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Book Details
Abstract
The role of nutrition in improving quality of life and combating disease is undeniable — and researchers from different disciplines are bringing their perspectives to bear on this fundamental topic.
The 4-volume Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition, Third Edition, is a thorough revision of the previous award-winning version and reflects the scientific advances in the field of human nutrition. It presents the latest understanding on a wide range of nutrition-related topics including food safety, weight management, vitamins, bioengineering of foods, plant based diet and raw foods among others. New articles on organic food, biofortification, nutritional labeling and the effect of religious customs on diet, among many others, reflect the dedication to currency in this revision. Â It not only contains the most current and thorough information available on the topic, but also contains broader cross-referencing on emerging opportunities for potential treatment and prevention of diseases. An ideal starting point for scientific research, Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition, Third Edition, continues to provide authoritative information in an accessible format, making this complex discipline available to readers at both the professional and non-professional level.
- Selected for inclusion in Doody's Core Titles 2013, an essential collection development tool for health sciences libraries
- Approximately 30% new content ensures readers have the latest research information
- Extensive cross-referencing provides key connections between topics in this multidisciplinary field
- Presents current information on relationships between disease and nutrition
- Covers thoroughly topics ranging from nutrient biochemistry and function to clinical nutrition and the epidemiology of diet, health and disease.
"This new edition has been completely revised and expanded to accommodate the enormous growth of the scientific discipline of human nutrition, including the effects of such pivotal events as mapping of the human genome and the discovery that nutrients influence the mutation of viruses. Though comprehensive, the articles are not overly technical, making the work relevant to both general readers and health care practitioners." Summing Up: Essential. --CHOICE Reviews Online, June 2014
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| e9780123750839v1.pdf | 1 | ||
| Front Cover | 1 | ||
| ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN NUTRITION | 2 | ||
| CONTENTS | 6 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF \rBIOGRAPHY | 12 | ||
| CO-EDITORS BIOGRAPHY | 12 | ||
| EDITORS | 14 | ||
| EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD | 16 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1 | 18 | ||
| CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES | 22 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS | 34 | ||
| PREFACE | 44 | ||
| GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA\r | 46 | ||
| A: \rADIPOSE TISSUE: Structure, Function and Metabolism | 48 | ||
| Introduction | 49 | ||
| Development | 49 | ||
| Structure | 52 | ||
| Distribution | 54 | ||
| Function | 55 | ||
| Regulation of Metabolism | 57 | ||
| See also | 60 | ||
| e9780123750839v2 | 478 | ||
| Front Cover\r | 478 | ||
| ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN NUTRITION | 479 | ||
| CONTENTS\r | 483 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF BIOGRAPHY | 487 | ||
| CO-EDITORS BIOGRAPHY | 489 | ||
| EDITORS | 491 | ||
| EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD | 493 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 2 | 495 | ||
| PREFACE | 499 | ||
| GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA | 501 | ||
| D: Dehydration | 503 | ||
| Physiological Functions of Water | 503 | ||
| Development of Dehydration | 504 | ||
| Contributing Factors | 505 | ||
| Body Fluid Balance | 505 | ||
| Thirst | 505 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Dehydration | 506 | ||
| Dehydration and Human Performance | 506 | ||
| Body Water Deficits | 506 | ||
| Dehydration and Heat Illness | 506 | ||
| Heat Exhaustion | 506 | ||
| Heat Stroke | 507 | ||
| Other Consequences of Dehydration | 507 | ||
| Management of Dehydration | 509 | ||
| Identifying Types of Dehydration | 509 | ||
| Treating Different Types of Dehydration | 509 | ||
| Groups at Risk for Dehydration | 510 | ||
| Predisposing Factors for Heat Illness | 510 | ||
| Elderly and Children | 510 | ||
| Prevention of Dehydration | 510 | ||
| See also | 511 | ||
| Further Reading | 511 | ||
| Dental Disease: Etiology and Epidemiology | 512 | ||
| Enamel Defects | 512 | ||
| Dental Caries, Erosion, and Gum Disease | 512 | ||
| Etiology of Caries | 512 | ||
| Caries-Causing Bacteria | 513 | ||
| Fermentable Carbohydrate | 513 | ||
| Susceptible Sites | 513 | ||
| Experimental Models of the Caries Process | 514 | ||
| Etiology of Tooth Wear | 514 | ||
| Etiology of Gum Disease | 514 | ||
| Protection from and Prevention of Dental Caries | 514 | ||
| Fluoride | 514 | ||
| A Practical Approach to the Prevention of Caries | 515 | ||
| Epidemiology | 516 | ||
| Studies of Risk Factors | 516 | ||
| National Trends in Caries Prevalence | 516 | ||
| Fluoride Toothpaste | 517 | ||
| Diet | 518 | ||
| Other Factors Affecting the Epidemiology of Caries | 518 | ||
| Further Reading | 518 | ||
| Diabetes Mellitus: Classification and Chemical Pathology\r | 519 | ||
| Introduction | 519 | ||
| Definition | 519 | ||
| Diagnostic Criteria in the NonPregnant Patient | 519 | ||
| Random Plasma Glucose Determination | 519 | ||
| Fasting Plasma Glucose Determination | 519 | ||
| Oral Glucose Tolerance Test | 520 | ||
| Glycosylated Hemoglobin | 520 | ||
| Glycosuria | 520 | ||
| Diagnostic Criteria for Diabetes in Pregnant Women | 520 | ||
| Classification | 521 | ||
| Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | 521 | ||
| Early Diagnosis of Autoimmune Diabetes | 521 | ||
| Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus | 522 | ||
| Secondary Diabetes Mellitus/Other Specific Types | 522 | ||
| Gestational Diabetes Mellitus | 522 | ||
| Other Abnormalities of Glucose Tolerance | 522 | ||
