fluvial System | 3313 | ||
| 9.2.3.3.1 Channel Classification | 3314 | ||
| 9.2.3.3.2 Sediment Budgets | 3315 | ||
| 9.2.3.4 Landscape Evolution Modeling and the Search for Geomorphic Laws | 3315 | ||
| 9.2.4 The Field Problem Revisited | 3316 | ||
| References | 3317 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3318 | ||
| 9.3 Subsurface and Surface Flow Leading to Channel Initiation | 3320 | ||
| 9.3.1 Micro-Scale Flow Processes | 3321 | ||
| 9.3.2 Hillslope-Scale Flow Processes | 3322 | ||
| 9.3.2.1 Subsurface Flow | 3322 | ||
| 9.3.2.1.1 Unsaturated flow | 3322 | ||
| 9.3.2.1.2 Lateral flow | 3324 | ||
| 9.3.2.1.3 Subsurface structure | 3326 | ||
| 9.3.2.2 Overland Flow | 3327 | ||
| 9.3.2.2.1 Local controls on overland flow | 3328 | ||
| 9.3.2.2.2 Hillslope-scale controls on overland flow | 3328 | ||
| 9.3.2.3 Landscape and Climate Context | 3329 | ||
| 9.3.3 Channel Initiation | 3332 | ||
| 9.3.3.1 Initiation Mechanisms | 3332 | ||
| 9.3.3.2 Landscape and Climate Context | 3334 | ||
| 9.3.4 Summary and Perspectives | 3336 | ||
| References | 3336 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3340 | ||
| 9.4 Network-Scale Energy Distribution | 3341 | ||
| 9.4.1 Introduction | 3341 | ||
| 9.4.2 Energy Expenditure and OCNs | 3342 | ||
| 9.4.3 Global Energy Expenditure | 3344 | ||
| 9.4.4 Local Energy Expenditure | 3345 | ||
| References | 3346 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3347 | ||
| 9.5 Reach-Scale Flow Resistance | 3348 | ||
| 9.5.1 Introduction | 3348 | ||
| 9.5.2 Traditional Approaches to Reach-Scale Flow Resistance | 3350 | ||
| 9.5.2.1 The Chézy and Darcy-Weisbach Equations | 3350 | ||
| 9.5.2.2 Components of Flow Resistance | 3350 | ||
| 9.5.2.3 Some General Issues | 3351 | ||
| 9.5.2.4 The Manning Equation | 3351 | ||
| 9.5.3 Physics-Based Approaches to Resistance | 3352 | ||
| 9.5.3.1 The Logarithmic Velocity Profile | 3352 | ||
| 9.5.3.2 Logarithmic Resistance Laws | 3353 | ||
| 9.5.3.3 Relating Roughness Height to Bed Characteristics | 3353 | ||
| 9.5.3.4 Other Physics-Based Approaches | 3354 | ||
| 9.5.4 How Well Do Standard Equations Predict Total Resistance? | 3355 | ||
| 9.5.5 Recent Developments | 3358 | ||
| 9.5.5.1 Vegetation Resistance | 3358 | ||
| 9.5.5.2 Shallow Flows | 3358 | ||
| 9.5.5.3 Alternative Equations for Reach Resistance | 3361 | ||
| 9.5.5.4 Roughness Representation in Numerical Flow Models | 3362 | ||
| 9.5.6 Summary and Research Directions | 3364 | ||
| References | 3364 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3366 | ||
| 9.6 Turbulence in River Flows | 3367 | ||
| 9.6.1 Introduction | 3368 | ||
| 9.6.1.1 Historical Perspective | 3368 | ||
| 9.6.1.2 Recent Trends | 3369 | ||
| 9.6.2 Defining and Measuring Turbulence | 3369 | ||
| 9.6.2.1 Defining Turbulence | 3369 | ||
| 9.6.2.2 Flow Visualization | 3371 | ||
| 9.6.2.3 Measuring Velocity Fluctuations | 3371 | ||
| 9.6.2.4 Analyzing Velocity Fluctuations | 3372 | ||
| 9.6.3 The Nature of Turbulence in River Flows | 3375 | ||
| 9.6.3.1 Turbulent Boundary Layers | 3375 | ||
| 9.6.3.2 Turbulent Boundary Layers in Rivers | 3376 | ||
| 9.6.3.3 Bed Roughness and Turbulence | 3377 | ||
| 9.6.3.4 Large-Scale Morphology and Turbulent Flows | 3378 | ||
| 9.6.3.5 Flow Obstructions | 3380 | ||
| 9.6.4 Concluding Comments | 3381 | ||
| References | 3382 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3384 | ||
| 9.7 The Initiation of Sediment Motion and Formation of Armor Layers | 3385 | ||
| 9.7.1 Critical Shear Stress | 3385 | ||
| 9.7.1.1 Introduction | 3385 | ||
| 9.7.1.2 Force Balance for Grain Motion | 3386 | ||
| 9.7.1.3 Measurements to Estimate Critical Shear Stress | 3388 | ||
| 9.7.1.3.1 Methods to define motion | 3388 | ||
| 9.7.1.3.2 Comparison of different methods | 3389 | ||
| 9.7.1.4 Influence of Channel Bed Parameters on the Initiation of Sediment Motion | 3390 | ||
| 9.7.1.4.1 Grain size | 3390 | ||
| 9.7.1.4.2 Other parameters | 3391 | ||
| 9.7.1.5 Mechanics of Grain Motion Local Grain and Turbulence Flow Parameters | 3392 | ||
| 9.7.1.5.1 Grain parameters that influence motion | 3392 | ||
| 9.7.1.5.2 Turbulence flow parameters that affect sediment motion | 3393 | ||
| 9.7.1.6 Stochastic Predictions of Particle Motion | 3394 | ||
| 9.7.2 Armor Formation | 3395 | ||
| 9.7.3 Conclusions and Future Directions | 3397 | ||
| References | 3397 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3400 | ||
| 9.8 Bedload Kinematics and Fluxes | 3401 | ||
| 9.8.1 Introduction | 3402 | ||
| 9.8.2 The General Character of Bedload | 3402 | ||
| 9.8.3 Grain Kinematics | 3404 | ||
| 9.8.3.1 The Two-Part Process of Bedload | 3404 | ||
| 9.8.3.2 Grain Displacement and Virtual Velocity | 3406 | ||
| 9.8.3.3 Grain Exchange | 3408 | ||
| 9.8.3.4 Modeling Dispersion | 3408 | ||
| 9.8.4 Fluxes | 3410 | ||
| 9.8.4.1 Flow, Sediment, and Transport Rates | 3410 | ||
| 9.8.4.2 Estimating Flux | 3412 | ||
| 9.8.4.2.1 Kinematic approach | 3412 | ||
| 9.8.4.2.2 Morphological approach | 3414 | ||
| 9.8.4.2.3 Eulerian approach | 3414 | ||
| 9.8.5 Future Directions | 3415 | ||
| 9.8.5.1 Deepen Understanding of Bedload Mechanics | 3416 | ||
| 9.8.5.2 Generalize Patterns of Grain Dispersion | 3416 | ||
| 9.8.5.3 Refine Understanding of the Controls over Fluxes | 3416 | ||
| 9.8.5.4 Expand Insight into River Behavior through Improved Flux Estimation | 3416 | ||
| References | 3417 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3421 | ||
| 9.9 Suspended Load | 3422 | ||
| 9.9.1 Introduction | 3422 | ||
| 9.9.2 Suspension of Noncohesive Sediment | 3423 | ||
| 9.9.2.1 Entrainment Functions | 3426 | ||
| 9.9.2.1.1 Relation of Garcia and Parker (1991) | 3426 | ||
| 9.9.2.1.2 Relation of Smith and McLean (1977) | 3426 | ||
| 9.9.2.2 Size of Sediment in Suspension | 3426 | ||
| 9.9.2.3 Effects of Stratification | 3428 | ||
| 9.9.3 Suspension of Cohesive Sediment | 3428 | ||
| 9.9.4 Sampling of Suspended Sediment | 3430 | ||
| 9.9.4.1 Automatic and Emerging Technology Samplers | 3431 | ||
| 9.9.5 Future Directions of Research | 3432 | ||
| References | 3432 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3434 | ||
| 9.10 Bedforms in Sand-Bedded Rivers | 3435 | ||
| 9.10.1 Introduction | 3436 | ||
| 9.10.2 The Classical Concept of a Continuum of Bedforms | 3436 | ||
| 9.10.3 Bedform Typology and Classification | 3438 | ||
| 9.10.3.1 Lower-Regime Bedforms | 3438 | ||
| 9.10.3.2 Upper-Regime Bedforms | 3442 | ||
| 9.10.4 Bedforms and Flow Resistance | 3443 | ||
| 9.10.5 Flow over Bedforms | 3444 | ||
| 9.10.6 The Origin of Bedforms | 3447 | ||
| 9.10.6.1 Initiation Types | 3448 | ||
| 9.10.6.2 Theories of Bedform Initiation | 3448 | ||
| 9.10.7 Growth and Diminution | 3450 | ||
| 9.10.7.1 Bedform Field Growth from a Flat Sand Bed at Constant Flow | 3451 | ||
| 9.10.7.2 Individual Bedform Growth and Diminution at Constant Flow | 3451 | ||
| 9.10.7.3 Bedform Field Growth and Diminution due to Changes in Flow | 3452 | ||
| 9.10.8 Bedform Kinematics and Sediment Transport | 3453 | ||
| 9.10.9 Preservation | 3454 | ||
| 9.10.10 Summary and Future Research Directions | 3455 | ||
| References | 3457 | ||
| 9.11 Wood in Fluvial Systems | 3461 | ||
| 9.11.1 Introduction | 3461 | ||
| 9.11.2 Defining Wood | 3462 | ||
| 9.11.2.1 Size, Shape, and Density | 3462 | ||
| 9.11.2.2 Dead and Living Wood | 3464 | ||
| 9.11.3 Wood Retention in Fluvial Systems | 3464 | ||
| 9.11.3.1 How Much Wood Can a River Channel Store? | 3464 | ||
| 9.11.3.2 Wood and Channel Dimensions | 3468 | ||
| 9.11.3.2.1 Wood accumulation styles in small to medium channels | 3469 | ||
| 9.11.3.2.2 Wood accumulation styles in medium to large channels | 3471 | ||
| 9.11.3.3 Transitions in Wood Accumulation Styles along the River Continuum | 3472 | ||
| 9.11.4 Wood Dynamics | 3474 | ||
| 9.11.4.1 Conceptualizing Wood Budgets | 3474 | ||
| 9.11.4.2 Modeling Wood Budgets | 3476 | ||
| 9.11.4.3 Wood Mobility | 3476 | ||
| 9.11.5 Wood and Landforms | 3478 | ||
| 9.11.5.1 The Patch Scale | 3478 | ||
| 9.11.5.2 The Reach and Landscape Scales | 3479 | ||
| 9.11.6 Conclusions | 3480 | ||
| 9.11.6.1 Wood and Fluvial Geomorphology | 3480 | ||
| 9.11.6.2 Broader Implications of Wood in Rivers | 3481 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 3482 | ||
| References | 3482 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3486 | ||
| 9.12 Influence of Aquatic and Semi-Aquatic Organisms on Channel Forms and Processes | 3487 | ||
| 9.12.1 Introduction | 3487 | ||
| 9.12.2 Boundary Conditions | 3488 | ||
| 9.12.2.1 Large Grazing Mammals and Channel Geometry | 3488 | ||
| 9.12.2.2 Beavers and Channel Slope | 3489 | ||
| 9.12.2.3 Summary of Biological Controls on Boundary Conditions | 3491 | ||
| 9.12.3 Sediment Transport | 3491 | ||
| 9.12.3.1 Macroinvertebrates on Critical Shear Stress | 3491 | ||
| 9.12.3.2 Fishes and Sediment Mobilization | 3492 | ||
| 9.12.3.3 Summary of Biological Controls on Sediment Transport | 3492 | ||
| 9.12.4 Influence of Macroinvertebrates and Anadromous Fishes on Dissolved Load Transport | 3493 | ||
| 9.12.5 Aquatic Vegetation and Channel Hydraulics | 3494 | ||
| 9.12.6 Opportunities for Future Research | 3495 | ||
| References | 3496 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3499 | ||
| 9.13 Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange Across Scales: Watersheds to Particles | 3501 | ||
| 9.13.1 Introduction | 3502 | ||
| 9.13.2 The Effect of Geomorphology on HEFs | 3503 | ||
| 9.13.2.1 The Whole Network to Segment Scale | 3503 | ||
| 9.13.2.2 The Reach Scale - Setting the Potential for Hyporheic Exchange | 3504 | ||
| 9.13.2.2.1 Losing and gaining reaches | 3504 | ||
| 9.13.2.2.2 Changes in saturated cross-sectional area | 3506 | ||
| 9.13.2.3 The Subreach to Channel-Unit Scale - Hydrostatic Processes | 3507 | ||
| 9.13.2.3.1 Step-pool and pool-riffle sequences | 3507 | ||
| 9.13.2.3.2 Meander bends and point bars | 3508 | ||
| 9.13.2.3.3 Back channels and floodplain spring brooks | 3508 | ||
| 9.13.2.3.4 Secondary channels and islands | 3509 | ||
| 9.13.2.3.5 Spatial heterogeneity in saturated hydraulic conductivity | 3510 | ||
| 9.13.2.4 The Bedform Scale - Hydrodynamic Processes | 3510 | ||
| 9.13.2.5 The Particle Scale - Turbulent Diffusion | 3511 | ||
| 9.13.3 Discussion | 3511 | ||
| 9.13.3.1 Multiple Features Acting in Concert | 3511 | ||
| 9.13.3.2 Change in Processes Driving HEF through the Stream Network | 3512 | ||
| 9.13.4 Conclusion | 3513 | ||
| References | 3513 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3515 | ||
| 9.14 Reciprocal Relations between Riparian Vegetation, Fluvial Landforms, and Channel Processes | 3517 | ||
| 9.14.1 Introduction | 3518 | ||
| 9.14.1.1 Fluvial Landforms | 3519 | ||
| 9.14.1.2 Lateral Zonation | 3521 | ||
| 9.14.1.3 Longitudinal Patterns of Plant Organization | 3524 | ||
| 9.14.2 Approaches to Characterizing Riparian Vegetation | 3524 | ||
| 9.14.2.1 Individuals and Distributions | 3525 | ||
| 9.14.2.2 Populations and Structured Population Modeling | 3526 | ||
| 9.14.2.3 Communities and Cover Types | 3526 | ||
| 9.14.2.4 Guilds and Functional Groups | 3527 | ||
| 9.14.3 How Riparian Vegetation Affects Fluvial Geomorphic Processes | 3529 | ||
| 9.14.3.1 Channel Cross-Sectional Form | 3530 | ||
| 9.14.3.1.1 Mechanical effects of vegetation | 3531 | ||
| 9.14.3.1.2 Hydraulic effects of vegetation | 3532 | ||
| 9.14.3.2 Channel Planform | 3532 | ||
| 9.14.4 Conclusions | 3537 | ||
| References | 3537 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3541 | ||
| 9.15 Landslides in the Fluvial System | 3542 | ||
| 9.15.1 Introduction | 3542 | ||
| 9.15.2 Landslides in the Fluvial System | 3542 | ||
| 9.15.2.1 Effects of Landslide Erosion on Drainage Basins | 3542 | ||
| 9.15.2.2 Geomorphic Hillslope-Channel Coupling | 3543 | ||
| 9.15.2.3 Geomorphic Coupling Interface | 3546 | ||
| 9.15.2.4 Landslide Dams | 3546 | ||
| 9.15.2.5 Consequences of Landslide Sediment in River Channels | 3549 | ||
| 9.15.2.6 Landslide-Derived Sediment Yields | 3550 | ||
| 9.15.2.7 Modeling Landslides in the Fluvial System | 3552 | ||
| 9.15.3 Conclusions and Outlook | 3553 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 3554 | ||
| References | 3554 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3557 | ||
| 9.16 River Meandering | 3558 | ||
| 9.16.1 Introduction | 3558 | ||
| 9.16.2 Research Phases and Topics | 3560 | ||
| 9.16.3 Approaches and Methods | 3562 | ||
| 9.16.3.1 Empirical Approaches | 3562 | ||
| 9.16.3.1.1 Field measurements and observations | 3562 | ||
| 9.16.3.1.2 Map and remote sensing evidence | 3563 | ||
| 9.16.3.1.3 Techniques of meander morphology and change analysis | 3563 | ||
| 9.16.3.2 Theoretical and Numerical Modeling Approaches | 3563 | ||
| 9.16.3.2.1 Experimental modeling | 3565 | ||
| 9.16.4 Empirical Evidence and Analysis | 3566 | ||
| 9.16.4.1 Morphology | 3566 | ||
| 9.16.4.2 Morphological Change | 3567 | ||
| 9.16.4.3 Meander Processes | 3570 | ||
| 9.16.4.3.1 Flow patterns and sediment movement | 3570 | ||
| 9.16.4.3.2 Bank erosion | 3573 | ||
| 9.16.4.3.3 Deposition and bar formation | 3573 | ||
| 9.16.4.4 Bedrock and Incised Meanders | 3574 | ||
| 9.16.4.5 Spatial Distribution and Controls on Characteristics | 3574 | ||
| 9.16.5 Theoretical and Conceptual Explanations | 3575 | ||
| 9.16.5.1 Fundamental Physical and Numerical Analyses | 3575 | ||
| 9.16.5.2 Conceptual Analyses | 3577 | ||
| 9.16.5.3 Experimental, Modeling and Numerical Analysis Results | 3578 | ||
| 9.16.6 Perspective and Synthesis | 3579 | ||
| 9.16.6.1 Future Research | 3580 | ||
| 9.16.7 Conclusions | 3580 | ||
| References | 3581 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3586 | ||
| 9.17 Morphology and Dynamics of Braided Rivers | 3587 | ||
| 9.17.1 Introduction | 3588 | ||
| 9.17.2 Occurrence and Development of Braiding | 3589 | ||
| 9.17.2.1 General Conditions for Braiding | 3589 | ||
| 9.17.2.2 Quantitative Analysis of Regime Controls of Braiding | 3590 | ||
| 9.17.2.3 Braiding Development: Observation and Theory | 3592 | ||
| 9.17.3 Braided River Morphology and Morpho-Dynamics | 3594 | ||
| 9.17.3.1 Introduction | 3594 | ||
| 9.17.3.2 Hydraulic Geometry and River Topography | 3594 | ||
| 9.17.3.3 Bars | 3598 | ||
| 9.17.3.4 Bifurcations and Confluences | 3599 | ||
| 9.17.3.5 The Braided Channel Network: Morphology and Dynamics | 3600 | ||
| 9.17.3.6 The Braided Channel Network: Spatial Scaling | 3602 | ||
| 9.17.4 Bedload Transport and Morpho-Dynamics | 3603 | ||
| 9.17.5 Conclusion | 3605 | ||
| References | 3606 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3610 | ||
| 9.18 Hydraulic Geometry: Empirical Investigations and Theoretical Approaches | 3611 | ||
| 9.18.1 Introduction | 3612 | ||
| 9.18.2 Conceptual Basis for Hydraulic Geometry | 3613 | ||
| 9.18.2.1 Regime Relations for Unlined Canals | 3613 | ||
| 9.18.2.2 Adapting Regime Relations to Alluvial Streams | 3613 | ||
| 9.18.2.3 Empirical Hydraulic Geometry | 3613 | ||
| 9.18.2.4 Theoretical Hydraulic Geometry | 3614 | ||
| 9.18.3 Recent Research | 3616 | ||
| 9.18.3.1 At-a-Station Relations | 3616 | ||
| 9.18.3.2 Downstream Relations | 3617 | ||
| 9.18.3.2.1 Defining formative discharge | 3617 | ||
| 9.18.3.2.2 Empirical hydraulic geometry | 3618 | ||
| 9.18.3.2.3 Theoretical hydraulic geometry | 3621 | ||
| 9.18.4 Summary and Future Research | 3624 | ||
| 9.18.4.1 At-a-Station Relations | 3624 | ||
| 9.18.4.2 Downstream Relations | 3624 | ||
| References | 3625 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3627 | ||
| 9.19 Anabranching and Anastomosing Rivers | 3628 | ||
| 9.19.1 Introduction | 3628 | ||
| 9.19.2 Why Do Rivers Anabranch? | 3630 | ||
| 9.19.3 Modeling and Theoretical Developments | 3633 | ||
| 9.19.4 Vegetation | 3634 | ||
| 9.19.5 Anabranching Longevity | 3634 | ||
| 9.19.6 Types of Anabranching River | 3635 | ||
| 9.19.6.1 Type 1: Cohesive Sediment (Anastomosing) Rivers | 3636 | ||
| 9.19.6.2 Type 2: Sand-Dominated Island-Form Rivers | 3638 | ||
| 9.19.6.3 Type 3: Mixed Load Laterally Active Rivers | 3638 | ||
| 9.19.6.4 Type 4: Sand-Dominated Ridge-Form Rivers | 3638 | ||
| 9.19.6.5 Type 5: Gravel-Dominated Laterally Active Rivers | 3639 | ||
| 9.19.6.6 Type 6: Gravel-Dominated Stable Rivers | 3639 | ||
| 9.19.7 Management of Anabranching Rivers | 3640 | ||
| 9.19.8 Conclusion | 3640 | ||
| References | 3641 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3643 | ||
| 9.20 Step-Pool Channel Features | 3644 | ||
| 9.20.1 Introduction | 3645 | ||
| 9.20.2 Step-Pool Channel Morphology | 3645 | ||
| 9.20.2.1 Woody Debris Step-Pools | 3646 | ||
| 9.20.2.2 Bedrock Step-Pools | 3646 | ||
| 9.20.2.3 Scale Consideration | 3646 | ||
| 9.20.2.4 Subunit-Scale Step-Pool Features | 3646 | ||
| 9.20.2.5 Unit-Scale Step-Pool Features | 3648 | ||
| 9.20.2.6 Reach-Scale Step-Pool Features | 3648 | ||
| 9.20.2.7 Identification of Step-Pool Units and Their Features | 3650 | ||
| 9.20.3 The Formation of Step-Pool Units | 3650 | ||
| 9.20.4 The Frequency of Step-Pool Units and Their Morphology | 3651 | ||
| 9.20.5 Step-Pool Hydraulics and Flow Resistance | 3652 | ||
| 9.20.5.1 Flow Regime | 3652 | ||
| 9.20.5.2 Flow Resistance | 3654 | ||
| 9.20.6 Sediment Transport and Channel Stability | 3656 | ||
| 9.20.6.1 Mobilization of Steps | 3656 | ||
| 9.20.6.2 Sediment Transport | 3657 | ||
| 9.20.6.3 Effect of Sediment Supply on Sediment Transport and Form Roughness | 3657 | ||
| 9.20.7 Summary and Research Directions | 3658 | ||
| References | 3659 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3661 | ||
| 9.21 Pool-Riffle | 3662 | ||
| 9.21.1 Pool-Riffle Morphology | 3663 | ||
| 9.21.2 Pool and Riffle Definitions | 3663 | ||
| 9.21.2.1 Runs and Glides | 3664 | ||
| 9.21.3 Pool Formation and Maintenance | 3664 | ||
| 9.21.3.1 Sedimentological Maintenance Theories | 3665 | ||
| 9.21.3.2 Turbulence in Pools | 3666 | ||
| 9.21.4 Pool and Riffle Geometry | 3666 | ||
| 9.21.4.1 Pool Volume | 3667 | ||
| 9.21.4.1.1 Pool filling | 3667 | ||
| 9.21.4.2 Pool Approach Conditions and Obstruction Shapes | 3668 | ||
| 9.21.4.3 Pool-Exit Conditions | 3668 | ||
| 9.21.4.4 Riffle and Run Geometry | 3669 | ||
| 9.21.5 Pool-Riffle Spacing and Percent Area | 3669 | ||
| 9.21.5.1 Percent Pool and Riffle Area | 3671 | ||
| 9.21.6 Sediment Sorting | 3671 | ||
| 9.21.6.1 Tracer Particle Studies in Pools and Riffles | 3671 | ||
| 9.21.7 Future Directions in Pool and Riffle Research | 3672 | ||
| 9.21.7.1 Characterization of Turbulent Events and Form Friction | 3672 | ||
| 9.21.7.2 Influence on Pool-Riffle Sequence Adjustments on the Quality of Aquatic Habitat | 3673 | ||
| 9.21.7.3 Predicting Channel Morphology under Different Climates and Land Uses | 3673 | ||
| 9.21.8 Conclusions | 3673 | ||
| References | 3673 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3676 | ||
| 9.22 Fluvial Terraces | 3677 | ||
| 9.22.1 Introduction | 3677 | ||
| 9.22.2 Fluvial Terrace Definition and General Description | 3679 | ||
| 9.22.3 Terrace Geochronology | 3682 | ||
| 9.22.4 Features and Processes of Rivers and Watersheds that Contain Terraces | 3683 | ||
| 9.22.5 Graded and Steady-State Stream Profiles and Their Relation to Rerraces | 3686 | ||
| 9.22.6 Strath Genesis | 3689 | ||
| 9.22.7 Terrace Genesis | 3696 | ||
| 9.22.7.1 Terraces and Tectonics | 3697 | ||
| 9.22.7.2 Base Level and Knickpoints | 3697 | ||
| 9.22.7.3 Terraces and Climate | 3697 | ||
| 9.22.7.4 Periodic Forcing of Terrace Formation | 3698 | ||
| 9.22.7.5 Evidence for and Effects of Unsteady Sediment Yields | 3699 | ||
| 9.22.7.6 Holocene Alluvial and Bedrock Valleys | 3702 | ||
| 9.22.7.7 The Role of Discharge Unsteadiness | 3705 | ||
| 9.22.7.8 Process Linkage and the Integrated Model | 3705 | ||
| 9.22.8 Summary and Future Research Directions | 3706 | ||
| References | 3706 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3710 | ||
| 9.23 Waters Divided: A History of Alluvial Fan Research and a View of Its Future | 3711 | ||
| 9.23.1 Introduction | 3712 | ||
| 9.23.2 Formative Boundary Conditions for Alluvial Fan | 3714 | ||
| 9.23.3 Processes that Supply Sediment to Alluvial Fans | 3717 | ||
| 9.23.4 Processes Observed on Fans | 3721 | ||
| 9.23.5 Hypotheses Guiding Field and Experimental Work | 3723 | ||
| 9.23.6 Morphometry | 3723 | ||
| 9.23.7 Hydraulic Geometry | 3729 | ||
| 9.23.8 Sedimentology | 3731 | ||
| 9.23.8.1 Quantitative Sedimentology | 3731 | ||
| 9.23.8.2 Descriptive Stratigraphy | 3734 | ||
| 9.23.9 Geologic Record of Fans | 3736 | ||
| 9.23.9.1 Surficial Mapping and Dating | 3736 | ||
| 9.23.9.2 Deeper Stratigraphic Record | 3738 | ||
| 9.23.10 Experimental Approaches | 3740 | ||
| 9.23.11 Models of Fan Evolution | 3742 | ||
| 9.23.12 The Record of Hazards on Alluvial Fans | 3743 | ||
| 9.23.13 Discussion | 3745 | ||