| Impaired Glucose Tolerance | 522 | ||
| Impaired Fasting Glucose | 522 | ||
| Stress Hyperglycemia | 523 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Diabetes | 523 | ||
| Physiology of Normal Blood Glucose Regulation | 523 | ||
| Liver | 523 | ||
| Skeletal muscle | 523 | ||
| Adipose Tissue | 524 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Uncontrolled Diabetes | 524 | ||
| See also | 526 | ||
| Further \rReading | 526 | ||
| Dietary Management\r | 527 | ||
| Overall Objectives in the Management of Diabetes | 527 | ||
| Control of Blood Glucose Level | 527 | ||
| Prevention or Control of Comorbidities | 527 | ||
| Minimum Intrusion on Quality of Life | 527 | ||
| Dietary Approaches to Diabetes | 527 | ||
| Principles of Dietary Management of Diabetes | 527 | ||
| Assessment | 527 | ||
| Individualization | 528 | ||
| Developing the Diabetes Nutrition Plan | 528 | ||
| Total Energy Intake | 528 | ||
| Distribution of Energy Intake | 528 | ||
| The Utility of Exchange Lists | 531 | ||
| Gastroparesis | 531 | ||
| Glycemic Control and Weight Gain | 531 | ||
| Nutritional Instruction | 531 | ||
| Special Aspects: Type 2 Diabetes | 531 | ||
| Major Objectives | 531 | ||
| Coexisting Risk Factors | 532 | ||
| Special Aspects: Type 1 Diabetes | 532 | ||
| Major Objectives | 532 | ||
| Growth and Development | 534 | ||
| Special Aspects of Dietary Management of Other Types of Diabetes | 534 | ||
| Effects of Ingested Nutrients on Blood Glucose | 534 | ||
| Carbohydrate | 534 | ||
| Sucrose Versus Complex Carbohydrate | 534 | ||
| Glycemic Index | 535 | ||
| Protein | 536 | ||
| Fat | 536 | ||
| Non-nutritive Sweeteners | 536 | ||
| Trace Elements, Vitamins, and Minerals | 537 | ||
| Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Herbals | 538 | ||
| Major Non-nutrient Factors that Regulate Blood Glucose | 538 | ||
| Insulin | 538 | ||
| Oral and Noninsulin Injectable Antidiabetic Agents | 538 | ||
| Physical Activity | 539 | ||
| Stress | 539 | ||
| Estrogens | 540 | ||
| Dietary Prevention and Management of Comorbidities | 540 | ||
| Accelerated Atherosclerosis | 540 | ||
| Dyslipidemia | 540 | ||
| Hypertension | 540 | ||
| Renal Disease | 540 | ||
| Conclusions | 541 | ||
| See also | 541 | ||
| Further Reading | 541 | ||
| rEtiology and Epidemiology | 542 | ||
| Introduction | 542 | ||
| Type 1 Diabetes | 542 | ||
| Worldwide Prevalence | 542 | ||
| Etiology | 542 | ||
| Genetics | 543 | ||
| Environmental Factors | 543 | ||
| The Future | 544 | ||
| Type 2 Diabetes | 544 | ||
| Worldwide Prevalence | 544 | ||
| Etiology | 544 | ||
| Genetics | 545 | ||
| Environmental Factors | 546 | ||
| The Future | 546 | ||
| Other Types of Diabetes | 546 | ||
| MODY | 546 | ||
| GDM | 547 | ||
| FCPD | 547 | ||
| See also | 547 | ||
| Further Reading | 547 | ||
| Diarrheal Diseases | 549 | ||
| Introduction | 549 | ||
| Definition of Diarrhea | 549 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Diarrhea | 549 | ||
| Causes of Diarrhea | 550 | ||
| Management | 550 | ||
| Risk Factors | 550 | ||
| Intervention Studies | 550 | ||
| Prevention and Control | 550 | ||
| See also | 551 | ||
| Further Reading | 551 | ||
| Dietary Fiber: Physiological Effects and Health Outcomes | 552 | ||
| Introduction | 552 | ||
| The Evolution of the Dietary Fiber Concept | 552 | ||
| Large Bowel Bacterial Fermentation and the Health Effects of Fiber | 553 | ||
| Evidence for the Health Benefits of Dietary Fiber | 553 | ||
| Physiological Actions of Dietary Fiber and Improved Health Outcomes | 554 | ||
| Specific Actions of Fiber | 554 | ||
| Satiety and Food Intake | 554 | ||
| Soluble NSPs and Blood Glucose Control | 554 | ||
| Soluble NSPs and Plasma Cholesterol | 554 | ||
| Fiber, Regularity, and Diverticular Disease | 555 | ||
| Large Bowel Fermentation and the Health Effect of Fiber | 555 | ||
| The Large Bowel Microbiome | 555 | ||
| SCFAs and Human Health | 555 | ||
| SCFAs and Health Outcomes: Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Inflammatory Bowel Disease, and Colorectal Cancer | 555 | ||
| Total SCFAs | 555 | ||
| Acetate, Propionate, and Butyrate | 555 | ||
| Fiber and SCFAs | 556 | ||
| Oligosaccharides | 556 | ||
| Nonstarch Polysaccharides | 556 | ||
| Resistant Starch | 556 | ||
| Conclusions | 556 | ||
| Further Reading | 556 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 556 | ||
| rRole in Nutritional Management of Disease | 557 | ||
| Introduction | 557 | ||
| Hyperlipidemia | 557 | ||
| Diabetes | 558 | ||
| Bowel Disorders | 559 | ||
| See also | 560 | ||
| Further Reading | 561 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 561 | ||
| Dietary Guidelines, International Perspectives | 562 | ||
| Introduction | 562 | ||
| Historical Background | 562 | ||
| Types of Guidelines | 562 | ||
| The Development of FBDG | 564 | ||
| Conclusion | 566 | ||
| See also | 566 | ||
| Further Reading | 566 | ||
| Dietary Intake Measurement: Methodology | 567 | ||
| Introduction | 567 | ||
| Dietary Intake Measurements | 567 | ||
| Methods for Measuring Food Consumption at the National Level | 567 | ||
| Food balance sheets | 567 | ||
| Methods for Estimating Dietary Intake at the Household Level: Household Budget Surveys | 569 | ||
| Food Account Method | 569 | ||
| Inventory Method | 569 | ||
| Household Record | 569 | ||
| List Recall Methods | 569 | ||
| Individual Dietary Intake Methods | 570 | ||
| 24-Hour Recalls | 570 | ||
| Diet History | 570 | ||
| Food Frequency Questionnaires | 570 | ||
| Weighed Food Record Inventory and Estimated Food Record | 570 | ||
| Duplicate Sample Technique | 571 | ||
| Further Information | 571 | ||
| Clinical Practice | 571 | ||
| Factors Affecting Individual Ability to Report Intake Accurately | 571 | ||
| Interviewers | 571 | ||
| Computerized Interview Procedures | 571 | ||
| Using Dietary Methods in Different Populations | 571 | ||
| Recall of Remote Diet | 571 | ||
| Reproducibility of Dietary Methods | 571 | ||
| Use of Data and Conversion of Reported Intake to Nutrients and Food Types | 572 | ||
| Qualitative Analysis | 572 | ||
| Quantitative Analysis | 572 | ||
| Data Processing and Computing Dietary Intake | 572 | ||
| Estimated Food Quantities | 572 | ||
| Data Entry and Nutrient Calculation Systems | 572 | ||
| Data Processing Errors | 573 | ||
| Issues Associated with Measurement of Dietary Intake | 573 | ||
| Measurement Error | 573 | ||
| Measurement Error in Data Collection and Processing | 573 | ||
| Systematic Bias | 573 | ||
| Interviewer Bias | 573 | ||
| Social Desirability Bias | 573 | ||
| Impact of Measurement Error | 574 | ||
| Validation of Dietary Methods | 574 | ||
| Use of Calibration Methods to Adjust for Measurement Error | 574 | ||
| Future Developments | 574 | ||
| See also | 574 | ||
| Further Reading | 574 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 575 | ||
| Dietary Modulation of Inflammation | 576 | ||
| Introduction | 576 | ||
| What Mediates Inflammation? | 576 | ||
| Resolution of Inflammation by Negative Regulators of PRRs | 576 | ||
| Modulation of PRR-Mediated Inflammation by Dietary Components and Metabolic Intermediates | 578 | ||
| Postprandial Inflammation: Blood Monocyte Activation | 578 | ||
| Monocyte Activation: PRR (TLR4 and NOD2)-Mediated Expression of Prointerleukin-1beta and Inflammasome-Mediated... | 579 | ||
| Inhibition of PRR Activation by Bioactive Phytochemicals | 579 | ||
| See also | 579 | ||
| Further Reading | 579 | ||
| Dietary Surveys: Surveys of Food Intake in Groups and Individuals | 581 | ||
| Research Questions and Data Needs | 581 | ||
| Issues in Survey Design | 582 | ||
| Selection of Dietary Assessment Measure | 582 | ||
| Household Level | 582 | ||
| Individual Level | 582 | ||
| Data Analysis and Limitations | 584 | ||
| See also | 585 | ||
| Further Reading | 585 | ||
| Down’s Syndrome: Nutritional Aspects | 586 | ||
| Nutritional Status | 587 | ||
| Dietary Assessment | 587 | ||
| Laboratory Assessment | 587 | ||
| Carbohydrate metabolism | 587 | ||
| Protein Metabolism | 587 | ||
| Lipid Metabolism | 587 | ||
| Vitamins | 587 | ||
| Minerals | 587 | ||
| Anthropometric Assessment | 588 | ||
| Nutritional Requirements | 588 | ||
| Nutritional Therapy | 588 | ||
| Dietary Management | 588 | ||
| Dietary Guidelines | 588 | ||
| Feeding Behavior | 589 | ||
| Dental Problems | 589 | ||
| Obesity | 589 | ||
| Celiac Disease | 590 | ||
| Ageing | 590 | ||
| Care in the Community | 591 | ||
| See also | 591 | ||
| Further Reading | 591 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 591 | ||
| Drug-Nutrient Interactions | 592 | ||
| Introduction | 592 | ||
| Changes in Gastric-acid Output | 593 | ||
| Reduction in the Concentration of Bile Acids | 593 | ||
| Alterations in the GI Micro Flora | 593 | ||
| Interactions Affecting Transport, Metabolism, and Excretion | 593 | ||
| Functional Synergism or Antagonism | 593 | ||
| Alterations in Drug Transport | 593 | ||
| Changes in Drug Metabolism | 599 | ||
| Biological Antagonism | 599 | ||
| Increased Nutrient Losses | 599 | ||
| Host-related Functional Interactions | 599 | ||
| Major Drug-Nutrient Interactions of Clinical Relevance | 600 | ||
| Herb-Drug Interactions | 600 | ||
| Further Reading | 600 | ||
| E: Early Origins of Disease: Fetal | 601 | ||
| Introduction | 601 | ||
| Epidemiological Data | 602 | ||
| Developmental Origins of Health and Disease Hypothesis | 602 | ||
| Evidence from Human Studies | 602 | ||
| Animal Models | 603 | ||
| Maternal Undernutrition Models | 603 | ||
| Maternal Calorie Restriction | 603 | ||
| Maternal Protein Restriction | 604 | ||
| Maternal Overnutrition Models | 604 | ||
| Maternal Obesity | 604 | ||
| Maternal High-Fat Diet | 604 | ||
| Surgical Model - Uteroplacental Insufficiency | 604 | ||
| Pharmacological Models | 604 | ||
| Maternal Glucocorticoid Exposure | 604 | ||
| Gestational Diabetes | 605 | ||
| Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms | 605 | ||
| Epigenetic Mechanisms | 605 | ||
| Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress | 606 | ||
| Excessive Intrauterine Exposure to Lipids | 606 | ||
| Conclusions | 606 | ||
| See also | 606 | ||
| Further Reading | 606 | ||
| rNon-Fetal | 608 | ||
| Introduction | 608 | ||
| Long-Term Effects of Infant Feeding | 608 | ||
| Selected Outcomes Related to Infant Feeding | 609 | ||
| Serum Lipids | 609 | ||
| Blood Pressure | 609 | ||
| Reproductive Function | 609 | ||
| Growth and Body Composition | 609 | ||
| Exposure to Antigens and Development of Autoimmune Disease | 610 | ||
| Type 2 Diabetes | 610 | ||
| Postnatal Growth and Later Risk of Disease | 610 | ||
| Adiposity and Obesity | 611 | ||
| Cancer | 612 | ||
| Blood Pressure and Coronary Heart Disease | 612 | ||
| Insulin Resistance and Diabetes | 613 | ||
| See also | 613 | ||
| Further Reading | 613 | ||
| Eating disorders: Anorexia Nervosa | 615 | ||
| Classification of Eating Disorders | 615 | ||
| e9780123750839v3 | 981 | ||
| Front Cover\r | 981 | ||
| ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN NUTRITION | 982 | ||
| CONTENTS | 986 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF BIOGRAPHY | 990 | ||
| CO-EDITORS BIOGRAPHY | 992 | ||
| EDITORS | 994 | ||
| EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD | 996 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME3 | 998 | ||
| PREFACE | 1002 | ||
| GUIDE TOU\rSE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA | 1004 | ||
| I: INBORN ERRORS OF \rMETABOLISM : Classification and Biochemical Aspects | 1006 | ||
| Introduction | 1006 | ||
| Newborn Screening | 1007 | ||
| Disorders of Protein Metabolism | 1007 | ||
| Amino Acid Disorders | 1007 | ||
| Variant Forms of MSUD also Occur | 1008 | ||
| Cofactor Deficiencies | 1010 | ||
| Disorders of Fatty Acid Oxidation | 1010 | ||
| Disorders of Carbohydrate Metabolism | 1012 | ||
| Galacatosemia | 1012 | ||
| Glycogen Storage Disorders | 1013 | ||
| Disorders of Fructose Metabolism | 1013 | ||
| Disorders of Micronutrient Metabolism | 1014 | ||
| Disorders of Copper Metabolism | 1014 | ||
| Disorders of Iron Metabolism | 1014 | ||
| Hemochromatosis | 1014 | ||
| Further Reading | 1014 | ||
| Nutritional Management of Phenylketonuria\r | 1016 | ||
| Introduction | 1016 | ||
| Introduction of Dietary Therapy | 1016 | ||
| Adequacy of Nutritional Therapy | 1018 | ||
| Growth | 1018 | ||
| Fatty Acids | 1018 | ||
| Iron, Zinc, Vitamin A, and Selenium | 1019 | ||
| Bone Mineral Density | 1019 | ||
| Maternal PKU | 1020 | ||
| Alternative Therapies | 1020 | ||
| Tetrahydrobiopterin | 1020 | ||