| 9.23.13.1 What Generalizations Can We Make? | 3745 | ||
| 9.23.13.2 Needs for the Future | 3747 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 3750 | ||
| References | 3750 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3756 | ||
| 9.24 Quantitative Paleoflood Hydrology | 3757 | ||
| 9.24.1 Introduction | 3757 | ||
| 9.24.2 Quantitative Paleoflood Hydrology | 3758 | ||
| 9.24.2.1 Development of Paleoflood Records | 3758 | ||
| 9.24.2.2 Paleoflood Age Determination | 3761 | ||
| 9.24.2.3 Paleoflood Discharge Determination | 3763 | ||
| 9.24.2.3.1 Paleocompetence | 3763 | ||
| 9.24.2.3.2 Hydraulic analysis | 3763 | ||
| 9.24.2.4 Flood Frequency Analysis | 3765 | ||
| 9.24.3 A Paleoflood Case Study: The Llobregat River | 3766 | ||
| 9.24.4 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives | 3768 | ||
| References | 3769 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3772 | ||
| 9.25 Outburst Floods | 3773 | ||
| 9.25.1 Introduction | 3773 | ||
| 9.25.2 Flood Sources | 3778 | ||
| 9.25.2.1 Floods from Breached Valley Blockages | 3779 | ||
| 9.25.2.1.1 Ice dams | 3779 | ||
| 9.25.2.1.2 Landslide dams | 3781 | ||
| 9.25.2.1.3 Volcanogenic dams | 3783 | ||
| 9.25.2.1.4 Constructed dams | 3783 | ||
| 9.25.2.1.5 Other types of valley blockages | 3784 | ||
| 9.25.2.2 Floods from Breached Basins | 3784 | ||
| 9.25.2.2.1 Basins marginal to ice sheets | 3785 | ||
| 9.25.2.2.2 Moraine-rimmed basins | 3785 | ||
| 9.25.2.2.3 Tectonic basins | 3787 | ||
| 9.25.2.2.4 Volcanic basins | 3787 | ||
| 9.25.2.2.5 Other types of basins | 3789 | ||
| 9.25.2.3 Floods from Release of Subglacial and Subterranean Storage | 3790 | ||
| 9.25.2.3.1 Subglacial and englacial impoundments | 3790 | ||
| 9.25.2.3.2 Groundwater | 3791 | ||
| 9.25.2.4 Floods from Unusual Sources | 3791 | ||
| 9.25.3 Outburst Flood Magnitude and Behavior | 3791 | ||
| 9.25.3.1 Breaching Processes | 3792 | ||
| 9.25.3.2 Peak Discharge | 3793 | ||
| 9.25.3.2.1 Overtopping | 3793 | ||
| 9.25.3.2.2 Ice tunneling and erosion | 3795 | ||
| 9.25.3.2.3 Other processes | 3796 | ||
| 9.25.3.3 Downstream Flood Behavior | 3796 | ||
| 9.25.3.4 Erosional and Depositional Features from Outburst Floods | 3797 | ||
| 9.25.4 Summary | 3799 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 3799 | ||
| References | 3799 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3807 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3807 | ||
| 9.26 Global Late Quaternary Fluvial Paleohydrology: With Special Emphasis on Paleofloods and Megafloods | 3809 | ||
| 9.26.1 Introduction | 3810 | ||
| 9.26.2 Types of Global Fluvial Paleohydrological Studies | 3810 | ||
| 9.26.3 Alluvial Chronologies | 3811 | ||
| 9.26.4 Paleofloods | 3812 | ||
| 9.26.4.1 Southwestern US | 3812 | ||
| 9.26.4.2 Other US and Canada | 3812 | ||
| 9.26.4.3 Australia | 3812 | ||
| 9.26.4.4 Southern Asia | 3812 | ||
| 9.26.4.5 China and Japan | 3812 | ||
| 9.26.4.6 Europe | 3815 | ||
| 9.26.4.7 Middle East | 3815 | ||
| 9.26.4.8 Southern Africa | 3815 | ||
| 9.26.4.9 South America | 3815 | ||
| 9.26.5 Megafloods | 3815 | ||
| 9.26.5.1 Alaskan and Cordilleran Megafloods | 3815 | ||
| 9.26.5.2 Laurentide Megafloods | 3817 | ||
| 9.26.5.3 Patagonian Megafloods | 3818 | ||
| 9.26.5.4 Icelandic Megafloods | 3818 | ||
| 9.26.5.5 Northern European Megafloods | 3818 | ||
| 9.26.5.6 Central Asian Mountain Megafloods | 3818 | ||
| 9.26.5.7 Eurasian Lowland Megafloods | 3819 | ||
| 9.26.5.8 Antarctic | 3819 | ||
| 9.26.6 Discussion | 3820 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 3820 | ||
| References | 3820 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3825 | ||
| 9.27 Steep Headwater Channels | 3826 | ||
| 9.27.1 Introduction: What Is a Steep Headwater Channel? | 3827 | ||
| 9.27.2 Morphological Types of Steep Headwater Channels | 3829 | ||
| 9.27.2.1 Alluvial and Nonalluvial Reaches | 3829 | ||
| 9.27.2.2 Channel Morphology | 3830 | ||
| 9.27.3 How Do Steep, Headwater Channels Function? | 3832 | ||
| 9.27.4 The Scale of Headwater Channels | 3835 | ||
| 9.27.4.1 The Magnitude and Frequency of Events | 3835 | ||
| 9.27.4.2 Hydraulic Geometry | 3835 | ||
| 9.27.5 Sediment Flux | 3838 | ||
| 9.27.5.1 Wash Load | 3839 | ||
| 9.27.5.2 Bed Material Transport | 3840 | ||
| 9.27.5.3 Debris Flow | 3843 | ||
| 9.27.6 Wood in Steep Headwater Channels | 3843 | ||
| 9.27.7 Summary: Current Research Directions | 3844 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 3844 | ||
| References | 3844 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3847 | ||
| 9.28 Bedrock Rivers | 3848 | ||
| 9.28.1 Introduction | 3849 | ||
| 9.28.1.1 Definition and Occurrence | 3849 | ||
| 9.28.1.2 Importance of Bedrock Rivers | 3849 | ||
| 9.28.1.3 Relation to Other Chapters in Volume 9 | 3850 | ||
| 9.28.2 Flow Hydraulics and Channel Morphology | 3850 | ||
| 9.28.2.1 Overview of Flow Hydraulics | 3850 | ||
| 9.28.2.2 Controls on the Width of Bedrock Rivers | 3851 | ||
| 9.28.3 Erosion Processes and Bedforms | 3853 | ||
| 9.28.3.1 Abrasion | 3853 | ||
| 9.28.3.2 Plucking | 3854 | ||
| 9.28.3.3 Cavitation and Corrosion | 3854 | ||
| 9.28.3.4 Debris Flow Scour | 3855 | ||
| 9.28.3.5 Process Interactions | 3855 | ||
| 9.28.3.6 Models of River Incision into Bedrock | 3855 | ||
| 9.28.3.6.1 Essentials | 3855 | ||
| 9.28.3.6.2 Bed cover and tools | 3856 | ||
| 9.28.3.6.3 Erosion thresholds and flood frequency | 3856 | ||
| 9.28.4 River Profiles and Landscape Relief | 3856 | ||
| 9.28.4.1 Longitudinal River Profiles - Steady-State Forms | 3858 | ||
| 9.28.4.1.1 Controls on channel concavity | 3858 | ||
| 9.28.4.1.2 Controls on channel steepness | 3859 | ||
| 9.28.4.2 Implications for Landscape Relief at Steady State | 3859 | ||
| 9.28.4.2.1 Scales of relief and relation to channel steepness | 3859 | ||
| 9.28.4.2.2 Channel steepness, local relief, and erosion rate | 3861 | ||
| 9.28.4.3 Longitudinal River Profiles - Transient Evolution | 3862 | ||
| 9.28.4.3.1 Transient river profile evolution by knickpoint retreat | 3863 | ||
| 9.28.4.3.2 Knickpoints in steady landscapes | 3865 | ||
| 9.28.5 Tectonic Interpretation of River Profiles | 3865 | ||
| 9.28.6 Concluding Remarks | 3867 | ||
| References | 3868 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3871 | ||
| 9.29 Incised Channels | 3872 | ||
| 9.92.1 Introduction | 3872 | ||
| 9.29.2 Temporal and Spatial Trends of Incision | 3873 | ||
| 9.29.3 Channelization | 3875 | ||
| 9.29.4 Channelization Programs in the Mid-Continent, USA | 3877 | ||
| 9.29.4.1 Effects of Channelization in the Mid-Continent, USA: Excess Flow Energy | 3878 | ||
| 9.29.4.2 Responses: Channel Evolution in the Mid-Continent, USA | 3878 | ||
| 9.29.5 Case Studies: Incision by Channelization and Reduced Sediment Supply | 3881 | ||
| 9.29.5.1 West Tarkio Creek, Iowa and Missouri, USA | 3881 | ||
| 9.29.5.2 Regional Summary: Mid-Continent, USA | 3881 | ||
| 9.29.5.3 Case study: Arno River, Central Italy | 3882 | ||
| 9.29.6 Stream Power, Flow Energy, and Channel Adjustment | 3884 | ||
| 9.29.6.1 A Naturally Occurring Upstream Disturbance in an Alpine Environment | 3886 | ||
| 9.29.6.2 Comparison with a Channelized System in a Coastal Plain Environment | 3887 | ||
| 9.29.7 Simulation of the Effect of Bank Materials on Channel Incision | 3888 | ||
| 9.29.8 Discussion and Conclusions | 3889 | ||
| References | 3890 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3892 | ||
| 9.30 Streams of the Montane Humid Tropics | 3893 | ||
| 9.30.1 Introduction | 3893 | ||
| 9.30.1.1 Historic Perspective | 3894 | ||
| 9.30.1.2 Environmental Settings of TMSs | 3894 | ||
| 9.30.1.3 Tectonic Settings | 3895 | ||
| 9.30.1.4 Modern Climate | 3895 | ||
| 9.30.1.5 Paleoclimate | 3896 | ||
| 9.30.1.6 Vegetation of Tropical Montane Watersheds | 3897 | ||
| 9.30.2 Hydrology and Aquatic Ecology of TMSs | 3897 | ||
| 9.30.2.1 Runoff Generation in TMSs | 3897 | ||
| 9.30.2.2 Floods and Storm Flows | 3898 | ||
| 9.30.2.3 Aquatic Ecology of Tropical Rivers | 3898 | ||
| 9.30.3 Water Quality and Denudation | 3899 | ||
| 9.30.3.1 Water Quality | 3899 | ||
| 9.30.3.2 Denudation | 3899 | ||
| 9.30.4 Channel Morphology of TMSs | 3900 | ||
| 9.30.4.1 Drainage Networks of TMSs | 3900 | ||
| 9.30.4.2 Longitudinal Profiles and Hydraulic Geometry | 3900 | ||
| 9.30.4.3 Channel Features | 3900 | ||
| 9.30.4.4 Floodplains and Riparian Zones | 3901 | ||
| 9.30.4.5 Role of Instream Wood | 3902 | ||
| 9.30.5 Response to Anthropogenic Disturbances | 3903 | ||
| 9.30.5.1 Land-Use Change | 3903 | ||
| 9.30.5.2 Dams and Water Diversions | 3903 | ||
| 9.30.5.3 Climate Change | 3903 | ||
| 9.30.6 Conclusions | 3903 | ||
| References | 3904 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3909 | ||
| 9.31 Dryland Fluvial Environments: Assessing Distinctiveness and Diversity from a Global Perspective | 3910 | ||
| 9.31.1 Introduction | 3911 | ||
| 9.31.2 Growth of the Idea of a Distinct Fluvial Geomorphology of Drylands | 3911 | ||
| 9.31.3 Recognition of Greater Diversity in the Fluvial Geomorphology of Drylands | 3912 | ||
| 9.31.4 Dryland River Characteristics | 3913 | ||
| 9.31.4.1 Dryland River Hydrology | 3914 | ||
| 9.31.4.1.1 Flood properties | 3914 | ||
| 9.31.4.1.2 Flow hydraulics | 3915 | ||
| 9.31.4.1.3 Temporal flow variability | 3917 | ||
| 9.31.4.1.4 Spatial flow variability | 3918 | ||
| 9.31.4.2 Sediment Transport and Yield | 3918 | ||
| 9.31.4.2.1 Coarse bedload sediment transport | 3919 | ||
| 9.31.4.2.2 Suspended sediment transport | 3920 | ||
| 9.31.4.2.3 Pedogenic mud aggregate transport | 3920 | ||
| 9.31.4.2.4 Dissolved sediment and particulate organic transport | 3921 | ||
| 9.31.4.2.5 Total sediment yield | 3921 | ||
| 9.31.4.3 River Form and Change | 3922 | ||
| 9.31.4.3.1 River styles | 3922 | ||
| 9.31.4.3.2 Temporal aspects of river channel change | 3922 | ||
| 9.31.4.3.3 Spatial aspects of river channel change | 3924 | ||
| 9.31.4.4 Dryland River Sedimentology | 3925 | ||
| 9.31.4.4.1 Channel-bed sediments | 3925 | ||
| 9.31.4.4.2 Floodplain sediments | 3925 | ||
| 9.31.4.5 Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Dryland River Behavior | 3926 | ||
| 9.31.5 Toward a Global Perspective on Dryland Rivers | 3926 | ||
| 9.31.6 Recent Trends in Dryland Fluvial Research and Future Research Directions | 3928 | ||
| 9.31.6.1 Modern Dryland River Characteristics | 3928 | ||
| 9.31.6.2 Dryland River Behavior over Longer (Cenozoic) Timescales | 3928 | ||
| 9.31.6.3 Integrating Results from Short-Term and Longer-Term Studies of River Behavior | 3929 | ||
| 9.31.6.4 Where Is the Current Research Frontier? | 3930 | ||
| 9.31.7 Conclusion | 3932 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 3932 | ||
| References | 3932 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3942 | ||
| 9.32 Large River Floodplains | 3943 | ||
| 9.32.1 Definition and Scale | 3943 | ||
| 9.32.2 Conditions for Creation of a Large River Floodplain | 3944 | ||
| 9.32.3 Distinctive Characteristics of Large Rivers and Floodplains | 3946 | ||
| 9.32.4 Sedimentation Processes and Forms of Large Floodplains | 3947 | ||
| 9.32.5 Floodplain Construction by Single-Thread Sinuous Rivers | 3949 | ||
| 9.32.5.1 Bar Accretion and Bank Erosion of Floodplains | 3949 | ||
| 9.32.5.2 Floodplain Construction from Overbank Sedimentation | 3951 | ||
| 9.32.5.3 Sedimentation in the Distal Floodplain | 3956 | ||
| 9.32.5.4 Consequences of Single-Thread Channel Mobility for Floodplain Construction | 3957 | ||
| 9.32.6 Floodplain Construction by Single-Thread Braided Rivers | 3963 | ||
| 9.32.7 Floodplain Construction by Anabranching Rivers | 3968 | ||
| 9.32.8 Summary | 3973 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 3973 | ||
| References | 3973 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3975 | ||
| 9.33 Field and Laboratory Experiments in Fluvial Geomorphology | 3977 | ||
| 9.33.1 Background | 3978 | ||
| 9.33.2 Introduction to Field Experiments | 3978 | ||
| 9.33.2.1 Experiments at the Channel-Unit Scale | 3979 | ||
| 9.33.2.2 Experiments at the Channel-Reach Scale | 3979 | ||
| 9.33.2.3 Experiments at the Basin Scale | 3979 | ||
| 9.33.2.3.1 Kissimmee River and Everglades | 3980 | ||
| 9.33.2.3.2 Colorado River in Grand Canyon | 3980 | ||
| 9.33.2.4 Trends and Future Possibilities in Field Experiments | 3980 | ||
| 9.33.3 Introduction to Flume Experiments | 3981 | ||
| 9.33.3.1 Interactions between the Flow and the Channel Boundaries | 3982 | ||
| 9.33.3.2 Sediment Dynamics | 3982 | ||
| 9.33.3.2.1 Entrainment | 3982 | ||
| 9.33.3.2.2 Transport | 3983 | ||
| 9.33.3.2.3 Deposition | 3983 | ||
| 9.33.3.3 Bedforms | 3983 | ||
| 9.33.3.4 Instream Wood | 3984 | ||
| 9.33.3.5 Channel Processes and Biota | 3984 | ||
| 9.33.3.6 Channel Patterns | 3984 | ||
| 9.33.3.7 Erosion of Cohesive Channels: Knickpoints, Canyons, and Terraces | 3984 | ||
| 9.33.3.8 Depositional Landforms | 3985 | ||
| 9.33.3.9 Drainage Networks | 3985 | ||
| 9.33.3.10 Trends and Future Directions in Flume Experiments | 3985 | ||
| References | 3985 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 3991 | ||
| 9.34 Numerical Modeling in Fluvial Geomorphology | 3992 | ||
| 9.34.1 Introduction | 3992 | ||
| 9.34.1.1 Why Model? | 3992 | ||
| 9.34.1.2 What Is a Model? | 3993 | ||
| 9.34.1.3 Types of Model | 3993 | ||
| 9.34.2 Examples of Models | 3994 | ||
| 9.34.2.1 Small-Scale Models | 3994 | ||
| 9.34.2.1.1 Discrete particle models | 3994 | ||
| 9.34.2.1.2 Hydraulic geometry models | 3995 | ||
| 9.34.2.2 Reach-Scale Models | 3995 | ||
| 9.34.2.2.1 1D flow models and integration of sediment transport | 3995 | ||
| 9.34.2.2.2 CFD models | 3995 | ||
| 9.34.2.2.3 Meandering planform models | 3996 | ||
| 9.34.2.2.4 Alluvial architecture models | 3997 | ||
| 9.34.2.2.5 Reach-based cellular models | 3998 | ||
| 9.34.2.3 Catchment Scale Models | 3999 | ||
| 9.34.3 Issues and Future Prospects | 4001 | ||
| 9.34.3.1 Calibration and Validation | 4001 | ||
| 9.34.3.2 Data/Boundary Conditions | 4001 | ||
| 9.34.3.3 Nonlinearity | 4003 | ||
| 9.34.3.4 Uncertainty | 4003 | ||
| 9.34.4 Conclusions | 4004 | ||
| References | 4005 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4008 | ||
| 9.35 Remote Data in Fluvial Geomorphology: Characteristics and Applications | 4009 | ||
| 9.35.1 Introduction | 4009 | ||
| 9.35.2 Types and Brief History of Remote Data | 4010 | ||
| 9.35.2.1 Aerial Photographs | 4010 | ||
| 9.35.2.2 Satellite Images | 4010 | ||
| 9.35.2.3 Airborne Digital Images | 4012 | ||
| 9.35.2.4 Topographic Data and 3D Models | 4013 | ||
| 9.35.2.4.1 Topographic data from photogrammetry | 4013 | ||
| 9.35.2.4.2 Topographic data from airborne LiDAR | 4013 | ||
| 9.35.2.4.3 Topographic data from satellite InSAR | 4015 | ||
| 9.35.2.4.4 Topographic and 3D data from modern surveying and scanning | 4015 | ||
| 9.35.3 Recent Applications of Remote Data in Fluvial Geomorphology | 4015 | ||
| 9.35.3.1 Aerial Photographs | 4015 | ||
| 9.35.3.2 Airborne Digital Images | 4016 | ||
| 9.35.3.3 Satellite Images | 4017 | ||
| 9.35.3.4 Topographic Data from Photogrammetry | 4017 | ||
| 9.35.3.5 Topographic Data from Airborne LiDAR and Satellite InSAR | 4017 | ||
| 9.35.3.6 Topographic and 3D Data from Modern Terrestrial Surveying and Scanning | 4020 | ||
| 9.35.4 Problems and Future Perspectives | 4020 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 4022 | ||
| References | 4022 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4027 | ||
| 9.36 Geomorphic Classification of Rivers | 4028 | ||
| 9.36.1 Introduction | 4028 | ||
| 9.36.2 Purpose of Classification | 4028 | ||
| 9.36.3 Types of Channel Classification | 4029 | ||
| 9.36.3.1 Stream Order | 4029 | ||
| 9.36.3.2 Process Domains | 4030 | ||
| 9.36.3.3 Channel Pattern | 4030 | ||
| 9.36.3.4 Channel-Floodplain Interactions | 4033 | ||
| 9.36.3.5 Bed Material and Mobility | 4035 | ||
| 9.36.3.6 Channel Units | 4037 | ||
| 9.36.3.7 Hierarchical Classifications | 4037 | ||
| 9.36.3.8 Statistical Classifications | 4043 | ||
| 9.36.4 Use and Compatibility of Channel Classifications | 4043 | ||
| 9.36.5 The Rise and Fall of Classifications: Why Are Some Channel Classifications More Used Than Others? | 4045 | ||
| 9.36.6 Future Needs and Directions | 4051 | ||
| 9.36.6.1 Standardization and Sample Size | 4051 | ||
| 9.36.6.2 Remote Sensing | 4052 | ||
| 9.36.7 Conclusion | 4053 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 4054 | ||
| References | 4054 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4065 | ||
| 9.37 Impacts of Land-Use and Land-Cover Change on River Systems | 4066 | ||
| 9.37.1 Introduction | 4066 | ||
| 9.37.2 Landscape Sensitivity and Scale | 4067 | ||
| 9.37.2.1 Landscape Sensitivity | 4068 | ||
| 9.37.2.2 Scales of Space and Time | 4068 | ||
| 9.37.3 Hydrogeomorphic Changes Caused by Land Use | 4069 | ||
| 9.37.3.1 Changes to Flood Regimes | 4069 | ||
| 9.37.3.2 Soil Erosion | 4070 | ||
| 9.37.3.3 Sediment Yields and Delivery Ratios | 4071 | ||
| 9.37.3.4 Impacts of Urbanization | 4073 | ||
| 9.37.3.5 Impacts of Climate Change | 4074 | ||
| 9.37.3.6 Impacts of Water Transfers and Allocations | 4075 | ||
| 9.37.4 Impacts on Fluvial Systems | 4076 | ||
| 9.37.4.1 Rills, Gullies, Headwater Streams, and Longitudinal Connectivity | 4076 | ||
| 9.37.4.2 Morphologic Changes due to Changing Flood Magnitudes and Sediment Production | 4077 | ||
| 9.37.4.3 Episodic Erosion and Sedimentation | 4079 | ||
| 9.37.4.3.1 Time, episodicity, and neocatastrophism | 4079 | ||
| 9.37.4.3.2 Aggradation, degradation, bed waves, and sediment waves | 4079 | ||
| 9.37.4.3.3 Legacy sediment | 4079 | ||
| 9.37.4.4 Contamination from Mining and Industrial Pollutants | 4080 | ||
| 9.37.5 Historical Perspective: Episodic Land-Use Change and Sediment Production | 4081 | ||
| 9.37.5.1 The Development and Spread of Agriculture | 4082 | ||
| 9.37.5.2 Pre-Columbian Land Use, Erosion, and Sedimentation in the Americas | 4083 | ||
| 9.37.5.3 Introduction of Intensive Agriculture to the Colonies | 4084 | ||
| 9.37.6 Conclusion | 4085 | ||
| References | 4086 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4091 | ||
| 9.38 Flow Regulation by Dams | 4092 | ||
| 9.38.1 Introduction | 4092 | ||
| 9.38.2 Hydrologic Impacts of Flow Regulation | 4093 | ||
| 9.38.2.1 Developing Appropriate Metrics of Hydrologic Change | 4093 | ||
| 9.38.3 Geomorphic Impacts of Flow Regulation | 4095 | ||
| 9.38.3.1 Changes to Channel Properties Following Flow Regulation | 4095 | ||
| 9.38.3.2 Linking Sediment Regime to Geomorphic Adjustments | 4097 | ||
| 9.38.3.3 Longitudinal Trends of Flow Regulation | 4100 | ||
| 9.38.3.4 Impacts of Reservoir Storage to Global Sediment and Geochemical Budgets | 4100 | ||
| 9.38.4 Contribution of Dam Studies to Geomorphic and Ecological Theory | 4101 | ||
| 9.38.5 Conclusions | 4102 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 4103 | ||
| References | 4103 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4106 | ||
| 9.39 Urbanization and River Channels | 4107 | ||
| 9.39.1 Introduction | 4107 | ||
| 9.39.2 Approaches to Investigating Urbanization in River Systems | 4108 | ||
| 9.39.3 Nature of Urbanization | 4110 | ||
| 9.39.3.1 Changing Surface Cover | 4110 | ||
| 9.39.3.2 Changes in Hydrologic Processes | 4111 | ||
| 9.39.3.3 Alterations in Sediment and Water Quality Regimes | 4112 | ||
| 9.39.3.4 Regulations, Policies, and Practices | 4112 | ||
| 9.39.4 Effects on the Fluvial System | 4113 | ||
| 9.39.4.1 Direct Effects | 4113 | ||
| 9.39.4.2 Adjustments and Morphological Responses | 4113 | ||
| 9.39.4.3 Changes in Ecology and Aquatic and Riparian Habitats | 4116 | ||
| 9.39.5 Implications, Opportunities, and Challenges for Management | 4117 | ||
| 9.39.5.1 Urban Hazards | 4117 | ||
| 9.39.5.2 Predicting Urban Effects | 4118 | ||
| 9.39.5.3 Tools for Management and Restoration | 4118 | ||
| 9.39.5.4 The Urban Stream Syndrome | 4120 | ||
| 9.39.6 Conclusion and Prospect | 4120 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 4120 | ||
| References | 4120 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4124 | ||
| 9.40 Impacts of Humans on River Fluxes and Morphology | 4126 | ||
| 9.40.1 Introduction | 4126 | ||
| 9.40.2 Human-Induced Drivers of Changing Rivers | 4127 | ||
| 9.40.2.1 Land Use | 4127 | ||
| 9.40.2.2 Urbanization | 4129 | ||
| 9.40.2.3 Dams and Reservoirs | 4129 | ||
| 9.40.2.4 Levee Construction | 4132 | ||
| 9.40.2.5 Channel Straightening | 4133 | ||
| 9.40.2.6 Climate Change | 4134 | ||
| 9.40.3 Human Impacts and Integrated Management Responses | 4135 | ||
| References | 4137 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4139 | ||
| 9.41 Geomorphologist’s Guide to Participating in River Rehabilitation | 4141 | ||
| 9.41.1 Introduction | 4141 | ||
| 9.41.2 Background | 4142 | ||
| 9.41.3 Context of River Rehabilitation | 4144 | ||