| Large Neutral Amino Acid Supplementation | 1020 | ||
| See also | 1020 | ||
| Further Reading | 1020 | ||
| INFECTION\r: Nutritional Management in Adults | 1021 | ||
| Metabolic and Nutritional Changes in Patients with Infection | 1021 | ||
| Glucose Utilization in Injury and Infection | 1021 | ||
| Hepatic Glucose Metabolism | 1021 | ||
| Protein Metabolism | 1022 | ||
| Lipid Metabolism | 1023 | ||
| Hormonal Response to Injury, Infection, and Cancer | 1023 | ||
| Acute Phase Response | 1024 | ||
| Urine Urea Nitrogen Loss as a Marker of Catabolism | 1024 | ||
| Vitamin Deficiencies | 1025 | ||
| Vitamin C and Vitamin A | 1025 | ||
| Mineral Deficiencies | 1025 | ||
| Magnesium | 1025 | ||
| Zinc | 1026 | ||
| Copper | 1026 | ||
| Iron | 1026 | ||
| Summary | 1026 | ||
| Nutritional Assessment and Predictors of Hospital Outcome | 1026 | ||
| Markers of Nutritional Assessment | 1026 | ||
| Predictors of Clinical Outcome | 1028 | ||
| ABC Score: An Acute Predictor of Hospital Survival in Patients with Infection, Injury, or Inflammation: | 1029 | ||
| Nutritional Diagnoses Commonly Seen in Hospitalized Patients | 1029 | ||
| Loss of Lean Body Mass | 1029 | ||
| Elevated Resting Energy Expenditure | 1030 | ||
| Nutritional Feeding of the Patient: Enteral versus Parenteral | 1030 | ||
| Vitamins and Minerals | 1030 | ||
| Enteral versus Parenteral Feeding | 1030 | ||
| Enteral Products | 1030 | ||
| Energy Intake for Patients with Malnutrition | 1031 | ||
| See also | 1031 | ||
| Further Reading | 1031 | ||
| IODINE: Deficiency Disorders and Prevention Programs\r | 1033 | ||
| Dietary Sources, Absorption, and Metabolism | 1033 | ||
| Iodine Deficiency Disorders | 1034 | ||
| Iodine Requirements | 1034 | ||
| Assessment of Iodine Status | 1035 | ||
| Prophylaxis and Treatment of Iodine Deficiency | 1036 | ||
| Iodine Excess and Toxicity | 1036 | ||
| Further Reading | 1037 | ||
| Physiology, Dietary Sources,and Requirements | 1038 | ||
| Ecology of Iodine | 1038 | ||
| Absorption and Metabolism | 1038 | ||
| Adaptations of Thyroid Metabolism to Iodine Deficiency | 1039 | ||
| Adaptations of Thyroid Metabolism to Iodine Excess | 1040 | ||
| Impact of Other Micronutrients on Thyroid and Iodine Metabolism | 1040 | ||
| Requirements and Dietary Sources of Iodine | 1041 | ||
| Dietary and Environmental Factors that Affect Iodine Requirements | 1041 | ||
| Assessment of Iodine Status | 1042 | ||
| Thyroid Volume | 1042 | ||
| Urinary Iodine Concentration | 1042 | ||
| Thyroid Hormone and Thyroglobulin Concentrations | 1043 | ||
| See also | 1043 | ||
| FurtherReading | 1043 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1043 | ||
| IRON:\r Physiology, Dietary Sources, and Requirements | 1044 | ||
| Iron Chemistry and Physiology | 1044 | ||
| Body Content, Forms, and Function | 1044 | ||
| Absorption, Excretion, Transport, and Storage | 1044 | ||
| Absorption | 1044 | ||
| Transport | 1047 | ||
| Storage | 1047 | ||
| Excretion | 1047 | ||
| Body Iron Balance | 1048 | ||
| Clinical Assessment of Iron Status | 1048 | ||
| Iron Nutrition | 1048 | ||
| Iron Deficiency | 1048 | ||
| Consequences of Iron Deficiency | 1049 | ||
| Physical Work Capacity | 1049 | ||
| Cognitive Development | 1049 | ||
| Reproduction | 1049 | ||
| Other | 1049 | ||
| Recommended Dietary Intakes | 1049 | ||
| Dietary Iron | 1050 | ||
| Food Sources | 1050 | ||
| Bioavailability | 1050 | ||
| Heme Iron | 1050 | ||
| Nonheme Iron | 1050 | ||
| Supplementation and Fortification | 1050 | ||
| Excessive Intakes | 1051 | ||
| See also | 1051 | ||
| Further Reading | 1051 | ||
| K: \rKETOSIS | 1052 | ||
| Introduction | 1052 | ||
| Formation of Ketone Bodies | 1052 | ||
| Extrahepatic Regulation | 1052 | ||
| Intrahepatic Regulation | 1053 | ||
| Role of Malonyl-CoA | 1053 | ||
| Intramitochondrial Regulation | 1055 | ||
| Function of Ketone Bodies | 1055 | ||
| Pathways of Ketone Body Utilization | 1055 | ||
| Mitochondrial Pathway | 1055 | ||
| Cytosolic Pathway | 1056 | ||
| Ketosis | 1056 | ||
| Physiological Ketosis | 1057 | ||
| Pathological Ketosis | 1057 | ||
| Metabolic Acidosis | 1058 | ||
| See also | 1058 | ||
| Further Reading\r | 1058 | ||
| L:\r LACTATION: Dietary Requirements | 1059 | ||
| Introduction | 1059 | ||
| Rationale for Recommended Nutrient Intakes | 1059 | ||
| Requirements and Dietary Recommendations | 1060 | ||
| Macronutrients | 1060 | ||
| Energy | 1060 | ||
| Fat | 1061 | ||
| Protein | 1061 | ||
| Minerals and Vitamins | 1062 | ||
| Calcium | 1062 | ||
| Zinc | 1062 | ||
| Vitamin A | 1063 | ||
| Folate | 1064 | ||
| Other B vitamins | 1064 | ||
| See also | 1064 | ||
| Further Reading | 1064 | ||
| Physiology\r | 1065 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of Lactation | 1065 | ||
| Milk Composition | 1066 | ||
| Synthesis and Secretion of Milk Components | 1067 | ||
| Exocytotic Pathway (I) | 1067 | ||
| Lipid Secretion Pathway (II) | 1068 | ||
| Transcytosis Pathway (III) | 1068 | ||
| Transmembrane Pathway (IV) | 1068 | ||
| Paracellular Transport Pathway (V) | 1069 | ||
| Regulation of Milk Synthesis, Secretion, and Ejection | 1069 | ||
| Hormonal Control of Milk Synthesis and Secretion | 1069 | ||
| Local Control of Synthesis and Secretion | 1069 | ||
| Regulation of Milk Ejection | 1070 | ||
| Initiation of Lactation | 1070 | ||
| Changes in Milk Composition during Secretory Activation | 1070 | ||
| Hormonal Control of Secretory Activation | 1071 | ||
| Delays in Secretory Activation | 1071 | ||
| Further Reading | 1071 | ||
| LACTOSE INTOLERANCE\r | 1072 | ||
| Overview | 1072 | ||
| Historical and Geographic Perspective | 1072 | ||
| Lactase Nonpersistence | 1073 | ||
| Lactose Digestion and Gastrointestinal Function | 1073 | ||
| Prevalence | 1074 | ||
| Children | 1074 | ||
| Adults | 1075 | ||
| Pregnant Women | 1075 | ||
| Secondary Lactase Deficiency | 1076 | ||
| Lactose Digestion and Diet | 1076 | ||
| Calcium | 1076 | ||
| Osteoporosis | 1076 | ||
| Nutrition policy | 1077 | ||
| Summary | 1077 | ||
| Further Reading | 1077 | ||
| LEGUMES\r | 1079 | ||
| Introduction | 1079 | ||
| Legume Types | 1079 | ||
| Bambara Groundnut | 1080 | ||
| Broad Bean | 1080 | ||
| Chickpea | 1080 | ||
| Common Bean | 1080 | ||
| Cowpea | 1081 | ||
| Grass Pea | 1081 | ||
| Hyacinth Bean | 1081 | ||
| Lentil | 1081 | ||
| Mung Bean | 1081 | ||
| Pea | 1081 | ||
| Peanut | 1081 | ||
| Pigeon Pea | 1081 | ||
| Soybean | 1081 | ||
| Winged Bean | 1082 | ||
| Grain Legume Nutritional Value | 1082 | ||
| Protein | 1082 | ||
| Lipids | 1082 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 1082 | ||
| Fiber | 1083 | ||
| Minerals | 1083 | ||
| Vitamins | 1083 | ||
| Health-Promoting Phytonutrients | 1083 | ||
| See also | 1083 | ||
| Further Reading | 1083 | ||
| LIPOPROTEINS\r | 1085 | ||
| Classification of Lipoproteins | 1085 | ||
| Classification of Serum Lipoproteins According to Their Electrophoretic Mobilities | 1085 | ||
| Classification of Serum Lipoproteins According to Their Ultracentrifugal Characteristics | 1085 | ||
| Classification of Serum Lipoproteins According to Their Apolipoprotein Composition | 1085 | ||
| Synthesis and Catabolism of Lipoproteins | 1087 | ||
| Metabolism of Lipoproteins Carrying Exogenous Lipids | 1087 | ||
| Transport of Endogenous Lipids | 1087 | ||
| Reverse Cholesterol Transport | 1087 | ||
| Effects of Dietary Fats and Cholesterol on Lipoprotein Metabolism | 1087 | ||
| Effects of Diet on Chylomicron Metabolism | 1087 | ||
| Effects of Diet on VLDL Metabolism | 1088 | ||
| Effects of Diet on LDL Metabolism | 1088 | ||
| Effects of Diet on HDL Metabolism | 1088 | ||
| Disorders of Lipoprotein Metabolism | 1088 | ||
| Type I or Familial Chylomicronemia | 1089 | ||
| Type II or Familial Hypercholesterolemia | 1089 | ||
| Familial Defective apo B-100 | 1089 | ||
| Type III or Familial Dysbetalipoproteinemia | 1089 | ||
| Familial Type IV and Type V Hypertriglyceridemias | 1089 | ||
| Familial Dyslipidemia | 1089 | ||
| Familial Combined Hyperlipidemia | 1090 | ||
| Familial Hyperapobetalipoproteinemia | 1090 | ||
| Familial Hypoalphalipoproteinemia | 1090 | ||
| Familial Lipoprotein (a) Excess | 1090 | ||
| General Guidelines for the Treatment of Lipoprotein Abnormalities for CHD Prevention | 1090 | ||
| See also | 1090 | ||
| Further Reading | 1090 | ||
| LIVER DISORDERS: Nutritional Management\r | 1092 | ||
| Introduction | 1092 | ||
| Nutritional Aspects and Liver Physiology in Normal Liver and Liver Diseases | 1092 | ||
| Bile Salts | 1092 | ||
| Macronutrient Metabolism | 1092 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 1092 | ||
| Proteins | 1093 | ||
| Lipids | 1093 | ||
| Fat-soluble Vitamins | 1094 | ||
| Trace Elements | 1094 | ||
| Liver in Specific Hepatobiliary Disorders and Nutritional Management | 1094 | ||
| Hepatocellular Diseases | 1094 | ||
| Alcoholic liver Disease | 1094 | ||
| Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) and Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH) | 1098 | ||
| Viral Hepatitis | 1098 | ||
| Autoimmune Hepatitis | 1098 | ||
| Hepatobiliary Disorders | 1098 | ||
| Neonatal and Infantile Cholestatic Disorders | 1098 | ||
| Parenteral Nutrition (PN)-associated Liver Disease | 1099 | ||
| Cholestatic Diseases in Adults | 1099 | ||
| Metabolic Liver Disorders | 1099 | ||
| Pregnancy and Liver Disease | 1102 | ||
| Acute Liver Failure | 1102 | ||
| Chronic Liver Disease | 1102 | ||
| End Stage Liver Disease in Pre- and Post-Liver Transplantation | 1102 | ||
| Further Reading | 1104 | ||
| LOW BIRTH WEIGHT AND PRETERM INFANTS: Causes, Prevalence, and Prevention | 1105 | ||
| Introduction | 1105 | ||
| Assessment of Gestational Age and Fetal Growth. Methods and Limitations | 1105 | ||
| Causes | 1106 | ||
| Health Consequences | 1106 | ||
| Epidemiology | 1106 | ||
| Prevention | 1108 | ||
| Nutritional Interventions to Prevent Preterm Delivery | 1108 | ||
| Nutritional Interventions to Prevent IUGR | 1108 | ||
| Conclusions | 1108 | ||
| Nutritional Management | 1109 | ||
| Introduction | 1109 | ||
| Growth | 1109 | ||
| Energy Needs | 1110 | ||
| PN | 1110 | ||
| Components of PN | 1111 | ||
| Glucose | 1111 | ||
| Protein | 1111 | ||
| Cysteine | 1111 | ||
| Lipids | 1112 | ||
| Carnitine | 1112 | ||
| Electrolytes | 1112 | ||
| Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium | 1112 | ||
| Trace Minerals | 1112 | ||
| Vitamins | 1112 | ||
| Enteral Nutrition | 1112 | ||
| Trophic Feedings | 1113 | ||
| Feeding Route | 1113 | ||
| Feeding Selection | 1113 | ||
| Feeding Delivery | 1114 | ||
| Monitoring Feeding Tolerance | 1114 | ||
| Monitoring Nutritional Status | 1114 | ||
| Preparation for Discharge | 1114 | ||
| Conclusions | 1115 | ||
| See also | 1115 | ||
| Further Reading | 1115 | ||
| LUNG DISEASES\r | 1116 | ||
| Introduction | 1116 | ||
| Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease | 1116 | ||
| Epidemiology | 1116 | ||
| Etiology | 1116 | ||
| Clinical Features | 1116 | ||
| Differential Diagnoses | 1117 | ||
| Pathology | 1117 | ||
| Nutrition and COPD | 1117 | ||
| Reasons for Malnutrition in COPD | 1118 | ||
| Obesity in COPD | 1118 | ||
| Nutritional Support | 1118 | ||
| Type of Nutritional Support | 1119 | ||
| Nutritional Advice, Exercise, and Supplementation | 1119 | ||
| Tube Feeding | 1119 | ||
| Cystic Fibrosis | 1120 | ||
| Definition | 1120 | ||
| Epidemiology | 1120 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 1120 | ||
| Clinical Features | 1120 | ||
| Malnutrition and CF | 1120 | ||
| Decreased Intake | 1120 | ||
| Increased Energy Expenditure | 1121 | ||
| Nutritional Support | 1121 | ||
| High-Energy/High-Protein Diet | 1121 | ||
| Dietary Supplements | 1122 | ||
| Enteral Feeding | 1123 | ||
| Parenteral Nutrition | 1123 | ||
| Vitamin, Mineral, and Pancreatic Enzyme Supplementation | 1123 | ||
| Appetite Stimulants, Growth Hormones, and Omega-3 | 1124 | ||
| Asthma | 1124 | ||
| Definition | 1124 | ||
| Epidemiology | 1124 | ||
| Clinical Features | 1125 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 1125 | ||
| Nutrition and Asthma | 1125 | ||
| Possible Preventative Effects of Nutrition | 1125 | ||
| Secondary Prophylactic Effects of Nutrition in Asthma | 1126 | ||
| Other Lung Diseases | 1126 | ||
| Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome | 1126 | ||
| Bronchiectasis | 1126 | ||
| Chronic Lung Disease of Infancy | 1126 | ||
| Respiratory Tract Infections and Micronutrients | 1127 | ||
| See also | 1127 | ||
| Further Reading | 1127 | ||
| LYCOPENES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS\r | 1129 | ||