| 9.41.4 Dilemmas in Rehabilitation | 4146 | ||
| 9.41.4.1 Complexity, Universality, Comprehensivity | 4147 | ||
| 9.41.4.2 Process-Based Rehabilitation | 4149 | ||
| 9.41.4.3 Learning Lessons, Choosing Winners | 4153 | ||
| 9.41.5 Standard Rehabilitation Practice? | 4154 | ||
| 9.41.6 Final Thoughts | 4155 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 4155 | ||
| References | 4155 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4158 | ||
| e9780123747396v10 | 4159 | ||
| Front Cover | 4159 | ||
| TREATISE ON GEOMORPHOLOGY | 4162 | ||
| CONTENTS | 4164 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 4166 | ||
| VOLUME EDITOR | 4168 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 10 | 4170 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 4172 | ||
| PREFACE | 4186 | ||
| FOREWORD | 4188 | ||
| 10.1 Perspectives on Coastal Geomorphology: Introduction | 4190 | ||
| 10.1.1 Introduction | 4190 | ||
| 10.1.2 Nearshore Processes | 4191 | ||
| 10.1.3 Morphodynamic Systems | 4191 | ||
| 10.1.4 Coastal Environments | 4192 | ||
| References | 4193 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4193 | ||
| 10.2 The Four Traditions of Coastal Geomorphology | 4194 | ||
| 10.2.1 Introduction | 4196 | ||
| 10.2.2 Concepts from the Distant Past | 4196 | ||
| 10.2.3 Questions of Time and Space | 4199 | ||
| 10.2.3.1 The Time Factor | 4199 | ||
| 10.2.3.2 The Space Factor: Mapping Coasts and Plumbing Seas | 4200 | ||
| 10.2.4 The Earth-Science Perspective - The Landlubbers | 4201 | ||
| 10.2.4.1 Renaissance, Scientific Revolution, and Enlightenment, 1500-1800 | 4201 | ||
| 10.2.4.2 Coastal Form and Process Refined, 1800-1950 | 4203 | ||
| 10.2.5 The Mathematical Theorists | 4207 | ||
| 10.2.5.1 Foundations of Tide Theory before 1850 | 4208 | ||
| 10.2.5.2 Refinements of Tide Theory after 1850 | 4208 | ||
| 10.2.5.3 Foundations of Water-Wave Theory before 1850 | 4208 | ||
| 10.2.5.4 Refinement of Water-Wave Theory after 1850 | 4209 | ||
| 10.2.5.5 Theories on Ocean and Nearshore Currents, 1850-1950 | 4210 | ||
| 10.2.6 The Ocean Science Perspective - The Seafarers | 4210 | ||
| 10.2.6.1 Renaissance, Exploration, and Scientific Revolution before 1850 | 4210 | ||
| 10.2.6.2 Emergence of Scientific Oceanography, 1850-1950 | 4211 | ||
| 10.2.6.3 Relative Sea-Level Change | 4212 | ||
| 10.2.7 The Coastal Engineering Tradition | 4215 | ||
| 10.2.8 Conclusion: Welding Noble Traditions into Modern Practice | 4219 | ||
| 10.2.8.1 Information Technology | 4219 | ||
| 10.2.8.2 Coastal Tectonics | 4220 | ||
| 10.2.8.3 Relative Sea-Level Change | 4220 | ||
| 10.2.8.4 Coastal Processes | 4221 | ||
| 10.2.8.5 Rates and Predictions of Coastal Change | 4222 | ||
| 10.2.8.6 Coastal Management | 4223 | ||
| References | 4223 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4227 | ||
| 10.3 Waves | 4228 | ||
| 10.3.1 Introduction | 4229 | ||
| 10.3.2 Linear Waves | 4230 | ||
| 10.3.2.1 Nature and Limitations of Linear Wave Theory | 4230 | ||
| 10.3.2.2 Descriptors of Coastal Waves | 4232 | ||
| 10.3.2.2.1 Implications for modeling | 4235 | ||
| 10.3.2.3 Shoaling and Breaking of Linear Waves | 4236 | ||
| 10.3.2.3.1 Wave propagation | 4236 | ||
| 10.3.2.3.2 Wave breaking and surf zone waves | 4237 | ||
| 10.3.2.4 Currently Available Linear Models | 4240 | ||
| 10.3.3 Nonlinear Waves | 4241 | ||
| 10.3.3.1 Introduction | 4241 | ||
| 10.3.3.2 Overview of Theories | 4242 | ||
| 10.3.3.2.1 Stokes waves | 4243 | ||
| 10.3.3.2.2 Boussinesq theories | 4243 | ||
| 10.3.3.2.3 NSWE | 4248 | ||
| 10.3.3.2.4 Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models | 4248 | ||
| 10.3.3.2.5 Parameterization of nonlinear parameters in linear wave models | 4249 | ||
| 10.3.4 Long-Period Waves | 4249 | ||
| 10.3.4.1 Introduction | 4249 | ||
| 10.3.4.2 Nature of Long-Period Waves | 4250 | ||
| 10.3.4.3 Forcing and Suppression of Long-Period Motion | 4252 | ||
| 10.3.4.4 Magnitude and Cross-Shore Pattern of Infragravity Wave Energy | 4255 | ||
| 10.3.4.5 Long-Period Motion and Morphodynamics | 4256 | ||
| 10.3.5 Summary and Conclusions | 4258 | ||
| References | 4258 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4262 | ||
| 10.4 Sediment Transport | 4263 | ||
| 10.4.1 Introduction | 4264 | ||
| 10.4.2 Measuring Nearshore Sediment Transport | 4265 | ||
| 10.4.2.1 Measurement Devices for Suspended Load | 4265 | ||
| 10.4.2.2 Measurement Devices for Bedload | 4267 | ||
| 10.4.2.3 Measurement of Total Sediment Transport | 4267 | ||
| 10.4.3 Sediment Mobilization and Suspension | 4268 | ||
| 10.4.4 Cross-Shore Sediment Transport | 4271 | ||
| 10.4.4.1 Transport Mechanisms | 4271 | ||
| 10.4.4.2 The Cross-Shore Distribution of Suspended Sediment Transport | 4276 | ||
| 10.4.4.3 Cross-Shore Suspended Sediment Transport on Dissipative, Intermediate, and Reflective Beaches | 4277 | ||
| 10.4.4.4 Sediment Transport in 3D Morphological Settings | 4277 | ||
| 10.4.4.5 The Role of Bedload Transport | 4279 | ||
| 10.4.4.6 Numerical Models of Cross-Shore Sediment Transport and Beach Profile Change | 4279 | ||
| 10.4.5 Longshore Sediment Transport | 4280 | ||
| 10.4.6 Swash Zone Sediment Transport | 4282 | ||
| 10.4.7 Concluding Remarks | 4290 | ||
| References | 4290 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4294 | ||
| 10.5 Beach Morphodynamics | 4295 | ||
| 10.5.1 Introduction | 4296 | ||
| 10.5.2 Beach Morphodynamics | 4298 | ||
| 10.5.2.1 Beach Time Series | 4299 | ||
| 10.5.2.2 Empirical Relationships | 4299 | ||
| 10.5.2.3 Beach Experiments | 4299 | ||
| 10.5.2.4 Swash Morphodynamics | 4300 | ||
| 10.5.2.5 Geological Control on Beach Morphodynamics | 4301 | ||
| 10.5.2.6 Morphodynamics and High Magnitude Events | 4302 | ||
| 10.5.2.7 Wave-Beach-Dune Interactions | 4303 | ||
| 10.5.2.8 Engineering Impacts on Morphodynamics | 4303 | ||
| 10.5.2.9 Shoreface Morphodynamics | 4303 | ||
| 10.5.2.10 Beach Monitoring | 4304 | ||
| 10.5.2.11 Modeling | 4305 | ||
| 10.5.2.12 Beach Ecology | 4306 | ||
| 10.5.3 Beach Morphodynamics - Status | 4306 | ||
| 10.5.3.1 Instantaneous | 4306 | ||
| 10.5.3.2 Event | 4307 | ||
| 10.5.3.2.1 Beach experiments | 4307 | ||
| 10.5.3.2.2 Video and remote technology | 4307 | ||
| 10.5.3.2.3 Beach types and states | 4308 | ||
| 10.5.3.3 Large Scale Coastal Behavior (Engineering) | 4309 | ||
| 10.5.3.4 Geological | 4311 | ||
| 10.5.4 Beach Morphodynamics - the Way Forward | 4311 | ||
| 10.5.4.1 Impacts of Climate Change | 4311 | ||
| 10.5.4.2 Sediment Transport | 4311 | ||
| 10.5.4.3 Beach Erosion | 4312 | ||
| 10.5.4.4 Beach Type and Changes in Beach Type | 4312 | ||
| 10.5.4.5 Formation of Rhythmic Features | 4312 | ||
| 10.5.5 Discussion and Conclusion | 4312 | ||
| References | 4313 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4317 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4318 | ||
| 10.6 Nearshore Bars | 4319 | ||
| 10.6.1 Introduction | 4320 | ||
| 10.6.2 Nearshore Bar Morphology | 4322 | ||
| 10.6.3 What Mechanism(s) Related to Waves, Currents, and Sediment Transport in the Nearshore Lead to the Formation of... | 4325 | ||
| 10.6.3.1 Template Models of Bar Formation | 4326 | ||
| 10.6.3.2 Self-Organizational Models of Bar Formation | 4327 | ||
| 10.6.4 How Do Controls Such as Sediment Size, Nearshore Slope, and Wave Climate Determine Whether Nearshore Bars Form on... | 4328 | ||
| 10.6.5 What Are the Mechanisms Related to Waves, Currents, and Sediment Transport That Control Morphological Change in... | 4330 | ||
| 10.6.6 How Do Factors Such as Sediment Size, Nearshore Slope, and Wave Climate Interact with the Short-Term... | 4332 | ||
| 10.6.7 Summary and Conclusions | 4334 | ||
| References | 4334 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4337 | ||
| 10.7 Tidal Inlets and Lagoons along Siliciclastic Barrier Coasts | 4338 | ||
| 10.7.1 Introduction | 4339 | ||
| 10.7.2 What is a Tidal Inlet? | 4339 | ||
| 10.7.3 Inlet Morphology | 4339 | ||
| 10.7.3.1 Tidal Deltas | 4339 | ||
| 10.7.3.1.1 Flood-tidal delta | 4340 | ||
| 10.7.3.1.2 Ebb-tidal delta | 4341 | ||
| 10.7.3.2 Ebb-Tidal Delta Morphology | 4341 | ||
| 10.7.4 Tidal Inlet Formation | 4341 | ||
| 10.7.4.1 Breaching of a Barrier | 4342 | ||
| 10.7.4.2 Spit Building Across a Bay | 4342 | ||
| 10.7.4.3 Drowned River Valleys | 4342 | ||
| 10.7.4.4 Lateral Inlet Migration | 4342 | ||
| 10.7.4.5 Landward Inlet Migration | 4342 | ||
| 10.7.5 Tidal Inlet Relationships | 4343 | ||
| 10.7.5.1 Inlet Throat Area - Tidal Prism Relationship | 4343 | ||
| 10.7.5.1.1 Variability | 4343 | ||
| 10.7.5.2 Ebb-Tidal Delta Volume - Tidal Prism Relationship | 4344 | ||
| 10.7.5.2.1 Variability | 4344 | ||
| 10.7.6 Sand Transport Patterns | 4344 | ||
| 10.7.6.1 General Trends of Sand Dispersal | 4344 | ||
| 10.7.6.2 Inlet Sediment Bypassing | 4344 | ||
| 10.7.6.2.1 Stable inlet processes | 4344 | ||
| 10.7.6.2.2 Ebb-tidal delta breaching | 4345 | ||
| 10.7.6.2.3 Inlet migration and spit breaching | 4346 | ||
| 10.7.6.2.4 Bar complexes | 4346 | ||
| 10.7.7 Tidal Inlet Effects on Adjacent Shorelines | 4346 | ||
| 10.7.7.1 Number and Size of Tidal Inlets | 4346 | ||
| 10.7.7.2 Tidal Inlets as Sediment Sinks | 4346 | ||
| 10.7.7.3 Changes in Ebb-Tidal Delta Volume | 4347 | ||
| 10.7.7.4 Wave Sheltering | 4347 | ||
| 10.7.7.5 Effects of Inlet Sediment Bypassing | 4347 | ||
| 10.7.7.5.1 Drumstick barrier model | 4347 | ||
| 10.7.7.6 Human Influences | 4348 | ||
| 10.7.8 Coastal Lagoons | 4348 | ||
| 10.7.8.1 Lagoons as Equilibrium Landforms | 4349 | ||
| 10.7.8.2 Expanding and Shrinking Lagoons | 4350 | ||
| 10.7.8.2.1 Expanding lagoons | 4350 | ||
| 10.7.8.2.2 Shrinking lagoons | 4350 | ||
| 10.7.8.3 Lagoon hydrodynamics | 4350 | ||
| 10.7.9 Lagoon Inlet Response to Sea-Level Rise | 4352 | ||
| 10.7.10 Conclusions | 4352 | ||
| References | 4352 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4354 | ||
| 10.8 Morphodynamics of Barrier Systems: A Synthesis | 4355 | ||
| 10.8.1 Introduction | 4363 | ||
| 10.8.2 Trailing-Edge Coasts | 4366 | ||
| 10.8.2.1 Barrier Systems along the New England Coast, United States (Paraglacial) | 4366 | ||
| 10.8.2.1.1 Geologic setting | 4366 | ||
| 10.8.2.1.2 New classification of paraglacial barriers: the New England prototype | 4367 | ||
| 10.8.2.1.3 Recent advances and future directions | 4368 | ||
| 10.12.2.2 Barrier Systems along Mid-Atlantic Bight, United States: Cape Charles, Virginia to Montauk Point, New York | 4369 | ||
| 10.8.2.2.1 Geologic setting | 4369 | ||
| 10.8.2.2.2 Coastal geomorphology and processes | 4370 | ||
| 10.8.2.2.2.1 Primary geomorphic units of the Mid-Atlantic Bight coast | 4370 | ||
| 10.8.2.2.2.2 Classic studies of barrier systems of Mid-Atlantic Bight | 4372 | ||
| 10.8.2.2.5 Quantitative overview of wave energy, tides, currents, weather, storms, and predominant wind directions | 4372 | ||
| 10.8.2.2.6 Synthesis of regional morphodynamics, shoreline change, and barrier-system evolution | 4373 | ||
| 10.8.2.2.7 Current and future research, developments, and issues for Mid-Atlantic Bight | 4374 | ||
| 10.8.2.3 Geologic Framework of North Carolina’s Barrier Island Systems, United States | 4375 | ||
| 10.8.2.3.1 Geologic setting | 4375 | ||
| 10.8.2.3.2 Types of North Carolina barrier systems | 4377 | ||
| 10.8.2.3.3 Human modification and natural process on the barrier systems | 4378 | ||
| 10.8.2.3.4 Future research directions | 4378 | ||
| 10.8.2.4 Barrier Systems along the Georgia Bight, United States: Cape Fear, North Carolina to Cape Canaveral, Florida | 4378 | ||
| 10.8.2.4.1 Geologic setting | 4379 | ||
| 10.8.2.4.2 Coastal geomorphology, processes, and dynamics | 4379 | ||
| 10.8.2.4.2.1 Primary geomorphic zones | 4379 | ||
| 10.8.2.4.2.2 Classic studies | 4380 | ||
| 10.8.2.4.2.3 Physical processes | 4380 | ||
| 10.8.2.4.2.4 Regional morphodynamics, shoreline change, and barrier-system evolution | 4381 | ||
| 10.8.2.4.3 Research, developments, and issues | 4381 | ||
| 10.8.2.5 Barrier Systems along the Florida Atlantic Coast, United States | 4381 | ||
| 10.8.2.5.1 Geologic setting | 4381 | ||
| 10.8.2.5.2 Barrier-island morphodynamics | 4382 | ||
| 10.8.2.5.3 Future research | 4384 | ||
| 10.8.2.6 Barrier Systems of the Santa Catarina Coast, Southeastern Brazil | 4384 | ||
| 10.8.2.6.1 Geologic setting | 4384 | ||
| 10.8.2.6.2 Coastal geomorphology and processes | 4387 | ||
| 10.8.2.6.2.1 Coastal setting | 4387 | ||
| 10.8.2.6.2.2 Geomorphic units | 4388 | ||
| 10.12.2.6.3 Research along the Santa Catarina coast | 4388 | ||
| 10.8.2.6.4 Future research directions | 4388 | ||
| 10.8.2.7 Barrier Systems along the Wadden Sea: European North Sea Coast (German Bight) | 4390 | ||
| 10.8.2.7.1 Geologic setting | 4390 | ||
| 10.8.2.7.2 Coastal geomorphology and processes | 4391 | ||
| 10.8.2.7.3 Significant current research developments | 4392 | ||
| 10.8.2.7.4 Future research directions | 4392 | ||
| 10.8.2.8 Australian Barrier Systems | 4393 | ||
| 10.8.2.8.1 Geologic setting | 4393 | ||
| 10.8.2.8.2 Coastal geomorphology and processes | 4394 | ||
| 10.8.2.8.3 Barrier research | 4394 | ||
| 10.8.2.8.4 Future directions for research | 4396 | ||
| 10.8.3 Marginal Sea Coasts | 4396 | ||
| 10.8.3.1 Morphodynamics of Barrier Systems along the Gulf of Mexico Coast of Florida, United States: Sanibel Island to... | 4396 | ||
| 10.8.3.1.1 Geologic setting | 4396 | ||
| 10.8.3.1.2 Barrier-island morphodynamics | 4398 | ||
| 10.8.3.1.3 Future research | 4400 | ||
| 10.8.3.2 Barrier Systems along the North-Central Gulf of Mexico Coast, United States: Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana | 4400 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.1 Geologic setting | 4402 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2 Coastal geomorphology and processes | 4403 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.1 Louisiana barrier systems | 4403 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.1.1 Isles Dernieres | 4403 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.1.2 Bayou Lafourche | 4404 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.1.3 Plaquemines | 4404 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.1.4 Chandeleur Islands | 4404 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.2 Inner-shelf shoals: submerged barrier systems | 4405 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.3 Mississippi barrier systems | 4405 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.3.1 Cat Island | 4405 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.3.2 Ship Island | 4406 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.3.3 Horn Island | 4406 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.3.4 Petit Bois Island | 4406 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.2.4 Alabama barrier systems | 4406 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.3 Significant current research, developments, and issues | 4406 | ||
| 10.8.3.2.4 Future research directions | 4406 | ||
| 10.8.3.3 Barrier Systems along Northwest Gulf of Mexico Coast, United States: Texas | 4406 | ||
| 10.8.3.3.1 Geologic setting | 4406 | ||
| 10.8.3.3.2 Coastal geomorphology and processes | 4407 | ||
| 10.8.3.3.2.1 Geographic zones | 4407 | ||
| 10.8.3.3.2.2 Classic studies | 4407 | ||
| 10.8.3.3.2.3 Coastal processes | 4407 | ||
| 10.8.3.3.2.4 Regional morphodynamics, shoreline change, and barrier-island evolution | 4407 | ||
| 10.8.3.3.3 Current research | 4407 | ||
| 10.8.3.3.4 Future work | 4409 | ||
| 10.8.4 Collision Coasts | 4409 | ||
| 10.8.4.1 Barrier Systems along the Gulf of Alaska, Pacific Ocean | 4410 | ||
| 10.8.4.1.1 Geologic setting | 4410 | ||
| 10.8.4.1.2 Coastal geomorphology and barriers | 4411 | ||
| 10.8.4.1.3 Significant current research and future developments | 4413 | ||
| 10.8.4.2 New Zealand Barrier Systems | 4413 | ||
| 10.8.4.2.1 Geologic setting | 4414 | ||
| 10.8.4.2.2 Coastal geomorphology and processes | 4414 | ||
| 10.8.4.2.3 Significant current research | 4414 | ||
| 10.8.4.2.4 Future research | 4414 | ||
| 10.8.5 Migration and Morphodynamics of Barrier Systems: Primary Factors | 4414 | ||
| 10.8.6 Future Research Directions and Suggestions | 4416 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 4417 | ||
| References | 4417 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4429 | ||
| 10.9 Coastal Gravel Systems | 4434 | ||
| 10.9.1 Introduction | 4435 | ||
| 10.9.2 Difficulties in Undertaking Gravel-Beach Morphodynamic Analysis | 4436 | ||
| 10.9.3 Scale Differentiation of Coastal Gravel Systems | 4438 | ||
| 10.9.4 Short-Term Controls: Beachface Processes and Responses | 4438 | ||
| 10.9.4.1 General Gravel-Beachface Hydrodynamics | 4438 | ||
| 10.9.4.2 Morphology of Gravel Beachfaces | 4439 | ||
| 10.9.4.3 The Step | 4440 | ||
| 10.9.4.4 The Berm and Cusps | 4441 | ||
| 10.9.5 Morpho-Sedimentary Approaches to Gravel-Beach Morphodynamic Domains | 4442 | ||
| 10.9.6 Tidal Modulation | 4444 | ||
| 10.9.7 Gravel-Beach Profile Variation | 4444 | ||
| 10.9.8 Extreme Events, Barrier Overtopping, and Overwashing: Bridging Short- to Long-Term Morphodynamic Processes | 4445 | ||
| 10.9.9 Barrier Resilience and the Morphodynamic Perspective | 4448 | ||
| 10.9.10 Morphodynamics and Long-Term Gravel Barrier Development | 4450 | ||
| 10.9.11 Morphodynamic Implications of Human Intervention on Gravel Systems | 4451 | ||
| 10.9.12 Conclusions | 4452 | ||
| References | 4453 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4455 | ||
| 10.10 Beach and Dune Interaction | 4456 | ||
| 10.10.1 Introduction | 4456 | ||
| 10.10.2 Process-Scale Aeolian Transport from Beach to Dune | 4457 | ||
| 10.10.2.1 Boundary Layers, Sediment Entrainment, and Transport | 4457 | ||
| 10.10.2.2 Transport Models | 4457 | ||
| 10.10.2.3 Surface Moisture and Crusts | 4458 | ||
| 10.10.2.4 Topographic Variability and Vegetation | 4459 | ||
| 10.10.2.5 Fetch | 4461 | ||
| 10.10.3 Beach-Dune Interaction at Tidal and Storm-Scales | 4461 | ||
| 10.10.3.1 Transport Potential and Sediment Supply | 4461 | ||
| 10.10.3.2 Beach and Backshore Accretion | 4463 | ||
| 10.10.3.3 Backshore Erosion and Dune Scarping | 4465 | ||
| 10.10.3.4 Wrack and Lag | 4466 | ||
| 10.10.4 Beach-Dune Interaction over the Holocene | 4466 | ||
| 10.10.5 Beach-Dune Interaction Models | 4468 | ||
| 10.10.6 Conclusions | 4471 | ||
| References | 4471 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4477 | ||
| 10.11 Rock Coasts | 4478 | ||
| 10.11.1 Introduction | 4478 | ||
| 10.11.2 Processes | 4479 | ||
| 10.11.2.1 Sea Level | 4480 | ||
| 10.11.2.2 The Role of Tides | 4480 | ||
| 10.11.2.3 Waves | 4480 | ||
| 10.11.2.3.1 Wave quarrying | 4480 | ||
| 10.11.2.3.2 Abrasion | 4481 | ||
| 10.11.2.4 Weathering | 4481 | ||
| 10.11.2.4.1 Salt weathering | 4482 | ||
| 10.11.2.4.2 Wetting and drying | 4482 | ||
| 10.11.2.5 Biology | 4482 | ||
| 10.11.2.6 Mass Movement | 4483 | ||
| 10.11.3 Rocky Coast Landforms | 4484 | ||
| 10.11.3.1 Relict, Composite, and Plunging Sea-Cliffs | 4485 | ||
| 10.11.3.2 Shore Platforms | 4486 | ||
| 10.11.3.2.1 Near-horizontal platforms | 4487 | ||
| 10.11.3.2.2 Sloping platforms | 4488 | ||
| 10.11.3.3 Inheritance | 4489 | ||
| 10.11.4 Rock Coast Modeling | 4489 | ||
| 10.11.4.1 Coastal Profiles | 4489 | ||
| 10.11.4.2 Plan Shape | 4491 | ||
| 10.11.5 Conclusions | 4492 | ||
| References | 4492 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4496 | ||
| 10.12 Estuaries | 4497 | ||
| 10.12.1 Introduction | 4497 | ||
| 10.12.2 Definition and Distribution | 4498 | ||
| 10.12.2.1 Characteristics and Dimensions | 4499 | ||
| 10.12.3 Classification of Estuaries | 4500 | ||
| 10.12.3.1 Geomorphic Classification | 4500 | ||
| 10.12.4 Estuarine Morphodynamics: Physical Factors | 4501 | ||
| 10.12.4.1 Sea Level | 4501 | ||
| 10.12.4.2 Tides | 4502 | ||
| 10.12.4.3 Waves | 4503 | ||
| 10.12.4.4 River Discharge | 4503 | ||
| 10.12.5 Morphodynamics and Evolution | 4504 | ||
| 10.12.5.1 Sediment Transport in Estuaries | 4504 | ||
| 10.12.5.2 Estuarine Geomorphic and Sedimentary Facies | 4504 | ||
| 10.12.5.2.1 Tide-dominated estuaries | 4504 | ||
| 10.12.5.2.2 Wave-dominated estuaries | 4505 | ||
| 10.12.5.2.3 Mixed wave-tide-dominated estuaries | 4505 | ||
| 10.12.5.2.4 River-dominated estuaries | 4505 | ||
| 10.12.6 Estuarine Subenvironments | 4505 | ||
| 10.12.6.1 Lower Intertidal | 4506 | ||
| 10.12.6.1.1 Tidal flats | 4506 | ||
| 10.12.6.1.2 Bedforms | 4506 | ||
| 10.12.6.2 Upper Intertidal Zone | 4507 | ||
| 10.12.6.2.1 Unconsolidated shorelines | 4507 | ||
| 10.12.6.2.2 Cohesive shorelines | 4508 | ||
| 10.12.6.3 Geomorphic-Biotic Interactions | 4509 | ||
| 10.12.6.4 Human-Modified Estuarine Systems | 4510 | ||
| 10.12.6.5 Restoration Practices | 4511 | ||
| 10.12.7 Future Issues | 4511 | ||
| References | 4512 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4516 | ||
| 10.13 Coral Systems | 4517 | ||
| 10.13.1 Introduction | 4518 | ||
| 10.13.2 Reef Systems and Geomorphic Complexity | 4519 | ||
| 10.13.2.1 The Importance of Ecological Processes for Geomorphic Development | 4519 | ||
| 10.13.2.2 An Eco-Morphodynamic Framework for Coral Reef Development | 4522 | ||
| 10.13.2.3 Reef Landforms and the Importance of the Carbonate Sediment Factory | 4524 | ||
| 10.13.3 The Distribution and Evolution of Coral Reefs | 4526 | ||
| 10.13.4 Geomorphic Development of Holocene Coral Reefs | 4527 | ||
| 10.13.4.1 The Internal Anatomy of Reef Framework | 4528 | ||
| 10.13.4.2 Styles of Reef Growth | 4530 | ||
| 10.13.4.3 Reef Growth and Sea-Level Dynamics | 4532 | ||
| 10.13.5 Rates of Reef Growth | 4532 | ||
| 10.13.6 Developments in Geomorphology of Sedimentary Landforms | 4533 | ||
| 10.13.7 Lagoon Sedimentation and Geomorphic Development of Reefs | 4536 | ||
| 10.13.8 Reef Island Morphology and Evolution | 4537 | ||
| 10.13.8.1 Long-Term Controls on Reef Island Evolution | 4539 | ||
| 10.13.8.2 The Relationship between Sea-Level Change, Reef Growth, and Island Formation | 4539 | ||
| 10.13.8.3 Recognition of the Importance of Sediment Supply on Island Building | 4540 | ||
| 10.13.8.4 Process Controls on Island Development | 4541 | ||
| 10.13.8.5 Reef Island Morphodynamics | 4543 | ||
| 10.13.9 Summary and Conclusions | 4544 | ||
| References | 4545 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4548 | ||
| 10.14 Mangrove Systems | 4549 | ||
| 10.14.1 Introduction | 4550 | ||
| 10.14.1.1 Geomorphology and Mangrove Morphodynamics | 4551 | ||
| 10.14.2 Large-Scale Controls on Mangroves | 4552 | ||
| 10.14.2.1 Global Distribution | 4552 | ||
| 10.14.2.2 Geological Controls on Mangrove Distributions | 4553 | ||
| 10.14.2.3 Mangrove Forest Development and Long-Term Sea-Level Change | 4554 | ||
| 10.14.3 Regional Scale Dynamics of Mangrove Forests | 4555 | ||
| 10.14.3.1 Introduction | 4555 | ||
| 10.14.3.2 Microtidal, Deltaic Settings | 4556 | ||
| 10.14.3.3 Meso- to Macrotidal, Deltaic-Estuarine Settings | 4557 | ||
| 10.14.3.4 Open Coasts | 4557 | ||
| 10.14.3.5 Carbonate Settings | 4557 | ||
| 10.14.4 Local-Scale Dynamics | 4557 | ||
| 10.14.4.1 Water Movement in Mangroves | 4558 | ||
| 10.14.4.2 Wave Dissipation in Mangroves | 4561 | ||
| 10.14.4.3 Sedimentation Processes in Mangroves | 4562 | ||
| 10.14.4.3.1 Timescales of sedimentation | 4562 | ||
| 10.24.4.3.2 Inorganic surface sedimentation | 4563 | ||
| 10.14.4.4 Organic Near-Surface Sedimentation | 4565 | ||
| 10.14.4.5 Subsurface Processes and Surface-Elevation Change | 4566 | ||
| 10.14.5 Regional, Event-Based Dynamics | 4567 | ||
| 10.14.5.1 Mangrove Surface-Elevation Change, Hurricanes, and Cyclones | 4568 | ||
| 10.14.5.2 Mangroves and Tsunamis | 4570 | ||
| 10.14.6 Mangroves and Global Environmental Change | 4571 | ||
| 10.14.7 Concluding Remarks: Geomorphology and Mangroves in the Twentieth Century | 4572 | ||
| References | 4575 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4580 | ||
| 10.15 Developed Coasts | 4581 | ||
| 10.15.1 Introduction | 4582 | ||
| 10.15.2 The Impact of Humans through Time | 4582 | ||
| 10.15.3 Altering Landforms to Suit Human Needs | 4583 | ||
| 10.15.3.1 Altering Landforms through Use | 4584 | ||
| 10.15.3.2 Reshaping Landforms | 4585 | ||
| 10.15.3.3 Altering Landform Mobility | 4586 | ||
| 10.15.3.4 Changing Conditions due to Activities Outside the Coastal Zone | 4587 | ||
| 10.15.4 Nourishing Beaches | 4587 | ||
| 10.15.4.1 Designs and Locations | 4587 | ||
| 10.15.4.2 Considerations for Transport Alongshore | 4588 | ||
| 10.15.5 Building Dunes | 4588 | ||
| 10.15.5.1 Nourishing Dunes | 4589 | ||
| 10.15.5.2 Building Dunes by Natural Processes on Nourished Beaches | 4589 | ||
| 10.15.5.3 Building Dunes Using Sand Fences | 4590 | ||
| 10.15.5.4 Building Dunes Using Vegetation | 4590 | ||
| 10.15.6 Effects of Structures | 4590 | ||
| 10.15.6.1 Protection Structures | 4591 | ||
| 10.15.6.2 Structures for Boating and Navigation | 4592 | ||
| 10.15.6.3 Recreation Structures on the Beach | 4592 | ||
| 10.15.6.4 Buildings | 4593 | ||
| 10.15.6.5 Support Infrastructure | 4593 | ||
| 10.15.7 Characteristics of Human-Altered Landforms | 4593 | ||
| 10.15.7.1 Location | 4593 | ||
| 10.15.7.2 Dimensions | 4594 | ||
| 10.15.7.3 Orientation | 4594 | ||
| 10.15.7.4 Topographic Variability | 4594 | ||
| 10.15.7.5 Sediment Characteristics | 4594 | ||
| 10.15.7.6 Mobility | 4595 | ||
| 10.15.8 Distinguishing Natural from Human-Created Landforms | 4595 | ||
| 10.15.9 Cyclic Change versus Progressive Change | 4595 | ||
| 10.15.10 Maintaining or Restoring Natural Processes, Structure, and Functions | 4596 | ||
| 10.15.10.1 Determining Appropriate Levels of Dynamism | 4596 | ||
| 10.15.10.2 Altering or Removing Shore-Protection Structures | 4596 | ||
| 10.15.10.3 Introducing Compatible Management Options at the Local Level | 4597 | ||
| 10.15.11 Dune-Management Options in Spatially Restricted Environments | 4597 | ||
| 10.15.12 Prognosis | 4599 | ||
| References | 4600 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4605 | ||
| 10.16 Evolution of Coastal Landforms | 4606 | ||
| 10.16.1 Introduction | 4607 | ||
| 10.16.2 Role of Tectonics in Coastal Evolution | 4607 | ||
| 10.16.3 Sea Level Influence on Coastal Evolution | 4609 | ||
| 10.16.3.1 Quaternary Sea-Level Changes | 4612 | ||
| 10.16.3.2 Late Holocene Conditions | 4613 | ||
| 10.16.4 Evolution of Coastal Environments | 4614 | ||
| 10.16.4.1 Fluvial Deltas | 4614 | ||
| 10.16.4.2 Estuaries | 4616 | ||
| 10.16.4.3 Barrier Island Systems | 4618 | ||
| 10.16.4.4 Tidal Inlets | 4624 | ||
| 10.16.4.5 Tidal Deltas | 4625 | ||
| 10.16.5 Rocky Coasts | 4627 | ||
| 10.16.5.1 Leading Edge Rocky Coasts | 4627 | ||
| 10.16.6 Glaciated Coasts | 4627 | ||
| 10.16.7 Rocky Carbonate Coasts | 4629 | ||
| 10.16.8 Case Histories of Coastal Evolution | 4630 | ||
| 10.16.8.1 Gulf of Mexico Barriers with Emphasis on Texas and Florida | 4630 | ||
| 10.16.8.2 North Sea Barrier-Inlet Systems | 4633 | ||
| 10.16.8.3 Mississippi River Delta Area | 4633 | ||
| 10.16.8.4 Panhandle of Alaska | 4634 | ||
| 10.16.8.5 Southeastern Australia and Bahamas | 4635 | ||
| 10.16.9 Summary | 4635 | ||
| References | 4635 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4637 | ||
| e9780123747396v11 | 4638 | ||
| Front Cover | 4638 | ||
| TREATISE ON GEOMORPHOLOGY | 4641 | ||
| CONTENTS | 4643 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 4645 | ||
| VOLUME EDITORS | 4647 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 11 | 4649 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 4651 | ||
| PREFACE | 4665 | ||
| FOREWORD | 4667 | ||
| 11.1 Aeolian Geomorphology: Introduction | 4669 | ||
| 11.1.1 Introduction | 4669 | ||
| 11.1.2 Historical Development and Contemporary State | 4670 | ||
| 11.1.2.1 Bagnold Legacy | 4670 | ||
| 11.1.2.2 Rise and Fall of Single Dune Studies | 4670 | ||
| 11.1.2.3 Planetary Analogs | 4670 | ||
| 11.1.2.4 Rise of Dust | 4670 | ||
| 11.1.2.5 Remote Sensing | 4670 | ||
| 11.1.2.6 Quaternary Climate Change and Aeolian Processes and Landforms | 4672 | ||
| 11.1.2.7 Modeling of Processes and Forms | 4672 | ||
| 11.1.2.8 Scaling from Process Studies to Landscape Level | 4673 | ||
| 11.1.3 Future Trends | 4673 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 4673 | ||
| References | 4673 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4674 | ||
| 11.2 Fundamentals of Aeolian Sediment Transport: Boundary-Layer Processes | 4675 | ||
| 11.2.1 Introduction | 4676 | ||
| 11.2.2 Classic Boundary Layer Concepts | 4676 | ||
| 11.2.3 Velocity Profiles in Clean Air | 4678 | ||
| 11.2.4 Steady-State Boundary Layers with Saltation | 4682 | ||
| 11.2.5 Wind Unsteadiness and Turbulent Events | 4685 | ||
| 11.2.6 Summary and Conclusions | 4688 | ||
| References | 4688 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4690 | ||
| 11.3 Fundamentals of Aeolian Sediment Transport: Aeolian Sediments | 4691 | ||
| 11.3.1 Introduction | 4691 | ||
| 11.3.2 Measuring Aeolian Sediments | 4692 | ||
| 11.3.3 Characteristics of Aeolian Sediments | 4693 | ||
| 11.3.3.1 Dune Sands | 4693 | ||
| 11.3.3.1.1 Particle size | 4693 | ||
| 11.3.3.1.2 Shape | 4694 | ||
| 11.3.3.1.3 Color | 4694 | ||
| 11.3.3.1.4 Mineralogy | 4695 | ||
| 11.3.3.2 Dusts | 4696 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.1 Dust particle size and aggregation | 4696 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.1.1 Particle size | 4696 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.1.2 Saharan dust particle size | 4697 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.1.2.1 Particle size and source area processes | 4697 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.1.2.2 Particle size and distance from source | 4698 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.1.3 Chinese dust particle size | 4700 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.1.4 Aggregate size | 4701 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.2 Dust mineralogy and elemental composition | 4701 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.2.1 Saharan dusts | 4702 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.2.1.1 Long-distance dusts over the Atlantic Ocean | 4702 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.2.1.2 Local southern Saharan dusts | 4703 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.2.1.3 Long-distance and local north Saharan dusts | 4703 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.2.2 Chinese dusts | 4704 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.3 Dust biological and organic characteristics | 4704 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.3.1 Biological characteristics of dusts | 4705 | ||
| 11.3.3.2.3.2 Organic characteristics of dusts | 4705 | ||
| 11.3.4 Concluding Comments | 4705 | ||
| References | 4706 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4710 | ||
| 11.4. Fundamentals of Aeolian Sediment Transport: Dust Emissions and Transport - Near Surface | 4711 | ||
| 11.4.1 Introduction | 4711 | ||
| 11.4.2 Threshold of Entrainment for Dust | 4712 | ||
| 11.4.3 Dust Emissions by Saltation: Thresholds and Particle Flux | 4715 | ||
| 11.4.4 Controls on the Emission Process I: Particle Size, Moisture, Binding Energy (Crusting) | 4717 | ||
| 11.4.4.1 Particle Size | 4717 | ||
| 11.4.4.2 Moisture | 4718 | ||
| 11.4.4.3 Soil Texture and Crusting | 4719 | ||
| 11.4.5 Controls on the Emission Process II: Roughness | 4721 | ||
| 11.4.6 Disturbance Effects on Dust Emissions | 4722 | ||
| 11.4.7 Electrostatic Effects and Dust Emissions | 4724 | ||
| 11.4.8 Conclusions | 4726 | ||
| References | 4727 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4731 | ||
| 11.5 Fundamentals of Aeolian Sediment Transport: Long-Range Transport of Dust | 4732 | ||
| 11.5.1 Introduction | 4733 | ||
| 11.5.2 Dust Transport Patterns and Pathways | 4734 | ||
| 11.5.2.1 Spatial Patterns | 4734 | ||
| 11.5.2.2 Main Seasonal Patterns | 4737 | ||
| 11.5.2.3 Transport Routes | 4739 | ||
| 11.5.3 Meteorological Processes Associated with Dust Long-Range Rransport Pattern and the Seasonal Cycle | 4739 | ||
| 11.5.3.1 Asian Dust Transport Toward the North Pacific Ocean | 4739 | ||
| 11.5.3.2 North African Dust Transport Toward the North Tropical Atlantic Ocean | 4741 | ||
| 11.5.4 Properties of Transported Dust | 4744 | ||
| 11.5.5 Impacts of Long-Range Transported Dust | 4746 | ||
| 11.5.5.1 Radiative Impact | 4746 | ||
| 11.5.5.2 Impact on Biogeochemistry | 4747 | ||
| 11.5.5.3 Dust as a Tracer of Climate | 4747 | ||
| 11.5.6 Conclusion | 4748 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 4748 | ||
| References | 4748 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4752 | ||
| 11.6 Fundamentals of Aeolian Sediment Transport: Wind-Blown Sand | 4753 | ||
| 11.6.1 Introduction | 4753 | ||
| 11.6.2 Historical Perspectives | 4754 | ||
| 11.6.3 Turbulent Boundary Layers | 4754 | ||
| 11.6.4 Modes of Aeolian Transport | 4756 | ||
| 11.6.5 Initiation of Grain Motion | 4757 | ||
| 11.6.5.1 Variability of Grain Size | 4758 | ||
| 11.6.5.2 Variability of A | 4758 | ||
| 11.6.5.3 Intermittent Transport | 4760 | ||
| 11.6.5.4 Response Time | 4761 | ||
| 11.6.6 Transport Models | 4761 | ||
| 11.6.7 Wind-Blown Sand in Natural Environments | 4762 | ||
| 11.6.7.1 Slope Effects | 4763 | ||
| 11.6.7.2 Bonding Agents | 4764 | ||
| 11.6.7.2.1 Moisture | 4764 | ||
| 11.6.7.2.2 Inorganic and organic crusts | 4764 | ||
| 11.6.7.3 Vegetation | 4765 | ||
| 11.6.7.4 Transport Rate Unsteadiness | 4766 | ||
| 11.6.7.5 Fetch | 4766 | ||
| 11.6.7.6 Horizontal Variability | 4766 | ||
| 11.6.7.7 Vertical Flux Profile | 4768 | ||
| 11.6.8 Measuring Transport | 4769 | ||
| 11.6.9 Research Prospects | 4770 | ||
| References | 4770 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4776 | ||
| 11.7 Fundamentals of Aeolian Sediment Transport: Airflow Over Dunes | 4777 | ||
| 11.7.1 Introduction | 4778 | ||
| 11.7.2 Flow-Form-Sediment Transport Interactions in Dune Systems | 4778 | ||
| 11.7.3 Boundary Layer Flow over Complex Terrain | 4779 | ||
| 11.7.4 Airflow Dynamics Over and Around Dunes | 4781 | ||
| 11.7.4.1 Flow Within and Around Discrete Roughness Elements | 4781 | ||
| 11.7.4.2 Topographic Forcing and Stoss (Windward) Slope Flow Dynamics | 4782 | ||
| 11.7.4.3 Surface Shear Stress Distributions on the Stoss Slope | 4783 | ||
| 11.7.4.4 The Role of Dune Shape in Stoss Slope Flow Dynamics | 4785 | ||
| 11.7.4.5 Secondary Airflow Patterns in the Lee of Dunes | 4786 | ||
| 11.7.4.6 Response of Lee-Side Flow Patterns to Changes in Incident Flow Angle and Dune Form | 4789 | ||
| 11.7.4.7 Sedimentological and Geomorphic Significance of Lee-Side Secondary Flow Patterns | 4792 | ||
| 11.7.4.8 Insights on the Role of Microturbulence and Turbulent Reynolds Stress in Aeolian Sediment Transport over Dunes | 4795 | ||
| 11.7.5 Conclusions | 4796 | ||
| References | 4797 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4801 | ||
| 11.8 Fundamentals of Aeolian Sediment Transport: Aeolian Abrasion | 4802 | ||
| 11.8.1 Introduction | 4803 | ||
| 11.8.1.1 Grain-to-Grain Abrasion | 4803 | ||
| 11.8.1.2 Aeolian Abrasion of Landforms | 4803 | ||
| 11.8.2 Target Characteristics | 4805 | ||
| 11.8.2.1 Ventifacts | 4805 | ||
| 11.8.2.2 Yardangs | 4805 | ||
| 11.8.3 Abrader Characteristics | 4806 | ||
| 11.8.3.1 The Efficacy of Sand versus Other Materials | 4806 | ||
| 11.8.3.2 Composition | 4807 | ||
| 11.8.3.3 Size | 4807 | ||
| 11.8.3.4 Shape | 4807 | ||
| 11.8.4 Environmental Factors | 4807 | ||
| 11.8.4.1 Wind Speed and Shear Stress | 4807 | ||
| 11.8.4.2 Wind Direction | 4808 | ||
| 11.8.4.3 Particle Supply, Wind Frequency, and Integrated Flux | 4809 | ||
| 11.8.4.4 Local Topography | 4809 | ||
| 11.8.4.5 Local Rock Distribution | 4810 | ||
| 11.8.5 Planetary Comparisons | 4810 | ||
| 11.8.5.1 Mars | 4810 | ||
| 11.8.5.2 Venus | 4812 | ||
| 11.8.5.3 Titan | 4812 | ||
| 11.8.6 Conclusions | 4812 | ||
| References | 4813 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4815 | ||
| 11.9 Loess and its Geomorphic, Stratigraphic, and Paleoclimatic Significance in the Quaternary | 4817 | ||
| 11.9.1 Introduction | 4818 | ||
| 11.9.2 Definition of Loess | 4819 | ||
| 11.9.3 Spatial Distribution of Loess | 4820 | ||
| 11.9.3.1 Europe | 4820 | ||
| 11.9.3.2 Asia | 4821 | ||
| 11.9.3.3 North America | 4823 | ||
| 11.9.3.4 South America | 4823 | ||
| 11.9.3.5 Australia and New Zealand | 4824 | ||
| 11.9.3.6 Africa and the Middle East | 4824 | ||
| 11.9.4 Sedimentology of Loess | 4824 | ||
| 11.9.5 Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Loess | 4828 | ||
| 11.9.6 Genesis of Loess Deposits | 4830 | ||
| 11.9.7 Loess Stratigraphy | 4834 | ||
| 11.9.7.1 Loess Deposits versus Paleosols | 4834 | ||
| 11.9.7.2 Loess Stratigraphy in China | 4834 | ||
| 11.9.7.3 Loess Stratigraphy in Midcontinental North America | 4835 | ||
| 11.9.7.4 Loess Stratigraphy in Europe | 4837 | ||
| 11.9.8 Loess Geochronology | 4837 | ||
| 11.9.8.1 Luminescence Dating | 4837 | ||
| 11.9.8.2 Radiocarbon Dating | 4838 | ||
| 11.9.8.3 Magnetic Susceptibility in Loess deposits as a Correlation Tool | 4842 | ||
| 11.9.9 Paleoclimatic and Paleoenvironmental Interpretation of Loess Deposits | 4842 | ||
| 11.9.9.1 Paleowinds and Reconstruction of Atmospheric Circulation | 4842 | ||
| 11.9.9.2 Paleosols and Landscape Stability: Implications for Past Vegetation | 4843 | ||
| 11.9.9.3 Loess Snails and Their Relation to Paleoclimate | 4843 | ||
| 11.9.9.4 Loess Sediment Availability as a Paleoclimate Indicator | 4845 | ||
| 11.9.10 Summary | 4848 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 4848 | ||
| References | 4848 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4851 | ||
| 11.10 Clay Deposits | 4852 | ||
| 11.10.1 Introduction | 4852 | ||
| 11.10.2 Clay Mineralogy and Geomorphic Processes | 4853 | ||
| 11.10.2.1 Clay Geochemistry and Fundamental Properties | 4853 | ||
| 11.10.2.2 The Origins of Clays in the Natural Environment | 4854 | ||
| 11.10.2.3 Methods in the Identification and Analysis of Aeolian Clays | 4854 | ||
| 11.10.2.4 Clay Mineral Properties and Aeolian Processes | 4855 | ||
| 11.10.3 Clay Landforms and Landscapes | 4856 | ||
| 11.10.3.1 Clay Dunes and Lunettes | 4856 | ||
| 11.10.3.1.1 Clay-rich lunettes | 4857 | ||
| 11.10.3.1.2 Sand-rich lunettes | 4857 | ||
| 11.10.3.1.3 Other source-bordering clay dune settings | 4859 | ||
| 11.10.3.2 Clay Sheet Deposits | 4859 | ||
| 11.10.3.2.1 Parna, loessic clays, and desert loess | 4859 | ||
| 11.10.3.2.2 Nature of deposits | 4861 | ||
| 11.10.3.3 Clay Playas/Pans | 4861 | ||
| 11.10.3.3.1 Playa occurrence | 4861 | ||
| 11.10.3.3.2 Playa formation | 4862 | ||
| 11.10.3.3.3 Nature of deposits | 4863 | ||
| 11.10.4 The Importance of Aeolian Clay Landscapes | 4863 | ||
| 11.10.4.1 Soil Formation | 4863 | ||
| 11.10.4.2 Palaeoenvironmental Significance | 4864 | ||
| 11.10.4.3 Anthropogenic Disturbance to Clay Landforms | 4864 | ||
| 11.10.5 Summary | 4865 | ||
| References | 4865 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4868 | ||
| 11.11 Dune Morphology and Dynamics | 4869 | ||
| 11.11.1 Introduction | 4869 | ||
| 11.11.2 Classification and Key Controls | 4870 | ||
| 11.11.2.1 Classification of Dune Types | 4870 | ||
| 11.11.2.2 Key Controls on Dune Type | 4870 | ||
| 11.11.2.3 Complex and Compound Dunes | 4871 | ||
| 11.11.3 Dune Dynamics | 4872 | ||
| 11.11.4 Dune Morphology and Processes | 4874 | ||
| 11.11.4.1 Barchan Dunes and Transverse Ridges | 4874 | ||
| 11.11.4.2 Linear Dunes | 4875 | ||
| 11.11.4.3 Star Dunes | 4878 | ||
| 11.11.5 Dune Interactions and Equilibrium | 4879 | ||
| 11.11.5.1 Self-organizing dune patterns | 4879 | ||
| 11.11.5.2 Analytical Models | 4880 | ||
| 11.11.6 Conclusion and Research Requirements | 4884 | ||
| References | 4884 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4886 | ||
| 11.12 Sand Seas and Dune Fields | 4887 | ||
| 11.12.1 Introduction | 4887 | ||
| 11.12.1.1 Historical Perspective | 4888 | ||
| 11.12.2 Fundamental Controls on the Formation of Sand Seas | 4889 | ||
| 11.12.3 Distribution of Sand Seas in Relation to Climate, Topography, and Sand Transport Systems | 4891 | ||
| 11.12.3.1 Global Perspective | 4891 | ||
| 11.12.3.2 Relations to Topography | 4895 | ||
| 11.12.3.3 Relations to Wind Regimes | 4896 | ||
| 11.12.4 Sediments of Sand Seas | 4896 | ||
| 11.12.4.1 Source of Sand for Sand Seas | 4897 | ||
| 11.12.4.2 Remote-Sensing of Dune Sediment Characteristics and Transport Pathways | 4897 | ||
| 11.12.5 Dune Patterns in Sand Seas | 4898 | ||
| 11.12.5.1 Analysis of Dune Patterns | 4900 | ||
| 11.12.5.2 Controls of Dune Patterns | 4903 | ||
| 11.12.5.3 Distribution of Dune Morphologic Types | 4905 | ||
| 11.12.5.4 Dune Pattern Development | 4907 | ||
| 11.12.6 The Importance of the Quaternary Legacy | 4909 | ||
| 11.12.7 Key Issues and Research Needs | 4910 | ||
| References | 4911 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4913 | ||
| 11.13 Aeolian Stratigraphy | 4914 | ||
| 11.13.1 Introduction | 4915 | ||
| 11.13.1.1 Wind Ripple Lamination | 4915 | ||
| 11.13.1.2 Airfall Lamination | 4915 | ||
| 11.13.1.3 Grainflow/Avalanche Cross-Strata | 4916 | ||
| 11.13.1.4 Aeolian Plane-Bed Lamination | 4917 | ||
| 11.13.1.5 Adhesion Ripples | 4917 | ||
| 11.13.1.6 Aeolian Deflation Lags | 4917 | ||
| 11.13.1.7 Physically Deformed Strata | 4917 | ||
| 11.13.1.8 Chemically Deformed Strata | 4917 | ||
| 11.13.1.9 Pedoturbation and Paleosols in Aeolian Strata | 4918 | ||
| 11.13.1.10 Bioturbation in Aeolian Strata | 4918 | ||
| 11.13.2 Bounding Surfaces | 4918 | ||
| 11.13.2.1 Reactivation Surfaces | 4918 | ||
| 11.13.2.2 Superposition Surfaces | 4919 | ||