| Introduction | 1129 | ||
| Chemical and Physical Properties of Lycopene; its Food Sources and Enteric Absorption | 1129 | ||
| Tissue Contents and Kinetics of Lycopene Turnover | 1131 | ||
| Functional Properties and Tissue Health | 1132 | ||
| Health, Research Models, and Epidemiological Evidence | 1132 | ||
| Evidence for Possible Anticancer Protection by Lycopene | 1133 | ||
| Lycopene and Cardiovascular Disease | 1134 | ||
| Other Disease-Related Investigations | 1134 | ||
| Conclusions | 1134 | ||
| See also | 1134 | ||
| Further Reading | 1134 | ||
| M: MAGNESIUM\r | 1136 | ||
| Magnesium Metabolism | 1136 | ||
| Distribution of Mg within the Body | 1136 | ||
| Intestinal Absorption | 1137 | ||
| Urinary Excretion | 1137 | ||
| Dietary Sources of Magnesium | 1137 | ||
| Requirements | 1138 | ||
| Assessment of Mg Status | 1138 | ||
| Magnesium Deficit | 1138 | ||
| Dietary Mg Deficiency | 1138 | ||
| Secondary Mg Deficiency | 1138 | ||
| Causes of Mg Deficit | 1138 | ||
| Consequences of Mg Deficit and Implications in Various Metabolic Diseases | 1139 | ||
| Magnesium Excess | 1139 | ||
| Recommended Dietary Allowances | 1139 | ||
| Conclusion | 1140 | ||
| See also | 1140 | ||
| Further Reading | 1140 | ||
| MALABSORPTION SYNDROMES\r:Nutritional Management | 1141 | ||
| Introduction | 1141 | ||
| Pathophysiology and Symptoms | 1141 | ||
| General Nutritional Management of Malabsorption | 1142 | ||
| Specific Nutritional Management of Malabsorption | 1143 | ||
| Fluids and Electrolytes | 1143 | ||
| Carbohydrate Malabsorption | 1143 | ||
| Lactose Intolerance | 1143 | ||
| Sucrose | 1143 | ||
| Fat Malabsorption: Fat and Fat-Soluble Nutrients | 1143 | ||
| Protein Malabsorption | 1144 | ||
| Route of Nutrition in Malabsorption | 1144 | ||
| Selection of Enteral Formulas for Malabsorption | 1145 | ||
| Clinical Management of Malabsorption | 1145 | ||
| Inflammatory Bowel Disease | 1145 | ||
| Short Bowel Syndrome | 1145 | ||
| Summary | 1146 | ||
| See also | 1146 | ||
| Further Reading | 1146 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1147 | ||
| MALNUTRITION: Secondary, Diagnosis and Management\r | 1148 | ||
| Introduction | 1148 | ||
| Causes of Secondary Under- and Overnutrition | 1148 | ||
| Coexistence of Primary and Secondary Malnutrition | 1148 | ||
| The Reverse Paradigm: Underlying Pathology Revealed by Detection of Abnormal Nutrition | 1149 | ||
| Diagnosis of Secondary Malnutrition | 1149 | ||
| Caveats for the Diagnosis of Secondary Excess Nutriture | 1149 | ||
| Caveats for the Diagnosis of Secondary Undernutrition | 1150 | ||
| Management of Secondary Malnutrition | 1150 | ||
| Principles of Management | 1151 | ||
| Public Health Approaches | 1151 | ||
| Dietary Management of Secondary Overnutrition | 1151 | ||
| Dietary and Nutritional Management of Secondary Undernutrition | 1151 | ||
| Conclusions | 1152 | ||
| See also | 1152 | ||
| Further Reading | 1152 | ||
| MANGANESE\r | 1153 | ||
| Chemical and Physical Properties | 1153 | ||
| Dietary Sources | 1153 | ||
| Analysis | 1153 | ||
| Physiological Role | 1154 | ||
| Tissue Concentrations | 1154 | ||
| Absorption, Transport, and Storage | 1154 | ||
| Metabolic Function and Essentiality | 1155 | ||
| Manganese Deficiency | 1156 | ||
| Manganese Toxicity | 1157 | ||
| Assessment of Manganese Status | 1158 | ||
| See also | 1158 | ||
| Further Reading | 1159 | ||
| MEAL SIZE AND \rFREQUENCY: Effect on Absorption and Metabolism | 1160 | ||
| Introduction | 1160 | ||
| The Effect of Meal Size on Absorption | 1160 | ||
| The Regulation of Meal Size by Gut-Derived Satiety Peptides and Adiposity Signals | 1160 | ||
| The Effect of Meal Size on Metabolism | 1161 | ||
| The Effect of Meal Size on Energy Intake | 1161 | ||
| The Effect of Meal Size on Energy Expenditure | 1161 | ||
| The Effect of Meal Frequency on Absorption | 1162 | ||
| Mechanisms Underlying the Metabolic Effect of Meal Frequency | 1162 | ||
| The Effect of Meal Frequency on Metabolism | 1163 | ||
| The Effect of Meal Frequency on Energy Intake | 1163 | ||
| Mechanisms by which Meal Frequency may Influence Energy Intake | 1163 | ||
| The Effect of Meal Frequency on Energy Expenditure | 1163 | ||
| See also | 1164 | ||
| Further reading | 1164 | ||
| MEAT, POULTRY,\rAND MEAT PRODUCTS | 1165 | ||
| Introduction | 1165 | ||
| Nutritional Value | 1165 | ||
| Classes of Nutrients and Meat Products | 1166 | ||
| Protein | 1166 | ||
| Lipids | 1166 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 1166 | ||
| Vitamins | 1166 | ||
| Minerals | 1166 | ||
| Bioavailability of Nutrients and Efficiency for Child Development | 1166 | ||
| Nutrient Density of Meat and Meat Products | 1167 | ||
| Meat Sources and Nutritional Values | 1167 | ||
| Beef | 1167 | ||
| Pork | 1167 | ||
| Lamb | 1167 | ||
| Veal | 1171 | ||
| Poultry | 1171 | ||
| Processed Meats | 1171 | ||
| Summary | 1171 | ||
| See also | 1171 | ||
| Further Reading | 1171 | ||
| MICROBIOTA OF THE INTESTINE: Prebiotics\r | 1173 | ||
| Introduction | 1173 | ||
| Intestinal Microbiota in Healthy Individuals | 1173 | ||
| Development of Intestinal Microbiota | 1174 | ||
| Metabolic Activity of the Microbiota | 1175 | ||
| Microbiota-Nutrient Interactions | 1175 | ||
| Effect of Intestinal Microbiota on Intestinal Barrier Function | 1175 | ||
| Effect of Intestinal Microbiota on Immune Response | 1176 | ||
| Altering Gut Microbiota | 1176 | ||
| Prebiotics | 1177 | ||
| Definition | 1177 | ||
| Classifications | 1177 | ||
| Dietary Intake | 1177 | ||
| Clinical Effects of Prebiotics | 1177 | ||
| Effect in the Proximal GI Tract | 1177 | ||
| Effects in the Colon | 1178 | ||
| Safety and Tolerance | 1179 | ||
| Conclusion | 1179 | ||
| See also | 1179 | ||
| Further Reading | 1179 | ||
| e9780123750839v4 | 1430 | ||
| Front Cover\r | 1430 | ||
| ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN NUTRITION | 1431 | ||
| CONTENTS | 1435 | ||
| EDITOR-IN-CHIEF BIOGRAPHY | 1439 | ||
| CO-EDITORS BIOGRAPHY | 1441 | ||
| EDITORS | 1443 | ||
| EDITORIAL ADVISORY \rBOARD | 1445 | ||
| CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME\r4 | 1447 | ||
| PREFACE | 1451 | ||
| GUIDE TOUSEOFTHEENCYCLOPEDIA | 1453 | ||
| P: PANTOTHENIC ACID | 1455 | ||