| 11.13.2.3 Interdune Surfaces | 4919 | ||
| 11.13.2.4 Super Surfaces | 4920 | ||
| 11.13.3 Sedimentary Models for Dunes, Interdune, and Sandsheet Strata | 4920 | ||
| 11.13.3.1 Barchan Dunes | 4920 | ||
| 11.13.3.2 Transverse Dunes | 4921 | ||
| 11.13.3.3 Linear Dunes | 4921 | ||
| 11.13.3.4 Star Dunes | 4922 | ||
| 11.13.3.5 Parabolic Dunes | 4922 | ||
| 11.13.3.6 Lunettes | 4923 | ||
| 11.13.3.7 Nebkhas | 4924 | ||
| 11.13.3.8 Zibar | 4924 | ||
| 11.13.3.9 Sand-Sheets | 4924 | ||
| 11.13.3.10 Interdunes (Wet, Damp, Dry) | 4924 | ||
| 11.13.3.11 Megadunes | 4925 | ||
| 11.13.3.12 Compound Dunes | 4925 | ||
| 11.13.3.13 Complex Dunes | 4925 | ||
| 11.13.3.14 Computer Simulations of Dune Strata | 4925 | ||
| 11.13.3.15 Natural Variation | 4925 | ||
| 11.13.3.16 The Nature of the Aeolian Record | 4926 | ||
| 11.13.4 Aeolian Stratigraphic Models | 4926 | ||
| 11.13.4.1 Sequence Stratigraphy in Aeolian Sediments | 4926 | ||
| 11.13.4.2 Aeolian System Construction | 4927 | ||
| 11.13.4.3 Aeolian System Accumulation | 4927 | ||
| 11.13.4.4 Aeolian System Bypass, Destruction, Deflation and Super Surface Generation | 4929 | ||
| 11.13.4.5 Aeolian System Preservation | 4931 | ||
| 11.13.4.6 Dynamic Models for the Generation of Aeolian Successions | 4931 | ||
| 11.13.5 Conclusion | 4934 | ||
| References | 4934 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4936 | ||
| 11.14 Abraded Systems | 4937 | ||
| 11.14.1 Introduction: Landscapes of Aeolian Abrasion | 4938 | ||
| 11.14.2 Ventifacts | 4938 | ||
| 11.14.2.1 Settings and Environmental Requirements for Ventifact Formation | 4938 | ||
| 11.14.2.2 The Age of Ventifacts | 4939 | ||
| 11.14.2.3 Surface Features | 4939 | ||
| 11.14.2.4 Relationship of Features to Wind Direction | 4941 | ||
| 11.14.2.5 Ventifact Environments | 4942 | ||
| 11.14.2.5.1 The periglacial and paraglacial landscape | 4942 | ||
| 11.14.2.5.2 Coastal ventifacts | 4943 | ||
| 11.14.2.5.3 Ventifacts in the desert | 4943 | ||
| 11.14.2.5.4 Ventifacts on Mars | 4943 | ||
| 11.14.2.6 Ventifacts in the Geological Record | 4943 | ||
| 11.14.2.7 Summary of Similarities and Differences between Ventifact Environments | 4943 | ||
| 11.14.3 Yardangs | 4944 | ||
| 11.14.3.1 Introduction | 4944 | ||
| 11.14.3.2 Initial Conditions and Environmental Requirements for Yardang Formation | 4944 | ||
| 11.14.3.3 Yardang Form and the Development of Streamlining | 4945 | ||
| 11.14.3.4 The Geometry of Yardangs: Length-To-Width Proportions and Yardang Spacing | 4946 | ||
| 11.14.3.5 Scale Variation over Distance | 4946 | ||
| 11.14.3.6 Erosional Processes | 4946 | ||
| 11.14.3.6.1 Erosion by water | 4946 | ||
| 11.14.3.6.2 Wind erosion: Abrasion and deflation | 4947 | ||
| 11.14.3.6.3 Chemical weathering, solution, and salt weathering | 4947 | ||
| 11.14.3.6.4 Mass movement | 4947 | ||
| 11.14.3.7 The Age of Yardangs, the Evolution of Yardang Systems, and their Role as Wind Indicators | 4948 | ||
| 11.14.3.8 Yardang Systems and Desert Dust | 4948 | ||
| 11.14.4 Desert Depressions | 4948 | ||
| 11.14.4.1 Introduction | 4948 | ||
| 11.14.4.2 Deflation Hollows and Pans | 4948 | ||
| 11.14.4.3 Large Wind-Eroded Basins | 4949 | ||
| 11.14.5 Inverted Topography | 4949 | ||
| 11.14.6 Conclusions | 4949 | ||
| References | 4950 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4954 | ||
| 11.15 Extraterrestrial Aeolian Landscapes | 4955 | ||
| 11.15.1 Overview | 4956 | ||
| 11.15.1.1 Mars | 4957 | ||
| 11.15.1.1.1 Aeolian features | 4959 | ||
| 11.15.1.1.2 Atmosphere and circulation | 4959 | ||
| 11.15.1.2 Venus | 4962 | ||
| 11.15.1.2.1 Aeolian features | 4962 | ||
| 11.15.1.2.2 Atmosphere and circulation | 4964 | ||
| 11.15.1.3 Titan | 4964 | ||
| 11.15.1.3.1 Aeolian features | 4964 | ||
| 11.15.1.3.2 Atmosphere and circulation | 4965 | ||
| 11.15.2 Creation of Aeolian Depositional Landscapes | 4965 | ||
| 11.15.2.1 Aeolian Sediment State | 4965 | ||
| 11.15.2.1.1 Sediment state on Earth | 4965 | ||
| 11.15.2.2 Mars | 4966 | ||
| 11.15.2.2.1 Sediment state | 4966 | ||
| 11.15.2.2.2 Sediment supply | 4966 | ||
| 11.15.2.2.3 Sediment availability | 4966 | ||
| 11.15.2.2.4 Transport capacity | 4967 | ||
| 11.15.2.3 Venus | 4967 | ||
| 11.15.2.3.1 Sediment supply | 4967 | ||
| 11.15.2.3.2 Sediment availability | 4967 | ||
| 11.15.2.3.3 Transport capacity | 4967 | ||
| 11.15.2.4 Titan | 4967 | ||
| 11.15.2.4.1 Sediment supply | 4967 | ||
| 11.15.2.4.2 Sediment availability | 4968 | ||
| 11.15.2.4.3 Transport capacity | 4968 | ||
| 11.15.2.5 Depositional Sinks - Continuity at Basin Level | 4968 | ||
| 11.15.2.5.1 Mars | 4968 | ||
| 11.15.2.5.2 Venus and Titan | 4969 | ||
| 11.15.3 Emergent Structures in Depositional Aeolian Landscapes | 4969 | ||
| 11.15.3.1 Self-Organization | 4969 | ||
| 11.15.3.2 Dune Field Patterns | 4969 | ||
| 11.15.3.3 Bedform Scaling | 4971 | ||
| 11.15.4 Erosional Landscapes | 4971 | ||
| 11.15.4.1 Review of Deflation and Abrasion on Earth | 4972 | ||
| 11.15.4.2 Deflation and Abrasion Elsewhere in the Solar System | 4972 | ||
| 11.15.4.3 Comparison Between Earth and Other Bodies | 4973 | ||
| 11.15.5 Unanswered Questions | 4974 | ||
| 11.15.5.1 Mars | 4974 | ||
| 11.15.5.2 Venus | 4974 | ||
| 11.15.5.3 Titan | 4975 | ||
| 11.15.6 Conclusions | 4975 | ||
| References | 4975 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4979 | ||
| 11.16 Modeling Aeolian Landscapes | 4981 | ||
| 11.16.1 Introduction | 4982 | ||
| 11.16.1.1 Chapter Framework | 4982 | ||
| 11.16.2 Conceptual Models | 4982 | ||
| 11.16.3 Point Models: Dune Mobility | 4985 | ||
| 11.16.4 Transect Models | 4985 | ||
| 11.16.4.1 Coupled Airflow-Sand Transport Models | 4987 | ||
| 11.16.5 3D and Quasi-3D Models | 4988 | ||
| 11.16.5.1 Cellular Automata | 4990 | ||
| 11.16.6 Reflections and Prospective | 4991 | ||
| References | 4993 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 4995 | ||
| 11.17 Coastal Dunes | 4996 | ||
| 11.17.1 Introduction | 4997 | ||
| 11.17.2 Foredunes | 4997 | ||
| 11.17.2.1 Incipient Foredunes | 4997 | ||
| 11.17.2.2 Established Foredunes | 5000 | ||
| 11.17.3 Foredune Plains | 5003 | ||
| 11.17.4 Blowouts | 5005 | ||
| 11.17.4.1 Formation | 5006 | ||
| 11.17.4.2 Morphology | 5007 | ||
| 11.17.4.3 Evolution | 5007 | ||
| 11.17.5 Parabolic Dunes | 5011 | ||
| 11.17.5.1 Morphology | 5011 | ||
| 11.17.5.2 Initiation | 5012 | ||
| 11.17.5.3 Evolution | 5013 | ||
| 11.17.6 Transgressive Dune Sheets and Dunefields | 5014 | ||
| 11.17.6.1 Initiation | 5014 | ||
| 11.17.6.2 Types and Forms | 5016 | ||
| 11.17.6.3 Dune Sheets and Dunefield Morphologies | 5017 | ||
| 11.17.6.4 Evolution | 5018 | ||
| 11.17.7 Conclusion | 5020 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 5020 | ||
| References | 5020 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5023 | ||
| 11.18 Aeolian Paleoenvironments of Desert Landscapes | 5024 | ||
| 11.18.1 Introduction | 5025 | ||
| 11.18.1.1 The Nature of Aeolian Paleoenvironments in Desert Landscapes | 5025 | ||
| 11.18.1.2 Sources of Evidence of Aeolian Paleoenvironments | 5025 | ||
| 11.18.1.3 History of Research and Major Issues | 5025 | ||
| 11.18.2 Sandy Paleoenvironments | 5026 | ||
| 11.18.2.1 Distribution | 5026 | ||
| 11.18.2.2 Interactions between Controlling Variables | 5029 | ||
| 11.18.2.3 Circulation Changes | 5031 | ||
| 11.18.2.4 Sediment Supply | 5031 | ||
| 11.18.3 Chronologies of Paleo-Aeolian Systems | 5033 | ||
| 11.18.3.1 Multiple Events and Compound Dune Landscapes | 5033 | ||
| 11.18.3.2 Multiple Events and Complex Accumulation Records | 5033 | ||
| 11.18.3.3 Sampling Stratigraphy | 5036 | ||
| 11.18.3.4 Preservation Potential | 5037 | ||
| 11.18.4 Future Prospects | 5038 | ||
| References | 5039 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5042 | ||
| 11.19 Cold-Climate Aeolian Environments | 5043 | ||
| 11.19.1 Introduction | 5044 | ||
| 11.19.2 Winds in Cold-Climate Environments | 5045 | ||
| 11.19.2.1 Frontal Winds | 5045 | ||
| 11.19.2.2 Pressure-Gradient Winds | 5046 | ||
| 11.19.2.3 Katabatic Winds | 5046 | ||
| 11.19.2.4 Foehn Winds | 5046 | ||
| 11.19.2.5 Cold-Air Influences on Atmospheric Density | 5046 | ||
| 11.19.2.5.1 Last glacial winds | 5046 | ||
| 11.19.2.5.2 Cold-climate winds and climate change | 5047 | ||
| 11.19.3 Sediment Supply and Availability in Cold Environments | 5048 | ||
| 11.19.3.1 Sediment Supply | 5048 | ||
| 11.19.3.2 Sediment Availability | 5048 | ||
| 11.19.4 Cold-Climate Aeolian Processes and Features | 5050 | ||
| 11.19.4.1 Deflation | 5050 | ||
| 11.19.4.2 Loess and Dust | 5050 | ||
| 11.19.4.3 Sand Dunes and Sand Sheets | 5050 | ||
| 11.19.4.4 Niveo-Aeolian Processes | 5051 | ||
| 11.19.4.5 Sand Wedges | 5052 | ||
| 11.19.4.6 Ventifacts | 5053 | ||
| 11.19.4.7 Oriented Lakes | 5053 | ||
| 11.19.5 Contemporary Cold-Climate Aeolian Environments | 5054 | ||
| 11.19.5.1 Glacially Proximal Cold-Polar Environments | 5054 | ||
| 11.19.5.2 Continental Cold-Polar Environments | 5055 | ||
| 11.19.5.3 Seasonally Cold Environments | 5056 | ||
| 11.19.5.4 High-Altitude Environments | 5057 | ||
| 11.19.6 Relict Cold-Climate Aeolian Systems | 5057 | ||
| 11.19.6.1 North America | 5057 | ||
| 11.19.6.2 Europe | 5059 | ||
| 11.19.7 Conclusions | 5059 | ||
| References | 5060 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5062 | ||
| 11.20 Anthropogenic Environments | 5063 | ||
| 11.20.1 Introduction | 5063 | ||
| 11.20.2 Human-Induced Wind Erosion - A Global Perspective | 5064 | ||
| 11.20.3 Anthropogenic Factors that Influence Wind Erosion | 5067 | ||
| 11.20.3.1 Tillage Effects | 5068 | ||
| 11.20.3.2 Effects of Vegetation | 5069 | ||
| 11.20.4 Environmental Effects of Wind Erosion | 5070 | ||
| 11.20.5 Techniques for Studying Wind Erosion | 5072 | ||
| 11.20.5.1 Field Studies | 5072 | ||
| 11.20.5.2 Field Equipment to Estimate Wind Erosion | 5073 | ||
| 11.20.5.3 Modeling Wind Erosion | 5074 | ||
| 11.20.5.4 An Indirect Method to Estimate Wind Erosion | 5075 | ||
| 11.20.6 Control of Anthropogenic Wind Erosion | 5075 | ||
| 11.20.7 Future Outlook and Perspectives | 5076 | ||
| References | 5076 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5081 | ||
| 11.21 Critical Environments: Sand Dunes and Climate Change | 5082 | ||
| 11.21.1 Introduction | 5082 | ||
| 11.21.2 The Effect of Drought on Vegetation Cover - Conceptual Modeling | 5083 | ||
| 11.21.3 The Singularity of Dune Sand Texture and Its Effect on the Sand Moisture and Vegetation Cover | 5084 | ||
| 11.21.3.1 The Effect of Soil Texture on the Rate of Infiltration, Available Soil Moisture, and Salt Distribution in Arid... | 5085 | ||
| 11.21.3.2 Wind Erosion and Its Effect on Mobility and Stability of Sand Dunes | 5085 | ||
| 11.21.3.3 The Inverse-Texture Effect | 5087 | ||
| 11.21.4 Drought and Mega-Drought and Its Effect on Sand Dunes Activation | 5087 | ||
| 11.21.5 Biocrust and Its Effect on the Stability of Sand Dunes | 5088 | ||
| 11.21.6 Past Climate Events and Their Effect on the Present Status of Fixed and Mobile Sand Dunes Fields | 5090 | ||
| 11.21.7 Vegetated Linear Dunes and Their Implications for the Sand Seas | 5091 | ||
| 11.21.8 Closing Remarks | 5092 | ||
| References | 5093 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5095 | ||
| 11.22 Linked Aeolian-Vegetation Systems | 5096 | ||
| 11.22.1 Introduction | 5096 | ||
| 11.22.2 How Vegetation Impacts Sand Transport | 5097 | ||
| 11.22.3 How Aeolian Transport Impacts Soil and Vegetation | 5099 | ||
| 11.22.4 Feedbacks between Aeolian Transport and Vegetation | 5103 | ||
| 11.22.5 Managed Ecosystems | 5103 | ||
| 11.22.6 Summary | 5104 | ||
| References | 5104 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5107 | ||
| e9780123747396v12 | 5108 | ||
| Front Cover | 5108 | ||
| TREATISE ON GEOMORPHOLOGY | 5111 | ||
| CONTENTS | 5113 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 5115 | ||
| VOLUME EDITORS | 5117 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 12 | 5119 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 5121 | ||
| PREFACE | 5135 | ||
| FOREWORD | 5137 | ||
| 12.1 The Role of Biota in Geomorphology: Ecogeomorphology | 5139 | ||
| 12.1.1 Introduction to Ecogeomorphology | 5139 | ||
| 12.1.2 Chapter Sequence and Topics in this Volume | 5139 | ||
| References | 5142 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5143 | ||
| 12.2 Riverine Habitat Dynamics | 5144 | ||
| 12.2.1 Introduction | 5144 | ||
| 12.2.1.1 Some Definitions and Concepts | 5144 | ||
| 12.2.1.1.1 Habitat | 5144 | ||
| 12.2.1.1.2 Spatial characteristics of habitat | 5145 | ||
| 12.2.1.1.3 Habitat dynamics | 5145 | ||
| 12.2.2 Habitat Dynamics of Selected Biota in Riverine Ecosystems | 5146 | ||
| 12.2.2.1 Pallid Sturgeon | 5147 | ||
| 12.2.2.2 Bigheaded Carps | 5150 | ||
| 12.2.2.3 Sedentary Organisms: Native Freshwater Mussels | 5150 | ||
| 12.2.2.4 Cottonwood Communities | 5150 | ||
| 12.2.2.5 Shorebirds: Terns and Plovers | 5151 | ||
| 12.2.3 Implications and Applications of Habitat Dynamics | 5151 | ||
| 12.2.3.1 Problem Diagnosis: Understanding Stressors, Habitat Grain, and Habitat Extent | 5151 | ||
| 12.2.3.2 Hydrodynamics and Habitat Regime | 5152 | ||
| 12.2.3.3 Morphodynamics and Habitat Regime | 5152 | ||
| 12.2.4 Conclusions | 5154 | ||
| References | 5154 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5157 | ||
| 12.3 Wood Entrance, Deposition, Transfer and Effects on Fluvial Forms and Processes: Problem Statements and Challenging... | 5158 | ||
| 12.3.1 Introduction | 5159 | ||
| 12.3.2 Space-Time Framework of Wood Dynamics | 5160 | ||
| 12.3.2.1 Input Processes of LW | 5160 | ||
| 12.3.2.2 Controls on Transfer Processes of LW | 5161 | ||
| 12.3.2.2.1 Hydraulic processes controlling wood transport | 5161 | ||
| 12.3.2.2.2 Amount of in-channel wood and ability to move | 5162 | ||
| 12.3.2.2.3 Residence time and decomposition | 5163 | ||
| 12.3.2.3 Regional Characters Controlling Abundance, Distribution, and Residence Time of LW | 5163 | ||
| 12.3.3 LW Effects on Fluvial Processes, Channel Morphology, and Riparian Features | 5165 | ||
| 12.3.3.1 Wood Jam Effects on the Hydraulic Conditions and Transport of Material | 5165 | ||
| 12.3.3.2 LW Effects on Channel Morphology and Grain Size Pattern | 5165 | ||
| 12.3.3.3 Relative Influence of LW According to Channel Size | 5167 | ||
| 12.3.3.4 Geomorphological Effects of LW on Riparian Areas | 5168 | ||
| 12.3.4 In-Channel Wood and River Management | 5169 | ||
| 12.3.4.1 Ecological Benefits of LW | 5169 | ||
| 12.3.4.2 Risks and Nuisances Associated with LW | 5169 | ||
| 12.3.4.3 Applications of Knowledge in Terms of Restoration and Sustainable Management | 5171 | ||
| References | 5171 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5174 | ||
| 12.4 River Processes and Implications for Fluvial Ecogeomorphology: A European Perspective | 5175 | ||
| 12.4.1 Introduction | 5175 | ||
| 12.4.2 The Long-term Perspective: Past, Present, and Future Trends in Channel Adjustments | 5176 | ||
| 12.4.2.1 Past Trends in Channel Adjustment | 5176 | ||
| 12.4.2.2 Riparian Vegetation and Channel Change | 5177 | ||
| 12.4.2.3 Impacts of Climate Change on Channel Dynamics | 5179 | ||
| 12.4.3 Progress in Understanding and Modeling Channel Processes Related to Fluvial Ecogeomorphology | 5180 | ||
| 12.4.3.1 Sediment Transport | 5180 | ||
| 12.4.3.2 Bank Erosion | 5181 | ||
| 12.4.3.3 Channel Pattern | 5182 | ||
| 12.4.4 River Processes and Ecogeomorphology | 5184 | ||
| 12.4.4.1 Ecological and Geomorphic Processes | 5184 | ||
| 12.4.4.2 Fluvial Geomorphology and River Restoration in Europe | 5184 | ||
| 12.4.4.3 Hydromorphology and WFD | 5185 | ||
| References | 5186 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5189 | ||
| 12.5 Riparian Vegetation and the Fluvial Environment: A Biogeographic Perspective | 5191 | ||
| 12.5.1 Introduction | 5191 | ||
| 12.5.2 Early History: Pattern and Process in Riparian Zones | 5192 | ||
| 12.5.3 Influence of Hydrogeomorphology on Vegetation: Evolution from Descriptive to Quantitative Studies | 5193 | ||
| 12.5.4 Specific Mechanisms of Hydrogeomorphic Impact | 5194 | ||
| 12.5.4.1 Flood Energy | 5194 | ||
| 12.5.4.2 Sedimentation | 5194 | ||
| 12.5.4.3 Prolonged Inundation | 5195 | ||
| 12.5.4.4 Water-Table Depth and Dynamics | 5195 | ||
| 12.5.4.5 Soil Chemistry | 5196 | ||
| 12.5.4.6 Propagule Dispersal | 5196 | ||
| 12.5.5 Influence of Vegetation on Geomorphology | 5197 | ||
| 12.5.6 Feedbacks between Vegetation and Hydrogeomorphology | 5198 | ||
| 12.5.7 Patterns in Published Literature | 5200 | ||
| 12.5.7.1 The Sample and Coding | 5201 | ||
| 12.5.7.2 General Characteristics of the Sampled Literature | 5202 | ||
| 12.5.7.3 Differences among Biomes | 5203 | ||
| 12.5.7.4 Scale-Related Differences | 5204 | ||
| 12.5.7.5 Hydrogeomorphic Mechanisms in the Context of Scale and Biogeography | 5205 | ||
| 12.5.8 Patterns and Perceptions Revealed in the Literature | 5206 | ||
| References | 5207 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5211 | ||
| 12.6 The Impacts of Vegetation on Roughness in Fluvial Systems | 5213 | ||
| 12.6.1 Introduction | 5214 | ||
| 12.6.2 In-Stream Emergent Vegetation | 5215 | ||
| 12.6.2.1 Reach-Scale Impacts of Emergent Vegetation | 5216 | ||
| 12.6.2.2 Hydraulics and Turbulence | 5216 | ||
| 12.6.2.3 Emergent Vegetation and Sediment Transport | 5217 | ||
| 12.6.3 In-Stream Submerged Vegetation | 5218 | ||
| 12.6.3.1 Reach-Scale Impacts of Submerged Vegetation | 5218 | ||
| 12.6.3.2 Hydraulics and Turbulence | 5220 | ||
| 12.6.3.3 Submerged Vegetation and Sediment Transport | 5221 | ||
| 12.6.4 Streambank Vegetation | 5221 | ||
| 12.6.4.1 Reach-Scale Impacts of Streambank Vegetation | 5222 | ||
| 12.6.4.2 Hydraulics and Turbulence | 5222 | ||
| 12.6.4.3 Streambank Vegetation and Sediment Transport | 5223 | ||
| 12.6.5 Floodplain Vegetation | 5223 | ||
| 12.6.5.1 Reach-Scale Impacts of Floodplain Vegetation | 5223 | ||
| 12.6.5.2 Hydraulics and Turbulence | 5224 | ||
| 12.6.5.3 Floodplain Vegetation and Sediment Transport | 5226 | ||
| 12.6.6 Future Directions | 5226 | ||
| References | 5227 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5231 | ||
| 12.7 Vegetation Ecogeomorphology, Dynamic Equilibrium, and Disturbance | 5232 | ||
| 12.7.1 Introduction | 5232 | ||
| 12.7.2 Vegetation Patterns | 5233 | ||
| 12.7.3 Hillslopes | 5234 | ||
| 12.7.4 Riparian Vegetation, Fluvial Processes, and Landforms | 5234 | ||
| 12.7.4.1 Systems in Dynamic Equilibrium | 5236 | ||
| 12.7.4.2 Systems in Nonequilibrium States | 5237 | ||
| 12.7.5 Dynamic Equilibrium and the Erosional-Depositional Environment | 5240 | ||
| 12.7.6 Summary | 5241 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 5242 | ||
| References | 5242 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5244 | ||
| 12.8 The Reinforcement of Soil by Roots: Recent Advances and Directions for Future Research | 5245 | ||
| 12.8.1 Introduction | 5246 | ||
| 12.8.1.1 Root Tensile Strength | 5246 | ||
| 12.8.2 Calculating Root Reinforcement | 5249 | ||
| 12.8.2.1 The Use of Fiber-Bundle Models in Root-Reinforcement Modeling | 5251 | ||
| 12.8.2.1.1 Load apportionment alternatives in FBMs | 5252 | ||
| 12.8.2.1.2 Effect of changing root orientations in an FBM | 5253 | ||
| 12.8.2.1.3 Displacement over which root reinforcement is effective | 5253 | ||
| 12.8.2.1.4 Using a Monte Carlo approach in FBMs | 5254 | ||
| 12.8.2.2 Root Architecture Measurement and Modeling | 5255 | ||
| 12.8.2.3 Hydraulic and Hydrologic Effects of Vegetation | 5256 | ||
| 12.8.3 Root-Reinforcement and Geomorphologic Processes at Different Spatial Scales | 5257 | ||
| 12.8.4 Conclusions and Direction of Future Research | 5258 | ||
| References | 5259 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5261 | ||
| 12.9 Dendrogeomorphology: Dating Earth-Surface Processes with Tree Rings | 5263 | ||
| 12.9.1 Introduction | 5264 | ||
| 12.9.2 Tree Rings and Earth-Surface Processes | 5264 | ||
| 12.9.2.1 Basic Patterns of Tree Growth | 5264 | ||
| 12.9.2.2 How Do Earth-Surface Processes Affect Tree Growth? | 5264 | ||
| 12.9.2.2.1 Wounding of trees (scars) and resin-duct formation | 5265 | ||
| 12.9.2.2.2 Tilting of stems | 5266 | ||
| 12.9.2.2.3 Stem burial | 5266 | ||
| 12.9.2.2.4 Decapitation of trees and elimination of branches | 5267 | ||
| 12.9.2.2.5 Root exposure and damage | 5267 | ||
| 12.9.2.2.6 Elimination of neighboring trees | 5268 | ||
| 12.9.2.2.7 Colonization of landforms after surface-clearing disturbances | 5269 | ||
| 12.9.2.3 Sampling Design and Laboratory Analyses | 5269 | ||
| 12.9.2.3.1 Field approach and sampling design | 5269 | ||
| 12.9.2.3.2 Laboratory approach: sample preparation and analysis | 5271 | ||
| 12.9.3 What Earth-Surface Processes Have Been Analyzed with Tree Rings? | 5272 | ||
| 12.9.3.1 Surface Erosion | 5272 | ||
| 12.9.3.2 Hydrological Processes | 5272 | ||
| 12.9.3.3 Landslides | 5273 | ||
| 12.9.3.4 Snow Avalanches | 5273 | ||
| 12.9.3.5 Rockfalls | 5273 | ||
| 12.9.3.6 Earthquakes and Volcanic Activity | 5273 | ||
| 12.9.3.7 Permafrost Processes | 5274 | ||
| 12.9.3.8 Dendroglaciology | 5274 | ||
| 12.9.4 Research Perspectives: Looking to Future Developments | 5275 | ||
| References | 5277 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5281 | ||
| 12.10 Tree-Ring Records of Variation in Flow and Channel Geometry | 5283 | ||
| 12.10.1 Introduction | 5283 | ||
| 12.10.2 Tree-Ring Methods in the Riparian Setting | 5284 | ||
| 12.10.2.1 Dating of Tree Establishment, Injury, and Shifts in Growth Rate | 5284 | ||
| 12.10.2.2 Dating of Tree Burial | 5285 | ||
| 12.10.2.3 Tree-Ring Dating in Comparison to Other Methods Used in Riparian Zones | 5286 | ||
| 12.10.3 Using Establishment Dates of Riparian Pioneer Trees to Determine Flood History and Flood-Plain Dynamics | 5286 | ||
| 12.10.3.1 Restrictive Establishment Requirements of Riparian Pioneer Trees in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions | 5286 | ||
| 12.10.3.2 Reproduction of Riparian Pioneer Trees Depends upon Channel Change Driven by Floods | 5287 | ||
| 12.10.3.3 The Spatial Pattern of Trees of Different Ages Provides a Record of Channel Change | 5288 | ||
| 12.10.3.4 Methodology for Determining Area-Age Distributions of Pioneer Trees | 5289 | ||
| 12.10.3.5 Steady-State Flood Plain with Exponential Area-Age Relation - A Null Model | 5291 | ||
| 12.10.3.6 Flood Hydrology, Channel Change, and Dominant Discharge | 5291 | ||
| 12.10.4 Forest Area-Age Distributions in Cottonwood-Dominated Systems: An Illustration of the Use of Tree Rings to... | 5292 | ||
| 12.10.4.1 Regional Climate and Riparian Vegetation | 5292 | ||
| 12.10.4.2 Small, Semi-Arid Low-Elevation Watersheds in Eastern Colorado | 5294 | ||
| 12.10.4.3 Large, Humid, High-Elevation Watersheds in the Northern Rocky Mountains | 5295 | ||
| 12.10.4.4 Intermediate Cases: Watersheds Dominated by Low-Elevation Snowmelt and Thunderstorms | 5297 | ||
| 12.10.4.5 Summary of Section 12.10.4 | 5299 | ||
| References | 5300 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5302 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5302 | ||
| 12.11 Peatland Geomorphology | 5303 | ||
| 12.11.1 Introduction | 5304 | ||
| 12.11.2 Definition of Peatlands | 5304 | ||
| 12.11.3 Geomorphology of Intact Peatlands | 5304 | ||
| 12.11.3.1 Hydrological Control of Raised-Mire Topography: The Groundwater-Mound Hypothesis | 5305 | ||
| 12.11.3.2 Streamlined Peatland Forms | 5306 | ||
| 12.11.3.3 Patterned Peatlands | 5306 | ||
| 12.11.3.4 Peatland Fluvial Systems | 5307 | ||
| 12.11.3.5 Palsa Mires and Polygonal Mires | 5308 | ||
| 12.11.4 Geomorphology of Eroding Peatlands | 5309 | ||
| 12.11.4.1 Causes and Occurrence of Peat Erosion | 5309 | ||
| 12.11.4.2 Patterns of Peat Erosion | 5310 | ||
| 12.11.4.3 Peat Erosion Processes | 5310 | ||
| 12.11.4.3.1 Gully erosion | 5310 | ||
| 12.11.4.3.2 Wind erosion | 5311 | ||
| 12.11.4.3.3 Peat mass movements | 5311 | ||
| 12.11.4.4 Magnitude of Peat Erosion | 5312 | ||
| 12.11.4.5 Erosion, Revegetation, and Restoration | 5312 | ||
| 12.11.5 Techniques in Peatland Geomorphology | 5313 | ||
| 12.11.5.1 Remote Sensing and Geospatial Analysis | 5313 | ||
| 12.11.5.2 Measuring Physical Properties of Peat | 5313 | ||
| 12.11.5.3 Measuring Peat Erosion | 5314 | ||
| 12.11.6 Putting It All Together: Peatland Function and Ecosystem Services | 5314 | ||
| References | 5316 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5319 | ||
| 12.12 Ecogeomorphology of Salt Marshes | 5320 | ||
| 12.12.1 Effects of Invertebrates and Vegetation on Marsh-Sediment Transport | 5321 | ||
| 12.12.1.1 Effects of Vegetation-Sediment Transport Interactions on Marsh Elevation | 5321 | ||
| 12.12.1.2 Effects of Vegetation and Invertebrates on the Erosion of the Marsh Edge | 5322 | ||
| 12.12.1.3 Effects of Vegetation-Sediment Transport Interaction on Marsh-Channel Networks | 5324 | ||
| 12.12.2 Feedbacks between Salt-Marsh Vegetation and Platform Elevation | 5325 | ||
| 12.12.3 Long-Term Marsh Stability and Biogeochemical Cycling | 5327 | ||
| 12.12.4 Modeling Intertidal Ecogeomorphology | 5330 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 5333 | ||
| References | 5333 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5335 | ||
| 12.13 Ecogeomorphology of Tidal Flats | 5339 | ||
| 12.13.1 Physiography, Sedimentology, and Stratigraphy of Tidal Flats | 5340 | ||
| 12.13.1.1 Tidal Flats Deposits | 5341 | ||
| 12.13.2 Biofilms in Tidal Flat Sediments | 5346 | ||
| 12.13.2.1 What are Biofilms? | 5346 | ||
| 12.13.2.2 Diatom Biofilms | 5347 | ||
| 12.13.2.3 Cyanobacterial Biofilms | 5347 | ||
| 12.13.2.4 Green Algal Biofilms | 5347 | ||
| 12.13.2.5 Sediment Stabilization by Biofilms | 5347 | ||
| 12.13.2.6 Extracellular Polymeric Substances | 5347 | ||
| 12.13.2.7 Effects of Biofilms on Physical Properties and Processes | 5349 | ||
| 12.13.2.8 Biotic Mediation of Bedforms | 5350 | ||
| 12.13.2.9 Destabilization - Buoyant Biofilms | 5350 | ||
| 12.13.2.10 Biofilms and Rainfall | 5350 | ||
| 12.13.2.11 Biofilms as Geomorphological Agents | 5350 | ||
| 12.13.2.12 Biofilms Biogeochemistry | 5350 | ||
| 12.13.3 Tidal Flats Vegetation and Sediment Transport Interactions | 5351 | ||
| 12.13.3.1 Modification of Near-Bed Hydrodynamics | 5351 | ||
| 12.13.3.2 Vegetation Density Effects | 5352 | ||
| 12.13.3.3 Feedbacks and Bistability | 5353 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 5354 | ||
| References | 5354 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5356 | ||
| 12.14 Valley Plugs, Land Use, and Phytogeomorphic Response | 5359 | ||
| 12.14.1 Introduction | 5359 | ||
| 12.14.1.1 Fluvial Processes | 5359 | ||
| 12.14.1.2 Channelization | 5361 | ||
| 12.14.2 Valley-Plug Formation | 5362 | ||
| 12.14.2.1 Geology | 5362 | ||
| 12.14.2.2 Land-Use Practices | 5364 | ||
| 12.14.3 Fluvial-Geomorphic Responses | 5365 | ||
| 12.14.3.1 Hydrologic Regimes | 5365 | ||
| 12.14.3.2 Sedimentation | 5366 | ||
| 12.14.4 Vegetative Responses | 5367 | ||
| 12.14.4.1 Germination | 5367 | ||
| 12.14.4.2 Species Composition and Structure | 5367 | ||
| 12.14.5 Restoration | 5368 | ||
| 12.14.6 Summary | 5369 | ||
| References | 5371 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5373 | ||
| 12.15 Fire as a Geomorphic Agent | 5374 | ||
| 12.15.1 Introduction | 5375 | ||
| 12.15.2 Soil | 5375 | ||
| 12.15.2.1 Hydrophobicity | 5376 | ||
| 12.15.2.2 Infiltration | 5376 | ||
| 12.15.2.3 Nutrients | 5377 | ||
| 12.15.2.4 Organic Matter and Litter | 5377 | ||
| 12.15.2.5 Microbial and Faunal Activity | 5378 | ||
| 12.15.2.6 Soil Temperature and Moisture | 5378 | ||
| 12.15.3 Weathering | 5378 | ||
| 12.15.4 Erosion | 5379 | ||
| 12.15.4.1 Surface Erosion | 5379 | ||
| 12.15.4.2 Gully/Rill Formation | 5382 | ||
| 12.15.4.3 Mass Movements | 5382 | ||
| 12.15.4.4 Wind Erosion | 5382 | ||
| 12.15.5 Hydrology | 5383 | ||
| 12.15.5.1 Runoff | 5383 | ||
| 12.15.5.2 Streamflow | 5383 | ||
| 12.15.5.3 Sediment Loads and Channel Morphology | 5384 | ||
| 12.15.5.4 Large Woody Debris and Riparian Zones | 5384 | ||
| 12.15.6 Prehistoric Fire | 5384 | ||
| 12.15.7 Geomorphic and Topographic Influences on Fire | 5385 | ||
| 12.15.8 Conclusion | 5385 | ||
| References | 5385 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5389 | ||
| 12.16 The Faunal Influence: Geomorphic Form and Process | 5390 | ||
| 12.16.1 Introduction | 5390 | ||
| 12.16.2 Categories of Geomorphic Impacts by Animals | 5391 | ||
| 12.16.2.1 Trampling and Loading | 5391 | ||
| 12.16.2.2 Digging | 5393 | ||
| 12.16.2.3 Burrowing | 5395 | ||
| 12.16.2.4 Beaver Damming | 5395 | ||
| 12.16.3 Geomorphic Impacts of Domesticated and Feral Animals | 5395 | ||
| 12.16.4 Zoogeomorphology at Ecotones | 5396 | ||
| 12.16.5 Conclusion | 5396 | ||
| References | 5397 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5398 | ||
| 12.17 Microbioerosion and Bioconstruction | 5399 | ||
| 12.17.1 Introduction | 5399 | ||
| 12.17.2 What Are Microbes and Why Are They Important to Geomorphology? | 5400 | ||
| 12.17.3 What Do We Know about Microbial Contributions to Geomorphology? - a Brief Historical Review | 5402 | ||
| 12.17.4 State-of-the-Art of Microbial Contributions to Geomorphology - Case Study Environments | 5403 | ||
| 12.17.4.1 Arctic, Antarctic, and High Mountain Environments | 5403 | ||
| 12.17.4.2 Rocky Coasts and Coral Reefs | 5404 | ||
| 12.17.4.3 Hot Desert Environments | 5405 | ||
| 12.17.4.4 Ruiniform Landscapes | 5405 | ||
| 12.17.5 Current Key Questions in Microbial Geomorphology | 5406 | ||
| References | 5406 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5408 | ||
| 12.18 The Geomorphic Impacts of Animal Burrowing and Denning | 5409 | ||
| 12.18.1 Introduction | 5409 | ||
| 12.18.2 Haplotaxida - Earthworms | 5410 | ||
| 12.18.3 Isoptera and Hymenoptera | 5410 | ||
| 12.18.3.1 Termites and Ants | 5410 | ||
| 12.18.3.2 Bees | 5410 | ||
| 12.18.4 Salmoniformes - Salmon and Trout | 5411 | ||
| 12.18.5 Testudines - Gopher Tortoises and Related Species | 5411 | ||
| 12.18.6 Procellariiformes - Wedge-tailed and Sooty Shearwaters | 5412 | ||
| 12.18.7 Lagomorphs (Lagomorpha) - Rabbits and Pikas | 5412 | ||
| 12.18.8 Rodents (Rodentia) | 5412 | ||
| 12.18.8.1 Gophers | 5412 | ||
| 12.18.8.2 Ground Squirrels | 5413 | ||
| 12.18.8.3 Marmots | 5413 | ||
| 12.18.8.4 Voles and Zokors | 5414 | ||
| 12.18.9 Carnivores (Carnivora) | 5414 | ||
| 12.18.9.1 Badgers | 5414 | ||
| 12.18.9.2 Grizzly Bears | 5415 | ||
| 12.18.10 Soricomorpha - Moles | 5415 | ||
| 12.18.11 Conclusions | 5415 | ||
| References | 5415 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5418 | ||
| 12.19 Effects of Ants and Termites on Soil and Geomorphological Processes | 5419 | ||
| 12.19.1 Introduction | 5419 | ||
| 12.19.2 Geographic Distribution and Diversity | 5420 | ||
| 12.19.3 Effects of Ants and Termites on Soil Physical Properties | 5420 | ||
| 12.19.3.1 Development of Surface and Sub-Surface Structures | 5420 | ||
| 12.19.3.1.1 Elevated ant nests in seasonally flooded environments | 5421 | ||
| 12.19.3.1.2 Termitaria: Structures of mound-building termites | 5421 | ||
| 12.19.3.1.3 Stone lines | 5422 | ||
| 12.19.3.2 Soil Turnover and Soil Development | 5422 | ||
| 12.19.3.2.1 Soil turnover by ants and termites | 5422 | ||
| 12.19.3.2.2 Effects on soil particle size and clay mineralogy | 5423 | ||
| 12.19.3.2.3 Soil profile development or profile homogenization? | 5424 | ||
| 12.19.3.3 Soil Porosity, Infiltration and Water Storage | 5424 | ||
| 12.19.3.4 Soil Erosion | 5425 | ||
| 12.19.4 Effects of Ants and Termites on Soil Chemical Processes | 5426 | ||
| 12.19.4.1 Effects on Movement of Organic Matter | 5426 | ||
| 12.19.4.2 Effects on Soil Chemistry | 5426 | ||
| 12.19.5 Impacts of Alien Species: The Imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta) as an Example | 5427 | ||
| 12.19.6 Conclusions | 5428 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 5428 | ||
| References | 5428 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5430 | ||
| 12.20 Beaver Hydrology and Geomorphology | 5431 | ||
| 12.20.1 Introduction | 5431 | ||
| 12.20.2 History and Geographic Distribution of Beaver | 5432 | ||
| 12.20.3 Main Hydrologic Signatures of Beaver | 5432 | ||
| 12.20.4 Influence of Beaver Activities on the Water Cycle | 5433 | ||
| 12.20.4.1 Surface-Water Storage | 5434 | ||
| 12.20.4.2 Streamflow | 5435 | ||
| 12.20.4.3 Evapotranspiration | 5436 | ||
| 12.20.4.4 Surface Water-Groundwater Exchange | 5437 | ||
| 12.20.5 Beaver Geomorphology - Landforms and Sedimentation | 5438 | ||
| 12.20.6 Conclusions and Future Challenges | 5440 | ||
| References | 5440 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5443 | ||
| 12.21 Interactions among Hydrogeomorphology, Vegetation, and Nutrient Biogeochemistry in Floodplain Ecosystems | 5445 | ||
| 12.21.1 Floodplains and Their Essential Interactive Processes | 5446 | ||
| 12.21.2 The Template of Hydrogeomorphology in Floodplains | 5446 | ||
| 12.21.2.1 History of Hydrogeomorphic Concepts in Rivers | 5446 | ||
| 12.21.2.2 Hydrogeomorphic Controls on Floodplain Ecosystems | 5447 | ||
| 12.21.3 Controls of Vegetation in Floodplains | 5448 | ||
| 12.21.3.1 Hydrogeomorphic Controls of Vegetation | 5448 | ||
| 12.21.3.2 Influence of Vegetation on Hydrogeomorphology | 5449 | ||
| 12.21.3.3 Biogeochemical Controls on Vegetation | 5449 | ||
| 12.21.3.4 Other Biota | 5449 | ||
| 12.21.4 Controls of Nutrient Biogeochemistry in Floodplains | 5450 | ||
| 12.21.4.1 Hydrogeomorphic Controls of Nutrient Biogeochemistry | 5450 | ||
| 12.21.4.2 Influence of Vegetation on Nutrient Biogeochemistry | 5452 | ||
| 12.21.4.3 Biogeochemical Controls on Hydrogeomorphology? | 5452 | ||
| 12.21.5 Case Studies | 5452 | ||
| 12.21.5.1 Hummock/Hollow Geomorphology in Peatlands and Floodplains | 5452 | ||
| 12.21.5.2 Coastal Plain Floodplains | 5453 | ||
| 12.21.5.3 Montane Floodplains | 5454 | ||
| 12.21.5.4 Desert Streams | 5454 | ||
| 12.21.6 Conclusions | 5455 | ||
| References | 5455 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5459 | ||
| e9780123747396v13 | 5460 | ||
| Front Cover | 5460 | ||
| TREATISE ON\rGEOMORPHOLOGY | 5463 | ||
| CONTENTS | 5465 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 5467 | ||
| VOLUME EDITORS | 5469 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 13 | 5471 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 5473 | ||
| PREFACE | 5487 | ||
| FOREWORD | 5489 | ||
| 13.1 Geomorphology of Human Disturbances, Climate Change, and Hazards | 5491 | ||
| 13.1.1 Introduction | 5492 | ||
| 13.1.2 Background | 5492 | ||
| 13.1.2.1 Early Concepts of Population, Technology, and Environmental Impacts | 5493 | ||
| 13.1.2.2 Structure of the Volume | 5494 | ||
| 13.1.3 Human Impacts on Geomorphic Systems | 5494 | ||
| 13.1.3.1 Anthropogenic Geomorphology | 5494 | ||
| 13.1.3.2 Scales of Space and Time | 5495 | ||
| 13.1.4 Impacts of Climate and Climate Change on Geomorphic Systems | 5495 | ||
| 13.1.4.1 Climatic Geomorphology | 5495 | ||
| 13.1.4.2 Impacts of Climate Change on Geomorphic Systems | 5496 | ||
| 13.1.4.3 The Human Role in Early Climate Warming | 5496 | ||
| 13.1.5 Geomorphic Hazards | 5497 | ||
| 13.1.6 Nuclear Detonations as a Geomorphic Agent | 5498 | ||
| 13.1.7 Restoration, Stabilization, Rehabilitation, and Management | 5499 | ||
| 13.1.8 Conclusion | 5500 | ||
| References | 5500 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5502 | ||
| 13.2 Impacts of Vegetation Clearance on Channel Change: Historical Perspective | 5504 | ||
| 13.2.1 Introduction | 5504 | ||
| 13.2.2 Historical Perspective on Observation and Research | 5505 | ||
| 13.2.3 Linking Vegetation Clearance to Channel Change: Recently Colonized Landscapes | 5506 | ||
| 13.2.3.1 North America | 5506 | ||
| 13.2.3.2 Effects of Forest-Clearing Practices on Channel Change | 5509 | ||
| 13.2.3.3 Australia and New Zealand | 5510 | ||
| 13.2.3.4 South America | 5511 | ||
| 13.2.4 The Mediterranean Region and Europe | 5511 | ||
| 13.2.5 Further Examples Linking Vegetation Clearance to Channel Change | 5514 | ||
| 13.2.6 Summary of Trends | 5514 | ||
| References | 5515 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5517 | ||
| 13.3 Land-Use Impacts on the Hydrogeomorphology of Small Watersheds | 5518 | ||
| 13.3.1 Introduction | 5519 | ||
| 13.3.2 Hydrogeomorphic Systems in Small Watersheds | 5519 | ||
| 13.3.2.1 Hillslope Hydrology | 5519 | ||
| 13.3.2.2 Upland Erosion | 5519 | ||
| 13.3.2.3 Stream Networks | 5521 | ||
| 13.3.3 Land-Use Impacts on Hydrogeomorphic Systems: An Overview | 5521 | ||
| 13.3.4 Land-Use Impacts on Upland Areas of Small Watersheds | 5522 | ||
| 13.3.4.1 Timber Extraction and Other Vegetation Destruction | 5522 | ||
| 13.3.4.2 Grazing and Crop Cultivation | 5524 | ||
| 13.3.4.3 Urbanization | 5527 | ||
| 13.3.4.4 Synopsis | 5528 | ||
| 13.3.5 Land-Use Impacts on Stream Channels in Small Watersheds | 5528 | ||
| 13.3.5.1 Impacts on Water and Sediment Delivery | 5528 | ||
| 13.3.5.2 Impacts on Stream Networks | 5528 | ||
| 13.3.5.3 Channel Adjustments to Vegetation Removal | 5529 | ||
| 13.3.5.4 Channel Adjustments to Agricultural Land Use | 5529 | ||
| 13.3.5.5 Channel Adjustments to Urbanization | 5531 | ||
| 13.3.5.6 Synopsis | 5533 | ||
| 13.3.6 Conclusions | 5533 | ||
| References | 5534 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5537 | ||
| 13.4 Impacts of Early Agriculture and Deforestation on Geomorphic Systems | 5538 | ||
| 13.4.1 Introduction | 5539 | ||
| 13.4.1.1 Goals and Scope of Chapter | 5539 | ||
| 13.4.2 Emergence and Geomorphic Impacts of Early Agriculture | 5540 | ||
| 13.4.2.1 Importance of Agriculture to Geomorphology | 5540 | ||
| 13.4.2.2 Quaternary Sediment Yields | 5541 | ||
| 13.4.2.2.1 The Neolithic | 5541 | ||
| 13.4.2.3 The Onset of Agriculture in North Central China | 5542 | ||
| 13.4.2.4 Mesopotamia and Spread of Agriculture to Eastern Mediterranean | 5544 | ||
| 13.4.2.5 Neolithic Expansion Across Europe | 5545 | ||
| 13.4.2.5.1 Deforestation of Europe | 5546 | ||
| 13.4.2.6 Pre-European Land Use in the New World | 5546 | ||
| 13.4.2.6.1 Assumptions of pristine landscapes | 5546 | ||
| 13.4.2.6.2 Pre-Columbian human impacts in North America | 5548 | ||
| 13.4.3 Intensification of Agriculture in Eurasia | 5548 | ||
| 13.4.3.1 Increasing Potential for Geomorphic Effectiveness | 5549 | ||
| 13.4.3.2 Explanations for Advanced Eurasian Technology | 5550 | ||
| 13.4.4 Introduction of European Agriculture to the New World | 5551 | ||
| 13.4.4.1 Colonial Impacts in North America | 5551 | ||
| 13.4.4.2 Colonial Impacts in Australasia | 5552 | ||
| 13.4.4.3 Assumptions of Ubiquitous Geomorphic Impacts by Colonization | 5552 | ||
| 13.4.4.4 Loss of Environmental Restraints | 5552 | ||
| 13.4.5 Modern Agricultural and Deforestation Impacts | 5553 | ||
| 13.4.5.1 Forest Transition and Reforestation | 5553 | ||
| 13.4.6 Conclusion | 5553 | ||
| References | 5554 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5557 | ||
| 13.5 Grazing Influences on Geomorphic Systems | 5558 | ||
| 13.5.1 Introduction | 5558 | ||
| 13.5.2 General Geomorphic Impacts of Grazing | 5558 | ||
| 13.5.3 Grazing Impacts of Restricted Native Populations of Animals | 5559 | ||
| 13.5.4 Grazing Impacts of Feral Animals | 5560 | ||
| 13.5.4.1 Feral Burros | 5560 | ||
| 13.5.4.2 Feral Horses | 5561 | ||
| 13.5.5 Grazing Impacts of Domesticated Animals | 5561 | ||
| 13.5.6 Conclusions | 5562 | ||
| References | 5562 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5563 | ||
| 13.6 Impacts of Mining on Geomorphic Systems | 5564 | ||
| 13.6.1 Introduction | 5565 | ||
| 13.6.2 Types of Mines and Mining History | 5566 | ||
| 13.6.2.1 Types of Mining and Associated Landforms | 5566 | ||
| 13.6.2.1.1 Materials mined | 5566 | ||
| 13.6.2.1.2 Types of mining by nature of excavation | 5567 | ||
| 13.6.2.2 History of Mining | 5571 | ||
| 13.6.3 The Current Scenario | 5574 | ||
| 13.6.3.1 Mineral Consumption and Comparison with Other Geomorphic Processes | 5574 | ||
| 13.6.3.2 Mining Landscapes and Landscape Change | 5575 | ||
| 13.6.3.2.1 Comparisons of landscapes, waste rock, and geography | 5575 | ||
| 13.6.3.2.2 Open pits | 5575 | ||
| 13.6.3.3 Coal-Mining Landscapes | 5575 | ||
| 13.6.3.3.1 Phosphate-mining landscapes | 5576 | ||
| 13.6.3.3.2 Oil extraction landscapes | 5576 | ||
| 13.6.3.3.3 Sand and gravel-mining landscapes: Rivers and floodplains | 5577 | ||
| 13.6.3.3.4 Sand and gravel-mining landscapes: Coasts and lakes | 5578 | ||
| 13.6.3.3.5 Sand and gravel-mining landscapes: Glacial deposits | 5579 | ||
| 13.6.4 Mining and Geomorphic Hazards | 5579 | ||
| 13.6.4.1 Above-Ground Hazards | 5579 | ||
| 13.6.4.1.1 Mining and hillslope failures | 5579 | ||
| 13.6.4.1.2 Mine tailings and tailings dams failures | 5579 | ||
| 13.6.4.2 Below-Ground Hazards | 5580 | ||
| 13.6.4.2.1 Underground mining and subsidence | 5580 | ||
| 13.6.4.2.2 Catastrophic floods in underground mines | 5580 | ||
| 13.6.5 Geomorphology and Mine Reclamation | 5581 | ||
| 13.6.6 Conclusion | 5582 | ||
| References | 5582 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5585 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5585 | ||
| 13.7 Hydrogeomorphic Effects of Reservoirs, Dams, and Diversions | 5586 | ||
| 13.7.1 Introduction | 5586 | ||
| 13.7.1.1 Impacts of Dams on Downstream Rivers | 5587 | ||
| 13.7.1.2 The Geomorphological Basis for the Sustainable Management of River Ecosystems | 5587 | ||
| 13.7.2 Water Benefit - Environmental Impact Dilemma | 5588 | ||
| 13.7.2.1 Water Resources and Dam Building | 5588 | ||
| 13.7.2.2 Changing Flows and Sediment loads | 5588 | ||