| Absorption, Transport, Storage and Status Measurement | 1455 | ||
| Metabolism and Turnover | 1455 | ||
| Metabolic Function and Essentiality | 1457 | ||
| Requirements | 1458 | ||
| Dietary Sources and High Intakes | 1459 | ||
| See also | 1459 | ||
| Further Reading | 1459 | ||
| PARASITISM | 1460 | ||
| Introduction | 1460 | ||
| Mechanisms of Parasite-Host Nutrition Interactions | 1460 | ||
| Loss of Appetite, Anorexia | 1460 | ||
| Maldigestion and Malabsorption | 1461 | ||
| Nutrient Losses | 1461 | ||
| Competition for Nutrients | 1461 | ||
| Parasite Epidemiology and Impact on Host Nutrition | 1461 | ||
| Clinical Studies | 1461 | ||
| Helminth Parasites | 1461 | ||
| Ascaris lumbricoides (Roundworm) | 1461 | ||
| Hookworms | 1462 | ||
| Schistosomes | 1463 | ||
| Trichuris trichiura (Whipworm) | 1463 | ||
| Strongyloides stercoralis | 1464 | ||
| Special Features of Helminth Parasites | 1464 | ||
| Protozoal Parasites | 1464 | ||
| Giardia intestinalis (equallamblia) | 1464 | ||
| Cryptosporidium parvum and Other Cryptosporidium Species | 1465 | ||
| Entameba histolytica | 1465 | ||
| Community and Intervention Studies | 1465 | ||
| Iron Deficiency and Iron-Deficiency Anemia | 1465 | ||
| Growth and Protein-Energy Malnutrition | 1465 | ||
| Treatment and Prognosis | 1466 | ||
| Prevention | 1466 | ||
| See also | 1467 | ||
| Further Reading | 1467 | ||
| PARENTERAL NUTRITION\r | 1468 | ||
| Indications for Parenteral Nutrition | 1468 | ||
| Bowel Rest | 1468 | ||
| Perioperative Support in Severe Malnutrition | 1468 | ||
| Contraindications to Parenteral Nutrition | 1469 | ||
| Vascular Access | 1469 | ||
| Nutrition Components of Parenteral Nutrition | 1469 | ||
| Amino Acids | 1469 | ||
| Dextrose | 1469 | ||
| Lipid Emulsions | 1470 | ||
| Electrolytes | 1470 | ||
| Vitamins | 1470 | ||
| Trace Elements | 1470 | ||
| Titration of Volume | 1471 | ||
| Parenteral Nutrition Monitoring | 1471 | ||
| Cyclic Parenteral Nutrition | 1471 | ||
| Complications of Parenteral Nutrition | 1472 | ||
| Catheter Occlusion/Thrombosis | 1472 | ||
| Infection | 1472 | ||
| Metabolic | 1472 | ||
| Hepatic Injury | 1473 | ||
| Bone Disease | 1473 | ||
| Home Parenteral Nutrition | 1473 | ||
| Conclusions | 1474 | ||
| Further Reading | 1474 | ||
| PEDIATRIC FEEDING DISORDERS: Feeding Children Who Can’t or Won’t Eat | 1475 | ||
| Introduction | 1475 | ||
| Normal Development of Feeding and Swallowing | 1476 | ||
| The Swallowing Process | 1476 | ||
| Classification of Feeding Disorders in Children | 1476 | ||
| Assessment | 1477 | ||
| Physicians | 1477 | ||
| Diagnostic Testing | 1477 | ||
| Oral-Motor Therapists | 1478 | ||
| Nutritionists | 1478 | ||
| Behavioral Psychologists | 1479 | ||
| Social Workers | 1479 | ||
| Treatment of Feeding Disorders | 1479 | ||
| Conclusion | 1480 | ||
| Further Reading | 1480 | ||
| PHOSPHORUS: Physiology, Dietary Sources, and Requirements | 1482 | ||
| Introduction | 1482 | ||
| Calcium-Phosphate Interrelationships | 1482 | ||
| Dietary Sources of Phosphorus | 1482 | ||
| Intestinal Absorption of Phosphates | 1483 | ||
| Phosphate Homeostatic Mechanisms | 1483 | ||
| Functional Roles of Phosphates | 1484 | ||
| Phosphate in Health and Disease | 1484 | ||
| Ageing and Renal Function | 1484 | ||
| Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism | 1484 | ||
| Renal Secondary Hyperparathyroidism | 1485 | ||
| Abnormal Bone Formation in Arterial Walls | 1485 | ||
| Conclusions | 1485 | ||
| Further Reading | 1485 | ||
| PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: Beneficial Effects | 1487 | ||
| Introduction | 1487 | ||
| Physical Activity and Energy Balance | 1487 | ||
| Energy Expenditure During and After Exercise | 1487 | ||
| Effects of Exercise Training on Resting Metabolic Rate and the Thermic Effect of Food | 1488 | ||
| Physiological Adaptations to Exercise Training | 1488 | ||
| Adaptations to Submaximal/Endurance Exercise Training | 1489 | ||
| Adaptations to High-Intensity Exercise and Strength Training | 1489 | ||
| Benefits of Regular Physical Activity | 1489 | ||
| Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease | 1489 | ||
| Weight Control | 1491 | ||
| Prevention of Osteoporosis | 1491 | ||
| Cancer Prevention | 1491 | ||
| Mental Health | 1492 | ||
| Physical Activity Prescription | 1492 | ||
| See also | 1492 | ||
| Further Reading | 1492 | ||
| PHYTOCHEMICALS: Classification and Occurrence | 1493 | ||
| Introduction | 1493 | ||
| Phytochemicals: General | 1493 | ||
| Flavonoids | 1494 | ||
| Flavonols | 1495 | ||
| Flavones | 1495 | ||
| Flavan-3-ols (Both Monomeric and Polymeric Forms) | 1496 | ||
| Anthocyanins | 1496 | ||
| Flavanones | 1496 | ||
| Isoflavones | 1496 | ||
| Current Estimates of Intake | 1496 | ||
| Absorption and Metabolism of Flavonoids | 1497 | ||
| Bioavailability of Flavonoids | 1497 | ||
| Potential Mechanisms of Action | 1498 | ||
| Potential Health Effects | 1498 | ||
| Cardiovascular Health | 1499 | ||
| Neuroprotective Effects | 1499 | ||
| Cancer | 1499 | ||
| Safety | 1499 | ||
| Conclusions | 1499 | ||
| Further Reading | 1500 | ||
| Health Effects | 1501 | ||
| Introduction | 1501 | ||
| Dietary Sources | 1501 | ||
| Metabolism and Bioavailability | 1501 | ||
| Biological Activity | 1501 | ||
| Cardioprotection | 1502 | ||
| Cancer Prevention | 1503 | ||
| Cognitive Benefits | 1504 | ||
| Bone Protective Effects | 1504 | ||
| Menopausal Symptoms | 1504 | ||
| Health Concerns | 1505 | ||
| Conclusions | 1505 | ||
| Further Reading | 1505 | ||
| POTASSIUM\r | 1506 | ||
| Acid-Base Considerations | 1506 | ||
| Adverse Effects of Insufficient Potassium | 1506 | ||
| Kidney Stones and Bone Demineralization | 1506 | ||
| Elevated Blood Pressure | 1507 | ||
| Cardiovascular Disease | 1507 | ||
| Adverse Effects of Excess Potassium Intake | 1508 | ||
| Recommended Potassium Intake, Current Intake, and Dietary Sources | 1508 | ||
| Conclusion | 1509 | ||
| See also | 1509 | ||
| Further Reading | 1509 | ||
| PREGNANCY: Energy Requirements and Metabolic Adaptations | 1510 | ||
| Extra Energy Costs of Pregnancy | 1510 | ||
| Tissue Deposition | 1510 | ||
| Maintenance Energy Costs of Pregnancy | 1510 | ||
| Theoretical Total Metabolic Costs of Pregnancy | 1510 | ||
| Longitudinal Studies of the Energy Costs of Pregnancy | 1511 | ||