| 13.7.2.2.1 Changing flow regimes | 5588 | ||
| 13.7.2.2.2 Changing sediment fluxes | 5589 | ||
| 13.7.2.3 Environmental Response to Flow Regulation: The Platte River, USA | 5589 | ||
| 13.7.3 Channel Changes Associated with Dams and Flow Regulation | 5590 | ||
| 13.7.3.1 Changing Channel Styles | 5591 | ||
| 13.7.3.1.1 Major reduction in sediment load (QdegLbequal)apCCplus wplusdplusnplusS- | 5592 | ||
| 13.7.3.1.2 Major reduction in discharge (QequalLbdeg)apCC-w-d-n-Splus | 5593 | ||
| 13.7.3.1.3 Changes within rigid-boundary channels | 5594 | ||
| 13.7.3.1.4 Deterioration of the channel bed | 5595 | ||
| 13.7.3.2 Complex Response of Channel Forms | 5595 | ||
| 13.7.3.2.1 Rates of adjustment | 5596 | ||
| 13.7.3.2.2 Role of vegetation in driving channel narrowing | 5597 | ||
| 13.7.3.2.3 Influence of pre-dam channel conditions and post-dam flood events | 5597 | ||
| 13.7.3.2.4 Historical context of human interferences | 5598 | ||
| 13.7.4 The Future of River Regulation | 5598 | ||
| 13.7.4.1 Restoring Natural Flow Regimes | 5599 | ||
| 13.7.4.2 Restoring the Natural Sediment Regime | 5599 | ||
| 13.7.4.3 Flushing Flows | 5599 | ||
| 13.7.4.4 Dam Removal | 5600 | ||
| 13.7.4.5 The Geomorphological Imperative | 5600 | ||
| References | 5600 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5604 | ||
| 13.8 Climatic Geomorphology | 5605 | ||
| 13.8.1 Introduction | 5605 | ||
| 13.8.2 The Dawning of Climatic Geomorphology | 5607 | ||
| 13.8.3 The Establishment of Climatic Geomorphology | 5608 | ||
| 13.8.4 The Development of Climatic Geomorphology | 5609 | ||
| 13.8.5 Climatic Geomorphology: Processes and Morphoclimatic Zonation | 5610 | ||
| 13.8.6 The Zonal Concept in Climatic Geomorphology | 5613 | ||
| 13.8.7 The Main Morphoclimatic Zones | 5615 | ||
| References | 5619 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5621 | ||
| 13.9 Climate Change and Aeolian Processes | 5622 | ||
| 13.9.1 Introduction | 5622 | ||
| 13.9.2 Conceptual Framework | 5623 | ||
| 13.9.3 Dust Events and Climate Variability | 5623 | ||
| 13.9.4 Dune Systems | 5627 | ||
| 13.9.4.1 Late Holocene and Historical Record of Dune Movement and Deposition | 5628 | ||
| 13.9.4.2 Decadal-Scale Changes | 5630 | ||
| 13.9.4.3 Response to Interannual Climate Variability | 5631 | ||
| 13.9.5 Modeling the Response of Aeolian Systems to Climate Change | 5633 | ||
| 13.9.5.1 Dust Sources and Transport | 5633 | ||
| 13.9.5.2 Dune Systems | 5633 | ||
| 13.9.6 Aeolian System Response to Future Climates | 5636 | ||
| 13.9.7 Conclusions | 5639 | ||
| References | 5639 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5641 | ||
| 13.10 Glacial Responses to Climate Change | 5642 | ||
| 13.10.1 Introduction | 5643 | ||
| 13.10.2 Glaciers and the Cryosphere Components in the Climate System | 5644 | ||
| 13.10.3 The Development of Internationally Coordinated Glacier Observation | 5648 | ||
| 13.10.3.1 Historical Background | 5648 | ||
| 13.10.3.2 An Integrated Strategy | 5649 | ||
| 13.10.4 Documented Changes and Challenges for the Future | 5651 | ||
| 13.10.4.1 Accelerated Glacier Mass Loss | 5651 | ||
| 13.10.4.2 Predominant Worldwide Glacier Retreat | 5653 | ||
| 13.10.4.3 Shrinking of Glaciers in Entire Mountain Ranges | 5655 | ||
| 13.10.5 Scenarios, Impacts, and Adaptation | 5656 | ||
| 13.10.5.1 Glacier Vanishing and Water | 5656 | ||
| 13.10.5.2 Landscape, Surface Processes, and Hazards | 5657 | ||
| 13.10.5.3 Challenges for Monitoring Glacier Evolution | 5659 | ||
| References | 5661 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5665 | ||
| 13.11 Response of Periglacial Geomorphic Processes to Global Change | 5666 | ||
| 13.11.1 Introduction | 5667 | ||
| 13.11.1.1 The Periglacial Environment | 5667 | ||
| 13.11.2 Permafrost | 5667 | ||
| 13.11.3 Periglacial Processes | 5668 | ||
| 13.11.3.1 Frost Action | 5668 | ||
| 13.11.3.1.1 Frost weathering | 5668 | ||
| 13.11.3.1.2 Frost heaving | 5668 | ||
| 13.11.3.1.3 Frost sorting | 5668 | ||
| 13.11.3.1.4 Frost cracking | 5669 | ||
| 13.11.3.2 Cryogenic Weathering and Pedogenesis | 5669 | ||
| 13.11.3.3 Hillslope Processes | 5669 | ||
| 13.11.3.4 Fluvial Processes | 5669 | ||
| 13.11.3.5 Aeolian Processes | 5670 | ||
| 13.11.4 Climate Change and Permafrost | 5670 | ||
| 13.11.4.1 Permafrost Warming | 5670 | ||
| 13.11.4.2 Increased Active Layer Thickness | 5671 | ||
| 13.11.5 Geomorphic Responses to Global Change | 5673 | ||
| 13.11.5.1 Thermokarst | 5673 | ||
| 13.11.5.2 Thermal Erosion | 5673 | ||
| 13.11.5.3 Hillslope Responses | 5673 | ||
| 13.11.5.4 Fluvial Responses | 5675 | ||
| 13.11.5.5 Frost Phenomena | 5676 | ||
| 13.11.6 Conclusions | 5676 | ||
| References | 5677 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5679 | ||
| 13.12 Natural Hazards, Landscapes, and Civilizations | 5680 | ||
| 13.12.1 Introduction | 5681 | ||
| 13.12.2 Slow Change or a Series of Disasters | 5681 | ||
| 13.12.2.1 The Younger Dryas Period and the Initiation of Agriculture | 5681 | ||
| 13.12.2.2 The Mid-Holocene End of the Green Sahara | 5682 | ||
| 13.12.3 Past Great Disasters | 5682 | ||
| 13.12.3.1 The Black Sea Flood and the Spread of Indo-European People | 5683 | ||
| 13.12.3.2 The First Intermediate Period in the Pharaoh Dynasties and the 4.2ka Global Event | 5683 | ||
| 13.12.3.3 The Moche Collapse in Peru in About AD 600 | 5683 | ||
| 13.12.3.4 The Classical Maya Decline About AD 900 in Central America | 5684 | ||
| 13.12.3.5 The Norse Greenland Demise at the Beginning of the Little Ice Age | 5685 | ||
| 13.12.3.6 The Colonization of Pacific islands | 5685 | ||
| 13.12.4 Recent Disasters | 5686 | ||
| 13.12.4.1 The Volcanic Eruption of Laki in AD 1783-84 | 5686 | ||
| 13.12.4.2 The AD 1883 Krakatau Eruption and Indonesia Independence | 5686 | ||
| 13.12.4.3 The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 and the Separatist Movement in Aceh | 5687 | ||
| 13.12.4.4 The AD 2005 Hurricane Katrina and Ethnicity Changes in New Orleans | 5688 | ||
| 13.12.5 Discussion | 5688 | ||
| 13.12.5.1 Factors Leading to Disaster | 5688 | ||
| 13.12.5.2 Positive Effects of Sudden Environmental Changes | 5689 | ||
| 13.12.5.3 Is Modern Society Vulnerable to Rapid Environmental Change? | 5689 | ||
| 13.12.5.4 Toward Solutions | 5690 | ||
| 13.12.6 Conclusions | 5690 | ||
| References | 5691 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5693 | ||
| 13.13 Tsunami | 5694 | ||
| 13.13.1 Introduction | 5694 | ||
| 13.13.2 Tsunamis as a Natural Process | 5696 | ||
| 13.13.3 Historic Records | 5696 | ||
| 13.13.4 Hybrid Records | 5697 | ||
| 13.13.5 Geological Records | 5698 | ||
| 13.13.6 Geomorphological Records | 5702 | ||
| 13.13.6.1 Where to from Here? | 5704 | ||
| 13.13.7 Conclusions | 5706 | ||
| References | 5706 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5708 | ||
| 13.14 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms | 5709 | ||
| 13.14.1 Prologue/Introduction | 5710 | ||
| 13.14.2 Volcanic Phenomena | 5711 | ||
| 13.14.2.1 Topography | 5711 | ||
| 13.14.2.2 Hydrology | 5712 | ||
| 13.14.3 Global Volcanic Features | 5713 | ||
| 13.14.3.1 Oceanic Ridges (Rift Zones) | 5713 | ||
| 13.14.3.2 Subduction Zones | 5714 | ||
| 13.14.4 Regional Features (gt100km) | 5715 | ||
| 13.14.4.1 Continental Flood Basalts | 5716 | ||
| 13.14.4.2 Ignimbrite Plateaus | 5716 | ||
| 13.14.4.3 Hot Spot Tracks | 5717 | ||
| 13.14.4.4 Continental Rift Valleys | 5717 | ||
| 13.14.4.5 Volcanic Cone Fields | 5718 | ||
| 13.14.5 Local Features (lt100km) | 5718 | ||
| 13.14.5.1 Constructional Landforms and Processes | 5718 | ||
| 13.14.5.1.1 Lava flows and domes | 5718 | ||
| 13.14.5.1.2 Pyroclastic flows | 5721 | ||
| 13.14.5.1.3 Fumarolic mounds and sinter/travertine terraces and deposits | 5721 | ||
| 13.14.5.2 Destructional Landforms and Processes | 5721 | ||
| 13.14.5.2.1 Pit craters | 5721 | ||
| 13.14.5.2.2 Maars | 5722 | ||
| 13.14.5.2.3 Tuff rings | 5722 | ||
| 13.14.5.2.4 Diatremes | 5722 | ||
| 13.14.5.2.5 Calderas | 5723 | ||
| 13.14.5.2.6 Debris avalanches/sector collapse | 5724 | ||
| 13.14.5.3 Composite Features | 5724 | ||
| 13.14.5.3.1 Shield volcanoes | 5724 | ||
| 13.14.5.3.2 Strato- or composite volcanoes | 5725 | ||
| 13.14.5.3.3 Cinder cones (scoria cones) - monogenetic and polygenetic | 5725 | ||
| 13.14.5.3.4 Tuyas | 5725 | ||
| 13.14.5.3.5 Tindars, subglacial mounds, hyaloclastite mounds | 5726 | ||
| 13.14.5.4 Other Volcanic Phenomena that may Result in Morphological Changes | 5726 | ||
| 13.14.5.4.1 Pyroclastic fall deposits | 5726 | ||
| 13.14.5.4.2 Lahars | 5727 | ||
| 13.14.5.4.3 Tsunamis | 5728 | ||
| 13.14.5.4.4 Volcanic gases | 5728 | ||
| 13.14.5.4.5 Volcanic and tectonic earthquakes | 5728 | ||
| 13.14.5.4.6 Lightning strikes | 5729 | ||
| 13.14.6 Conclusion | 5729 | ||
| References | 5729 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5731 | ||
| 13.15 Hazardous Processes: Flooding | 5733 | ||
| 13.15.1 Introduction | 5733 | ||
| 13.15.2 Flood Causes and Their Magnitude | 5734 | ||
| 13.15.3 Flood Hazards in Fluvial Environments | 5735 | ||
| 13.15.3.1 Mountain Streams | 5736 | ||
| 13.15.3.2 Alluvial Fans | 5738 | ||
| 13.15.3.3 Alluvial Rivers | 5740 | ||
| 13.15.4 Natural and Anthropogenic Drivers of Flood Hazard Variability | 5744 | ||
| 13.15.4.1 Flood Response to Climate Variability | 5744 | ||
| 13.15.4.2 Environmental Changes and Flood Hazards | 5745 | ||
| 13.15.4.3 River Engineering Structures and Flood Hazards | 5746 | ||
| 13.15.5 Concluding Remarks | 5747 | ||
| References | 5747 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5751 | ||
| 13.16 Wildfire and Landscape Change | 5752 | ||
| 13.16.1 Introduction | 5753 | ||
| 13.16.2 Physical Changes Brought About by Wildfire | 5754 | ||
| 13.16.2.1 Physical Losses (Including Vegetation Canopy, Understory and Surface Litter, and Soil Organic Matter, Root... | 5754 | ||
| 13.16.2.2 Physical Gains (Including Ash and Water Repellency) | 5756 | ||
| 13.16.2.3 Changes in Hydrologic Properties (Including Infiltration and Runoff, and Critical Shear Stress for Particle... | 5758 | ||
| 13.16.2.4 Changes in Soil Mineralogy and Physical Properties, and Rock Structure | 5758 | ||
| 13.16.3 Process Changes Brought About by Wildfire | 5761 | ||
| 13.16.3.1 Hillslope Runoff and Erosion | 5761 | ||
| 13.16.3.2 Drainage Network Runoff and Erosion | 5762 | ||
| 13.16.3.3 Debris and Mud Flows | 5763 | ||
| 13.16.3.4 Landslides | 5765 | ||
| 13.16.3.5 Talus and Dry-Ravel Generation | 5766 | ||
| 13.16.3.6 Recovery and Return to Original Conditions | 5767 | ||
| 13.16.4 Landform Changes Brought About by Wildfire | 5767 | ||
| 13.16.4.1 Hillslope Lowering | 5767 | ||
| 13.16.4.2 Channel Aggradation | 5767 | ||
| 13.16.4.3 Channel Incision | 5768 | ||
| 13.16.4.4 Alluvial and Debris Fans | 5768 | ||
| 13.16.4.5 Talus Cones and Rock Movement | 5769 | ||
| 13.16.5 Applications of Geomorphology in Burned Areas | 5769 | ||
| 13.16.5.1 Burned Area Emergency Response Team Studies | 5769 | ||
| 13.16.5.2 Debris-Flow Hazard Assessments | 5770 | ||
| 13.16.6 Summary | 5771 | ||
| References | 5772 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5776 | ||
| 13.17 Landslide Hazards and Climate Change in High Mountains | 5778 | ||
| 13.17.1 Introduction | 5778 | ||
| 13.17.2 Background | 5779 | ||
| 13.17.3 Detecting Climate Change Impacts in Landslide Frequency-Magnitude Distributions | 5779 | ||
| 13.17.4 Temperature and Stability in Bedrock Permafrost | 5781 | ||
| 13.17.5 Catastrophic Rock and Ice Avalanches - Growing Evidence of Climate Change Effects? | 5782 | ||
| 13.17.5.1 Case Study: Monte Rosa, Italy | 5783 | ||
| 13.17.5.2 Case Study: Kolka-Karmadon, Caucasus | 5784 | ||
| 13.17.6 Debris Flows and Other Landslides in Proglacial Environments | 5784 | ||
| 13.17.6.1 Case Study: Salcantay, Peru | 5785 | ||
| 13.17.7 Dynamic Interactions Among Landslide, Glacial, and River Processes | 5785 | ||
| 13.17.7.1 Case Study: Lower Grindelwald Glacier | 5785 | ||
| 13.17.8 Assessment and Modeling of Slope Stability in the Context of Climate Change | 5786 | ||
| 13.17.9 Conclusions | 5787 | ||
| References | 5788 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5791 | ||
| e9780123747396v14 | 5792 | ||
| Front Cover | 5792 | ||
| TREATISE ON GEOMORPHOLOGY | 5795 | ||
| CONTENTS | 5797 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF | 5799 | ||
| VOLUME EDITORS | 5801 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 14 | 5803 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 5805 | ||
| PREFACE | 5819 | ||
| FOREWORD | 5821 | ||
| 14.1 Methods and Techniques for the Modern Geomorphologist: An Introduction to the Volume | 5823 | ||
| References | 5826 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5827 | ||
| 14.2 Fundamental Classic and Modern Field Techniques in Geomorphology: An Overview | 5828 | ||
| 14.2.1 Introduction | 5829 | ||
| 14.2.2 Classic Field Techniques in Geomorphology Revisited | 5829 | ||
| 14.2.2.1 Geomorphological Mapping | 5829 | ||
| 14.2.2.1.1 Remote sensing and geomorphological mapping | 5829 | ||
| 14.2.2.2 Shallow Coring and Sampling | 5830 | ||
| 14.2.2.2.1 Coring | 5830 | ||
| 14.2.2.2.2 Sampling | 5830 | ||
| 14.2.3 Modern Field Techniques in Geomorphology | 5831 | ||
| 14.2.3.1 Principles of GPS and Applications in Geomorphology | 5831 | ||
| 14.2.3.2 LiDAR in Geomorphology | 5831 | ||
| 14.2.3.2.1 Principles of LiDAR | 5832 | ||
| 14.2.3.2.2 Airborne or terrestrial laser scanning | 5832 | ||
| 14.2.3.2.3 LiDAR - principles of data acquisition and processing | 5833 | ||
| 14.2.3.3 Geophysical Applications in Geomorphology | 5833 | ||
| 14.2.3.3.1 Ground-penetrating radar | 5833 | ||
| 14.2.3.3.1.1 Principle and geomorphic context | 5833 | ||
| 14.2.3.3.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of GPR in geomorphological applications | 5834 | ||
| 14.2.3.3.2 Geoelectrical resistivity | 5835 | ||
| 14.2.3.3.2.1 Principle and geomorphic context | 5835 | ||
| 14.2.3.3.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages in geomorphological applications | 5837 | ||
| 14.2.3.3.3 Seismic refraction | 5837 | ||
| 14.2.3.3.3.1 Principle and geomorphic context | 5837 | ||
| 14.2.3.3.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages in geomorphological studies | 5840 | ||
| 14.2.4 Conclusions | 5840 | ||
| 14.2.5 Disclaimer | 5840 | ||
| References | 5840 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5843 | ||
| 14.3 Geomorphometry: Quantitative Land-Surface Analysis | 5844 | ||
| 14.3.1 Introduction | 5845 | ||
| 14.3.2 Basics: Altitude and Slope Gradient | 5847 | ||
| 14.3.3 Geomorphometric Field Variables: Local and Regional | 5848 | ||
| 14.3.4 Linear Objects | 5851 | ||
| 14.3.5 Areal Objects | 5851 | ||
| 14.3.6 Scaling and Scale Specificity | 5852 | ||
| 14.3.7 Conclusions: The Future | 5853 | ||
| References | 5854 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5855 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5855 | ||
| 14.4 The Modern Geomorphological Map | 5857 | ||
| 14.4.1 Introduction | 5858 | ||
| 14.4.1.1 Geomorphological Mapping - ’A World in Motion’ | 5858 | ||
| 14.4.1.2 New Techniques in Geomorphological Mapping | 5858 | ||
| 14.4.1.3 Chapter Overview | 5859 | ||
| 14.4.2 Methods and Geomorphological Maps | 5859 | ||
| 14.4.2.1 Concepts and Methods Used in Classical Mapping Systems | 5859 | ||
| 14.4.2.2 Methods Used in Modern Mapping | 5861 | ||
| 14.4.2.2.1 Digital environments and geomorphological information layers | 5861 | ||
| 14.4.2.2.2 Digitalization and updating of geomorphological information layers | 5862 | ||
| 14.4.2.2.3 Geomorphological mapping using digital elevation models | 5863 | ||
| 14.4.2.2.4 Publishing digital geomorphological maps | 5865 | ||
| 14.4.2.3 Applications of Geomorphological Maps | 5865 | ||
| 14.4.3 Modern Geomorphological Mapping and Geoconservation | 5866 | ||
| 14.4.3.1 Study Area, Classical and Digital Geomorphological Map | 5866 | ||
| 14.4.3.2 General Steps for Semi-Automated Geomorphological Mapping | 5867 | ||
| 14.4.3.2.1 Extraction of LSP and segmentation into objects | 5867 | ||
| 14.4.3.2.2 Rule development, image classification, and accuracy assessment | 5868 | ||
| 14.4.3.3 Application to Geoconservation of Landscapes | 5869 | ||
| 14.4.4 Conclusions and Closing Remarks | 5870 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 5872 | ||
| References | 5872 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5873 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5874 | ||
| 14.5 Google Earthtrade in Geomorphology: Re-Enchanting, Revolutionizing, or Just another Resource? | 5875 | ||
| 14.5.1 Introduction | 5875 | ||
| 14.5.2 Recent Feature Developments to Google Earthtrade | 5876 | ||
| 14.5.3 Use of Google Earthtrade in Geomorphology | 5877 | ||
| 14.5.3.1 Reach-Scale Fluvial Geomorphology | 5877 | ||
| 14.5.3.2 Basin-Scale Fluvial Geomorphology | 5877 | ||
| 14.5.3.3 Planetary Geomorphology | 5877 | ||
| 14.5.3.4 Geomorphological Education and Outreach | 5878 | ||
| 14.5.4 Discussion | 5878 | ||
| 14.5.4.1 Advantages of Google Earthtrade in Geomorphology | 5878 | ||
| 14.5.4.2 Limitations of Google Earthtrade in Geomorphology | 5881 | ||
| 14.5.5 Possible Future Developments in the Use of Google Earthtrade in Geomorphology | 5882 | ||
| 14.5.6 Conclusions | 5884 | ||
| References | 5885 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5886 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5886 | ||
| 14.6 Methods in Geomorphology: Numerical Modeling of Drainage Basin Development | 5887 | ||
| 14.6.1 Background | 5888 | ||
| 14.6.2 Defining the Numerical Modeling Exercise | 5889 | ||
| 14.6.3 Geomorphic Process Equations | 5890 | ||
| 14.6.3.1 Introduction | 5890 | ||
| 14.6.3.2 Hillslope Processes | 5890 | ||
| 14.6.3.3 Channel Network Processes | 5890 | ||
| 14.6.3.4 Other Processes | 5891 | ||
| 14.6.3.5 Changes in Climate and Hydrology over Time | 5891 | ||
| 14.6.4 Constructing and Running the Model | 5891 | ||
| 14.6.5 Model Confirmation | 5892 | ||
| 14.6.6 Final Comments | 5892 | ||
| References | 5893 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5894 | ||
| 14.7 Methods in Geomorphology: Investigating River Channel Form | 5895 | ||
| 14.7.1 Introduction | 5896 | ||
| 14.7.1.1 Importance of Context | 5896 | ||
| 14.7.2 History/Background | 5898 | ||
| 14.7.3 Methods | 5900 | ||
| 14.7.3.1 Planform | 5900 | ||
| 14.7.3.2 Cross Section | 5902 | ||
| 14.7.3.3 Long Profile | 5904 | ||
| 14.7.3.4 3D Form | 5905 | ||
| 14.7.4 Case Studies | 5906 | ||
| 14.7.4.1 Case Study 1: River Styles | 5906 | ||
| 14.7.4.2 Case Study 2: Waipaoa | 5906 | ||
| 14.7.5 Future Work and Direction | 5909 | ||
| 14.7.6 Conclusions | 5910 | ||
| References | 5910 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5913 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5913 | ||
| 14.8 Methods in Geomorphology: Mapping Glacial Features | 5914 | ||
| 14.8.1 Introduction | 5914 | ||
| 14.8.2 Types of Maps | 5915 | ||
| 14.8.2.1 Process Inference Maps | 5915 | ||
| 14.8.2.2 Age-Correlation Maps | 5915 | ||
| 14.8.3 Identification of Features | 5916 | ||
| 14.8.4 Production of a Base Map or Image | 5916 | ||
| 14.8.4.1 What Constitutes a Good Base Map or Base Image? | 5917 | ||
| 14.8.4.2 Images | 5917 | ||
| 14.8.4.3 Stereoscope Use | 5917 | ||
| 14.8.4.4 Scale of Mapping | 5918 | ||
| 14.8.4.5 Map Extents | 5918 | ||
| 14.8.5 Field Mapping | 5918 | ||
| 14.8.5.1 Examining Outcrop in Association with Mapping | 5919 | ||
| 14.8.6 Mapping in Different Glacial Settings - Case Studies | 5920 | ||
| 14.8.6.1 Temperate Valley Glaciers - East Coast South Island, New Zealand (Rakaia and Rangitata Valleys) | 5920 | ||
| 14.8.6.2 Former Ice-Cap Covered Regions | 5920 | ||
| 14.8.6.3 Antarctica and Other Dry Polar/Alpine Environments | 5920 | ||
| 14.8.6.4 Karst Areas | 5920 | ||
| 14.8.7 Map Production/Cartography | 5922 | ||
| 14.8.7.1 Map Compilation - Digitizing Data and Producing the Map | 5922 | ||
| 14.8.7.2 Map Elements | 5922 | ||
| 14.8.7.3 Publication | 5922 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 5925 | ||
| References | 5925 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5925 | ||
| 14.9 Techniques and Methods for the Field: An Introduction and Commentary | 5927 | ||
| 14.9.1 Introduction | 5927 | ||
| 14.9.2 What’s on Top? - Studying the Surface | 5927 | ||
| 14.9.2.1 Collecting Information Before You Leave for the Field | 5927 | ||
| 14.9.2.2 Once You’re Out There | 5928 | ||
| 14.9.3 What Lies Beneath? - Subsurface Investigations in the Field | 5928 | ||
| 14.9.4 Back in the Laboratory | 5929 | ||
| 14.9.5 Never Ignore Safety | 5929 | ||
| 14.9.6 Value of Fieldwork in Educational Aspects of Geomorphology | 5929 | ||
| 14.9.7 Conclusions | 5930 | ||
| References | 5930 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5930 | ||
| 14.10 Topographic Field Surveying in Geomorphology | 5932 | ||
| 14.10.1 Introduction | 5932 | ||
| 14.10.2 Basic Survey Principles | 5933 | ||
| 14.10.2.1 Pre-Field Planning | 5933 | ||
| 14.10.2.1.1 What is the instrumental accuracy required? | 5933 | ||
| 14.10.2.1.2 What are the field conditions? | 5933 | ||
| 14.10.2.1.3 What is the availability/reliability of benchmarks/survey points? | 5933 | ||
| 14.10.2.2 In the Field | 5934 | ||
| 14.10.2.2.1 How accurate do surveys need to be? | 5934 | ||
| 14.10.2.2.2 Weather conditions and instrumental ruggedness | 5934 | ||
| 14.10.2.3 Post-Field Analysis | 5934 | ||
| 14.10.3 Common Types of Instruments | 5934 | ||
| 14.10.3.1 Auto/Engineer’s Level | 5934 | ||
| 14.10.3.2 Electronic Distance Meter | 5936 | ||
| 14.10.3.3 Total Station | 5936 | ||
| 14.10.3.4 TerrestrialLaser Scanner | 5936 | ||
| 14.10.4 Summary and Conclusions | 5939 | ||
| References | 5939 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5940 | ||
| 14.11 Coring and Augering | 5941 | ||
| 14.11.1 Introduction | 5941 | ||
| 14.11.2 The Principles of Coring | 5942 | ||
| 14.11.3 Corer Types: Designs and Operation | 5944 | ||
| 14.11.3.1 Hand Operated Auger | 5944 | ||
| 14.11.3.2 Chamber Corer: ’D-section’ or ’Russian’ Corer | 5945 | ||
| 14.11.3.3 Gravity Corers | 5946 | ||
| 14.11.3.4 Extruding Gravity Cores | 5949 | ||
| 14.11.4 Corers for Taking Long Cores | 5950 | ||
| 14.11.4.1 Livingstone-Type | 5950 | ||
| 14.11.4.2 Percussion and Vibracorers | 5950 | ||
| 14.11.4.3 Percussion Corers | 5950 | ||
| 14.11.4.4 Vibracorers | 5951 | ||
| 14.11.4.5 Mackereth Corer | 5952 | ||
| 14.11.4.6 Permafrost Corers | 5952 | ||
| 14.11.4.7 Freeze Corer | 5953 | ||
| 14.11.4.8 The Geo-Slicer | 5954 | ||
| 14.11.5 Core Handling and Contamination Control | 5955 | ||
| 14.11.5.1 Core Handling and Identification | 5955 | ||
| 14.11.5.2 Contamination Control | 5957 | ||
| 14.11.6 Conclusion | 5957 | ||
| References | 5957 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5959 | ||
| 14.12 Trenching and Exposed Faces | 5960 | ||
| 14.12.1 The Purpose of Trenching and Mapping Exposed Faces | 5961 | ||
| 14.12.2 Creating an Exposed Face (Trenching) | 5961 | ||
| 14.12.2.1 Introduction | 5961 | ||
| 14.12.2.2 Improving a Natural Exposure | 5961 | ||
| 14.12.2.3 Digging a Trench | 5961 | ||
| 14.12.2.3.1 Location, orientation, and pattern of trenches | 5961 | ||
| 14.12.2.4 Shape and Depth of the Excavation | 5961 | ||
| 14.12.2.5 Trench Safety | 5961 | ||
| 14.12.2.5.1 Dewatering the trench | 5963 | ||
| 14.12.3 Preparing the Exposed Face for Mapping (Logging) | 5963 | ||
| 14.12.4 Logging the Exposed Face | 5963 | ||
| 14.12.4.1 Identifying Mappable Units and Marking Their Contacts | 5963 | ||
| 14.12.4.2 Mapping Soil Horizons in Trenches | 5964 | ||
| 14.12.4.3 Subjective versus Objective Logging | 5964 | ||
| 14.12.4.4 Techniques of Trench Logging | 5965 | ||
| 14.12.4.4.1 Photomosaic logging (2-D) | 5965 | ||
| 14.12.4.4.2 Photogrammetric logging (3-D) | 5965 | ||
| 14.12.5 Applications of Trenching in Geomorphology | 5966 | ||
| 14.12.5.1 Structural Targets | 5966 | ||
| 14.12.5.1.1 Active fault studies (paleoseismology) | 5966 | ||
| 14.12.5.1.2 Landslide studies | 5969 | ||
| 14.12.5.1.3 Sackung (deep-seated gravitational spreading) studies | 5969 | ||
| 14.12.5.1.4 Sinkhole studies | 5970 | ||
| 14.12.5.2 Stratigraphic Targets | 5970 | ||
| 14.12.6 Summary | 5970 | ||
| References | 5971 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5971 | ||
| 14.13 Working with Gravel and Boulders | 5972 | ||
| 14.13.1 Introduction | 5972 | ||
| 14.13.2 Background | 5973 | ||
| 14.13.3 Methodology | 5974 | ||
| 14.13.3.1 The CAF Method | 5976 | ||
| 14.13.4 Problems, Pitfalls, and Limitations | 5978 | ||
| 14.13.5 Case Studies | 5981 | ||
| 14.13.6 Future Work and Direction | 5984 | ||
| 14.13.7 Conclusions | 5984 | ||
| References | 5984 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5985 | ||
| 14.14 The Micro and Traversing Erosion Meter | 5986 | ||
| 14.14.1 Introduction | 5986 | ||
| 14.14.2 The Microerosion Meter | 5986 | ||
| 14.14.3 The Traversing Microerosion Meter | 5988 | ||
| 14.14.4 Rates of Erosion and Swelling | 5989 | ||
| 14.14.5 Comparisons with other Methods | 5990 | ||
| 14.14.6 Conclusions | 5990 | ||
| References | 5990 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 5991 | ||
| 14.15 Soil Description Procedures for Use in Geomorphological Studies | 5992 | ||
| 14.15.1 Introduction | 5992 | ||
| 14.15.2 A Brief History of Soil Survey and Descriptions | 5993 | ||
| 14.15.3 Methodology | 5993 | ||
| 14.15.3.1 Study Objectives | 5993 | ||
| 14.15.3.2 Site Selection | 5993 | ||
| 14.15.3.3 Noninvasive On-Ground Techniques | 5994 | ||
| 14.15.3.4 Site Description | 5994 | ||
| 14.15.3.5 Exposing the Soil Profile | 5994 | ||
| 14.15.3.5.1 Manual techniques | 5994 | ||
| 14.15.3.5.2 Mechanical soil excavation | 5995 | ||
| 14.15.3.5.3 Special sites | 5995 | ||
| 14.15.3.5.4 Natural and man-made exposures | 5996 | ||
| 14.15.3.5.5 Recognizing soil disturbance | 5996 | ||
| 14.15.3.6 Steps to Describe a Soil Profile | 5997 | ||
| 14.15.3.6.1 Using a pit or relatively undisturbed core | 5998 | ||
| 14.15.3.6.2 Other observations | 6000 | ||
| 14.15.3.6.3 Level of detail required in descriptions | 6000 | ||
| 14.15.3.7 Soil Field Tests | 6000 | ||
| 14.15.3.8 Sampling Soils for Laboratory Analysis | 6000 | ||
| 14.15.4 Problems, Pitfalls, and Limitations | 6001 | ||
| 14.15.5 Case Study | 6001 | ||
| 14.15.6 Future Work and Directions | 6001 | ||
| 14.15.7 Conclusions | 6002 | ||
| References | 6003 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6003 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6003 | ||
| 14.16 Ground Penetrating Radar | 6005 | ||
| 14.16.1 History of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) | 6005 | ||
| 14.16.2 GPR Principles | 6005 | ||
| 14.16.3 Equipment | 6006 | ||
| 14.16.4 Processing | 6008 | ||
| 14.16.5 Survey Design | 6009 | ||
| 14.16.6 Radar Profiles as Cross-Sections and Ground Truth | 6009 | ||
| 14.16.7 Radar Facies | 6010 | ||
| 14.16.8 Radar Stratigraphy | 6010 | ||
| 14.16.9 3-D Date and 2.5D Grids | 6011 | ||
| 14.16.10 Problems, Pitfalls, and Limitations | 6011 | ||
| 14.16.11 Side Swipes and Airwaves | 6011 | ||
| 14.16.12 Examples: Fluvial Geomorphology | 6012 | ||
| 14.16.13 Sand Dunes | 6014 | ||
| References | 6015 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6016 | ||
| 14.17 Electronic Measurement Techniques for Field Experiments in Process Geomorphology | 6017 | ||
| 14.17.1 Introduction | 6018 | ||
| 14.17.2 Monitoring Geomorphic Systems Controlled by Hydrodynamic Processes | 6019 | ||
| 14.17.2.1 Eularian Flow Measurement | 6019 | ||
| 14.17.2.1.1 Impeller-type current meters | 6019 | ||
| 14.17.2.1.2 Electromagnetic current meters | 6020 | ||
| 14.17.2.1.3 Acoustic Doppler current meters and profilers | 6021 | ||
| 14.17.2.1.4 Acoustic noise | 6022 | ||
| 14.17.2.2 Water Level Measurement | 6023 | ||
| 14.17.2.2.1 Wave staffs and wires | 6023 | ||
| 14.17.2.2.2 Pressure transducers | 6023 | ||
| 14.17.2.3 Bed Elevation Change and Bedform Monitoring | 6023 | ||
| 14.17.2.3.1 Altimeters | 6023 | ||
| 14.17.2.3.2 Ultrasonic distance sensors | 6024 | ||
| 14.17.2.3.3 Photoelectronic erosion pins (PEEP) | 6024 | ||
| 14.17.2.3.4 Side-scan sonars | 6025 | ||
| 14.17.2.4 Sediment Detection | 6025 | ||
| 14.17.2.4.1 Optical sensors | 6025 | ||
| 14.17.2.4.2 Acoustic sensors | 6027 | ||
| 14.17.2.4.3 Magnetic sensors | 6027 | ||
| 14.17.2.4.4 Laser in situ scattering and transmissometry | 6028 | ||
| 14.17.2.4.5 Conductivity concentration profiler | 6028 | ||
| 14.17.2.4.6 Hydrophones | 6028 | ||
| 14.17.2.5 Flow and Transport Tracking Approaches | 6029 | ||
| 14.17.3 Monitoring Geomorphic Systems Controlled by Aeolian Processes | 6029 | ||
| 14.17.3.1 Airflow Measurement | 6029 | ||
| 14.17.3.1.1 Mechanical anemometers and vanes | 6029 | ||
| 14.17.3.1.2 Sonic anemometers | 6030 | ||
| 14.17.3.1.3 Thermal anemometers | 6031 | ||
| 14.17.3.2 Transport Measurement | 6032 | ||
| 14.17.3.2.1 Load cells | 6032 | ||
| 14.17.3.2.2 Laser and optical sensors | 6032 | ||
| 14.17.3.2.3 Impact sensors | 6033 | ||
| 14.17.3.2.4 Soil moisture measurement | 6033 | ||
| 14.17.3.3 Surface Shear Stress | 6034 | ||
| 14.17.4 Interpreting the Signal | 6035 | ||
| 14.17.5 Conclusions | 6036 | ||
| References | 6036 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6042 | ||
| 14.18 Laboratory Techniques for Geomorphologists: An Introduction | 6044 | ||
| 14.18.1 Investigating the Size and Shape of Particles | 6044 | ||
| 14.18.2 Chemical Techniques for Geomorphological Investigations | 6044 | ||
| 14.18.3 Micropaleontology: Sometimes it’s the Little Things that Count | 6044 | ||
| 14.18.4 Dates and Rates: Dating Geomorphic Processes | 6045 | ||
| References | 6045 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6045 | ||
| 14.19 Measuring and Analyzing Particle Size in a Geomorphic Context | 6046 | ||
| 14.19.1 Introduction | 6047 | ||
| 14.19.1.1 Measuring the Size of a Particle | 6048 | ||
| 14.19.1.2 Particle Size, Grain Size, and Particle Sizing | 6048 | ||
| 14.19.1.3 The Imperfect Sphere: A Universal Problem in Geomorphology | 6048 | ||
| 14.19.1.4 Overcoming the Irregularity of Particle Shape | 6048 | ||
| 14.19.1.5 Choosing the Right Particle-Sizing Technique or Instrument | 6048 | ||
| 14.19.2 Sample Preparations: A General Note on Labeling and the Selection of Materials for Particle-Size Analysis | 6049 | ||
| 14.19.3 Grain (Particle) Size Scales: The Udden-Wentworth Scale | 6049 | ||
| 14.19.4 Analytical Techniques | 6050 | ||
| 14.19.4.1 Grain-Size Analysis of Gravel, Cobble, and Boulder Material | 6050 | ||
| 14.19.4.1.1 Two techniques for gravel and cobble analysis | 6052 | ||
| 14.19.4.1.1.1 Cobble cam: An example of new gravel-size analysis technologies | 6052 | ||
| 14.19.4.2 Analytical Techniques for Materials Composed Primarily of Sand, Silt, and Clay | 6053 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.1 Sieving | 6053 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.1.1 Dry sieving | 6053 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.1.1.1 Potential errors in dry sieving | 6053 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.1.2 Wet sieving | 6054 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.2 Sedimentation methods for sand, silt, and clay | 6054 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.2.1 The pipette method | 6054 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.2.2 The sedimentation tube | 6055 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.3 Laser diffraction analysis (LDA) | 6055 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.3.1 General process for LDA analysis | 6056 | ||
| 14.19.4.2.4 Other PSA techniques | 6056 | ||
| 14.19.5 Interpretation of Particle-Size Data | 6057 | ||
| 14.19.5.1 Use of Bivariate Plots (Scattergraphs) | 6057 | ||
| 14.19.5.2 Scattergraphs and Ternary Diagrams | 6058 | ||
| 14.19.5.3 Recent Advances in Data Presentation | 6059 | ||
| 14.19.5.4 Using Modern PSD Datasets | 6059 | ||
| 14.19.6 The Same but Different: A Concluding Note on Comparing Different Techniques | 6060 | ||
| References | 6061 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6064 | ||
| 14.20 Examining Particle Shape | 6065 | ||
| 14.20.1 Introduction | 6065 | ||
| 14.20.2 Background | 6069 | ||
| 14.20.3 Methodology | 6069 | ||
| 14.20.4 Limitations | 6076 | ||
| 14.20.5 Conclusions | 6077 | ||
| References | 6077 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6078 | ||
| 14.21 The Scanning Electron Microscope in Geomorphology | 6079 | ||
| 14.21.1 Introduction | 6079 | ||
| 14.21.2 Methodology | 6080 | ||
| 14.21.2.1 Sample Preparation | 6080 | ||
| 14.21.2.2 Analytical Methodology | 6080 | ||
| 14.21.3 Case Studies | 6081 | ||
| 14.21.4 Conclusions | 6082 | ||
| References | 6082 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6083 | ||
| 14.22 Determining Organic and Carbonate Content in Sediments | 6084 | ||
| 14.22.1 Introduction | 6084 | ||
| 14.22.2 Basic Analytical Principle | 6085 | ||
| 14.22.3 Measurement Methodologies | 6086 | ||
| 14.22.3.1 Total Carbon Analysis | 6086 | ||
| 14.22.3.1.1 Loss on ignition | 6086 | ||
| 14.22.3.1.2 High-frequency induction furnace | 6086 | ||
| 14.22.3.1.3 Coulometry | 6087 | ||
| 14.22.3.2 Inorganic Carbon Analysis | 6088 | ||
| 14.22.3.2.1 Gravimetric analysis via acid digestion | 6088 | ||
| 14.22.3.2.2 Pressure calcimeter (vacuum-gasometric technique or carbonate bomb) | 6089 | ||
| 14.22.3.2.3 Titration | 6089 | ||
| 14.22.3.2.4 Acid digestion in a laser particle sizer | 6090 | ||
| 14.22.3.3 Organic Carbon Analysis | 6090 | ||
| 14.22.3.4 Removing Inorganic Carbon | 6090 | ||
| 14.22.3.4.1 Dichromate oxidation of organic carbon | 6091 | ||
| 14.22.3.5 Organic Matter Analysis | 6091 | ||
| 14.22.3.6 Lightness of Sediment | 6091 | ||
| 14.22.4 Summary and Conclusions | 6093 | ||
| References | 6093 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6095 | ||
| 14.23 Wet Chemical Methods (pH, Electrical Conductivity, Ion-Selective Electrodes, Colorimetric Analysis, Ion... | 6096 | ||
| 14.23.1 Introduction | 6096 | ||
| 14.23.2 Pretreatment of Samples | 6097 | ||
| 14.23.3 Water for Analytical Methods | 6097 | ||
| 14.23.4 pH | 6097 | ||
| 14.23.5 Electrical Conductivity | 6098 | ||
| 14.23.6 Ion-Selective Electrodes | 6098 | ||
| 14.23.7 Colorimetric Analysis | 6099 | ||
| 14.23.8 Ion Chromatography | 6100 | ||
| 14.23.9 Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry | 6100 | ||
| 14.23.10 Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometries | 6100 | ||
| 14.23.10.1 Interferences | 6101 | ||
| 14.23.11 Summary | 6102 | ||
| References | 6102 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6103 | ||
| 14.24 Use of Sedimentary-Metal Indicators in Assessment of Estuarine System Health | 6104 | ||
| 14.24.1 Introduction | 6104 | ||
| 14.24.1.1 Use of Sediments | 6105 | ||
| 14.24.2 Methodology | 6106 | ||
| 14.24.2.1 Normalization Techniques | 6106 | ||
| 14.24.3 Magnitude of Human-Induced Change | 6107 | ||
| 14.24.3.1 Determination of Magnitude of Anthropogenic Change | 6108 | ||
| 14.24.4 Benthic Risk | 6108 | ||
| 14.24.5 Use of Sedimentary-Metal Indicators in Estuarine Health Assessment | 6109 | ||
| 14.24.5.1 Magnitude of Human-Induced Change | 6109 | ||
| 14.24.5.2 Risk of Possible Biological Stress | 6109 | ||
| 14.24.6 Lake Macquarie - A Case Study | 6110 | ||
| 14.24.6.1 Temporal Change | 6110 | ||
| 14.24.6.2 Sediment Status and Quality by Predictive Modeling | 6111 | ||
| 14.24.7 Conclusions | 6111 | ||
| References | 6111 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6113 | ||
| 14.25 Microfossils in Tidal Settings as Indicators of Sea-Level Change, Paleoearthquakes, Tsunamis, and Tropical Cyclones | 6114 | ||
| 14.25.1 Introduction | 6115 | ||
| 14.25.2 Microfossils and Intertidal Environments | 6115 | ||
| 14.25.3 Microfossil-Based Reconstructions of Sea-Level Change | 6116 | ||
| 14.25.3.1 Sea-Level Index Points | 6119 | ||
| 14.25.3.2 Isolation Basins | 6119 | ||
| 14.25.3.3 Transfer Functions | 6121 | ||
| 14.25.4 Microfossils and Land-Level Change | 6123 | ||
| 14.25.5 Microfossils as Indicators of Paleotsunamis and Storms | 6124 | ||
| 14.25.5.1 Paleotsunamis | 6124 | ||
| 14.25.5.2 Paleotempestology | 6128 | ||
| 14.25.6 Summary | 6128 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 6132 | ||
| References | 6132 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6135 | ||
| 14.26 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology | 6137 | ||
| 14.26.1 Introduction | 6137 | ||
| 14.26.2 Palynological Analysis | 6138 | ||
| 14.26.2.1 Palynological Laboratory Techniques | 6138 | ||
| 14.26.2.2 Pollen and Charcoal Counting Methods | 6139 | ||
| 14.26.2.3 Generation of Pollen Diagrams | 6141 | ||
| 14.26.3 Palynology and Its Applications to Geomorphology | 6142 | ||
| 14.26.3.1 Age Control | 6142 | ||
| 14.26.3.2 Environmental Palynology | 6143 | ||
| 14.26.3.3 Depositional Environments | 6144 | ||
| 14.26.3.4 Human Impact | 6145 | ||
| 14.26.4 Conclusion | 6145 | ||
| 14.26.5 Use of Exotic Markers | 6146 | ||
| References | 6146 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6147 | ||
| 14.27 Investigating the Strength of Materials: Introduction | 6148 | ||
| References | 6148 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6149 | ||
| 14.28 Direct Shear Testing in Geomorphology | 6150 | ||
| 14.28.1 Introduction | 6150 | ||
| 14.28.2 The Importance of Shear Strength in Geomorphology | 6150 | ||
| 14.28.3 Direct Shear Testing in Geomorphology | 6151 | ||
| 14.28.4 Data Analysis | 6152 | ||
| 14.28.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Direct Shear Tests in Geomorphology | 6153 | ||
| 14.28.6 The Principles of the Back-Pressured Shearbox | 6154 | ||
| 14.28.7 Direct Shear Testing of Fine Sand | 6155 | ||
| 14.28.8 Discussion | 6157 | ||
| 14.28.9 Conclusions | 6158 | ||
| References | 6159 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6159 | ||
| 14.29 The Schmidt Hammer and Related Devices in Geomorphological Research | 6160 | ||
| 14.29.1 Introduction | 6160 | ||
| 14.29.2 Operation of the SH | 6161 | ||
| 14.29.3 The Equotip and Piccolo | 6162 | ||
| 14.29.4 The Uses of the SH and Equotip | 6163 | ||
| 14.29.5 Conclusions | 6164 | ||
| References | 6165 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6167 | ||
| 14.30 An Introduction to Dating Techniques: A Guide for Geomorphologists | 6168 | ||
| 14.30.1 Introduction | 6169 | ||
| 14.30.2 Dating Issues | 6169 | ||
| 14.30.2.1 Depositional Context | 6170 | ||
| 14.30.2.2 Taphonomy of Fossil Material | 6170 | ||
| 14.30.3 Dating Methods | 6171 | ||
| 14.30.4 Sidereal or Incremental Dating | 6171 | ||
| 14.30.5 Isotopic: Change in Isotopic Composition | 6172 | ||
| 14.30.6 Radiocarbon Dating | 6172 | ||
| 14.30.6.1 Principles of Radiocarbon Dating | 6172 | ||
| 14.30.6.2 Sample Preparation and Radiocarbon Measurements | 6173 | ||
| 14.30.6.3 Radiocarbon Calibration | 6173 | ||
| 14.30.6.4 Reservoir Effects | 6173 | ||
| 14.30.6.5 Bomb-pulse 14C Dating | 6174 | ||
| 14.30.6.6 Applications of Radiocarbon Dating to Geomorphology | 6175 | ||
| 14.30.7 Radiogenic: Luminescence Dating | 6178 | ||
| 14.30.7.1 Resetting of the OSL Signal in Different Sedimentary Environments | 6178 | ||
| 14.30.7.2 Technological Developments that have made Luminescence Techniques More Applicable to Geomorphological Research | 6179 | ||
| 14.30.7.3 Advances in Methods of Analysis - Single Aliquot and Single Grain | 6179 | ||
| 14.30.7.4 Emission Spectra - Use of Different Luminescence Wavelengths | 6180 | ||
| 14.30.7.5 Application of OSL to Key Geomorphological Issues | 6180 | ||
| 14.30.7.6 Practical Issues for Dating Strategies and Sample Collection | 6181 | ||
| 14.30.8 Time Dependent Chemical Reactions | 6183 | ||
| 14.30.9 Amino Acid Racemization | 6183 | ||
| 14.30.9.1 Advantages of Amino Acid Racemization Dating | 6183 | ||
| 14.30.9.2 Principles of Amino Acid Racemization Dating | 6184 | ||
| 14.30.9.3 The Racemization Reaction | 6184 | ||
| 14.30.9.4 Factors Influencing the Racemization Rate in Carbonate Fossils | 6184 | ||
| 14.30.9.5 Diagenetic Temperature History | 6185 | ||
| 14.30.9.6 Moisture Regime | 6186 | ||
| 14.30.9.7 Taxonomic and Genus Effect | 6186 | ||
| 14.30.9.8 Numerical Age Assessments | 6186 | ||
| 14.30.10 Conclusion | 6186 | ||
| References | 6187 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6190 | ||
| 14.31 Radiocarbon Dating of Plant Macrofossils from Tidal-Marsh Sediment | 6192 | ||
| 14.31.1 Introduction | 6192 | ||
| 14.31.2 Growth, Deposition, and Decay of Tidal-Marsh Plants | 6193 | ||
| 14.31.3 Radiocarbon Dating of Plant Macrofossils | 6194 | ||
| 14.31.4 Building Chronologies by Interpreting Ages | 6196 | ||
| 14.31.5 Examples of Radiocarbon Dating of Plant Macrofossils in Coastal Sequences | 6197 | ||
| 14.31.5.1 Recent Sea-Level History in the North Atlantic | 6198 | ||
| 14.31.5.2 Great Earthquake Frequency and Size at the Cascadia Subduction Zone of Western North America | 6198 | ||
| 14.31.5.3 Tsunami History beneath Tidal Marshes of Northern Japan | 6202 | ||
| 14.31.5.4 Hurricane History in Eastern North America - a Record of Deposition and Erosion | 6202 | ||
| 14.31.6 Recommendations for Selection of Plant Macrofossil Samples | 6203 | ||
| 14.31.7 Recommendations for Sample Preparation | 6205 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 6207 | ||
| References | 6207 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6209 | ||
| Biographical Sketch | 6209 |