| Fat Deposition | 1511 | ||
| Basal Metabolic Rate | 1511 | ||
| Diet-Induced Thermogenesis | 1512 | ||
| Energy Cost of Activities | 1512 | ||
| Behavioral Changes in Physical Activity | 1512 | ||
| Between-Country Comparison of the Metabolic Costs of Pregnancy | 1513 | ||
| Individual Variability in the Total Energy Costs of Pregnancy | 1513 | ||
| Implications of Energy-Sparing Adaptations for Mother and Infant | 1513 | ||
| See also | 1513 | ||
| Further Reading | 1513 | ||
| Nutrient Requirements | 1515 | ||
| Introduction | 1515 | ||
| Recommended Nutrient Intakes for Pregnancy | 1515 | ||
| Energy | 1515 | ||
| Protein | 1517 | ||
| Folate | 1517 | ||
| Other B Vitamins | 1517 | ||
| Vitamin A | 1517 | ||
| Vitamin D | 1518 | ||
| Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) | 1518 | ||
| Vitamin E | 1518 | ||
| Calcium | 1518 | ||
| Phosphorus | 1519 | ||
| Magnesium | 1519 | ||
| Iron | 1519 | ||
| Zinc | 1520 | ||
| Iodine | 1520 | ||
| Trace Elements: Copper, Selenium, Chromium, Fluoride, Manganese, and Molybdenum | 1520 | ||
| Water and Electrolytes | 1521 | ||
| Summary | 1521 | ||
| See also | 1521 | ||
| Further Reading | 1521 | ||
| Placental Regulation of Nutrient Delivery to the Fetus | 1522 | ||
| Fetal Nutrient Requirements | 1522 | ||
| The Human Placenta | 1522 | ||
| Methods Used to Study Placental Function | 1523 | ||
| The Mechanisms of Placental Nutrient Transport | 1523 | ||
| Epigenetics and the Placenta | 1524 | ||
| Placental Selectivity | 1526 | ||
| Placental Metabolic Activity | 1526 | ||
| Placental Buffering of Maternal Dietary Intake | 1526 | ||
| Placental Insufficiency and Fetal Growth | 1527 | ||
| The Role of the Fetus | 1528 | ||
| Further Reading | 1528 | ||
| Pre-eclampsia and Diet | 1529 | ||
| Introduction | 1529 | ||
| Classification | 1529 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Pre-eclampsia | 1529 | ||
| The Possible Role of Nutrition in the Pathophysiology of Pre-eclampsia | 1530 | ||
| Calcium | 1530 | ||
| Antioxidant Agents | 1530 | ||
| Other Nutrients | 1530 | ||
| Nutritional Interventions and Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy | 1530 | ||
| Prevention | 1530 | ||
| Nutritional Advice in Pregnancy | 1531 | ||
| Energy/protein Restriction for Obese Pregnant Women | 1531 | ||
| Salt Restriction | 1531 | ||
| Calcium Supplementation | 1531 | ||
| Iron and Folate Supplementation | 1532 | ||
| Magnesium Supplementation | 1532 | ||
| Fish Oil Supplementation | 1532 | ||
| Zinc Supplementation | 1532 | ||
| Vitamin (A, E, and C) Supplementation | 1533 | ||
| Treatment | 1534 | ||
| Conclusions | 1534 | ||
| See also | 1534 | ||
| Further Reading | 1534 | ||
| Prevention of Neural Tube Defects | 1535 | ||
| Epidemiology | 1535 | ||
| Genetic and Environmental Factors | 1535 | ||
| Folate/Folic Acid | 1535 | ||
| Evidence from Intervention Studies | 1535 | ||
| Evidence from Maternal Blood Folate Status | 1536 | ||
| Vitamin B12 | 1537 | ||
| Other Causes of NTDs | 1537 | ||
| Nutritional Factors | 1537 | ||
| Obesity | 1537 | ||
| Diabetes Mellitus | 1537 | ||
| Other Risk Factors | 1537 | ||
| Mechanisms | 1537 | ||
| Functions of Folate and Vitamin B12 and NTD Etiology | 1537 | ||
| Folate Related Genetic Risk Factors | 1539 | ||
| Primary Prevention | 1540 | ||
| Minimum Dose | 1541 | ||
| Fortification | 1541 | ||
| Effects on NTD Prevalence | 1541 | ||
| Effects on Folate Status | 1542 | ||
| Effects on Other Health Outcomes | 1542 | ||
| Safety | 1542 | ||
| Recommendations | 1542 | ||
| See also | 1543 | ||
| Further Reading | 1543 | ||
| Safe Diets | 1544 | ||
| Introduction | 1544 | ||
| Food-Borne Infections during Pregnancy | 1544 | ||
| Alcohol | 1545 | ||
| Excessive Alcohol Consumption during Pregnancy | 1545 | ||
| Binge Drinking and Social Alcohol Consumption during Pregnancy | 1546 | ||
| Vitamin A | 1547 | ||
| Fish and Pregnancy | 1547 | ||
| Mercury | 1548 | ||
| Dioxins and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) | 1548 | ||
| Caffeine | 1549 | ||
| Avoiding Foods to Prevent Allergy | 1550 | ||
| Food Additives and Herbal Supplements | 1551 | ||
| Summary | 1551 | ||
| See also | 1551 | ||
| Further Reading | 1551 | ||
| Weight Gain\r | 1553 | ||
| Pregnancy Weight Gain Recommendations | 1553 | ||
| Excessive Weight Gain | 1554 | ||
| Pattern of Weight Gain | 1554 | ||
| Variability in Weight Gain | 1554 | ||
| Maternal Weight Gain and Birth Weight | 1554 | ||
| Changes in Body Composition and Maternal Energy Status | 1555 | ||
| Weight Gain for Special Population Groups | 1555 | ||
| Adolescents, Short Women, and Ethnic Groups | 1555 | ||
| Substance Abusers | 1555 | ||
| Multiple Births | 1556 | ||
| Obese and Overweight Women | 1556 | ||
| Exercising Women | 1556 | ||
| Pregnancy Weight Gain and Postpartum Risk of Obesity | 1556 | ||
| Impact of Supplementation | 1556 | ||
| See also | 1557 | ||
| Further Reading | 1557 | ||
| PROSTAGLANDINS AND LEUKOTRIENES | 1558 | ||
| Introduction | 1558 | ||
| Synthesis | 1558 | ||
| Major Biosynthetic Pathways | 1558 | ||
| Cyclooxygenase | 1558 | ||
| Lipoxygenase | 1559 | ||
| PG and LT Receptors | 1560 | ||
| Physiological Activities of PGs and LTs | 1561 | ||
| Bone Metabolism | 1561 | ||
| Cancer | 1561 | ||
| Cardiovascular System | 1561 | ||
| GI System | 1561 | ||
| Immune System | 1562 | ||
| Inflammation | 1562 | ||
| Fever | 1562 | ||
| Respiratory System | 1562 | ||
| Renal System | 1562 | ||
| Reproduction | 1563 | ||
| Regulation of PG and LT Synthesis by Dietary Fatty Acids | 1563 | ||
| See also | 1564 | ||
| Further Reading | 1564 | ||
| PROTEIN DEFICIENCY | 1565 | ||
| Introduction | 1565 | ||
| Protein Turnover and Regulation | 1566 | ||
| General Nutritional Factors Regulating Amino Acid Catabolism | 1566 | ||
| Relationship Between Protein Intake and Protein Need | 1567 | ||
| Adaptation to Low Protein Intakes | 1567 | ||
| Nitrogen Balance | 1567 | ||
| Factors Affecting Adaptation | 1567 | ||
| Causes of Protein and Amino Acid Deficiency | 1568 | ||
| Causes | 1568 | ||
| Principles of Treatment of Protein Deficiency | 1568 | ||
| See also | 1569 | ||
| Further Reading | 1569 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1569 | ||
| PROTEIN DIGESTION AND BIOAVAILABILITY | 1570 | ||
| Introduction | 1570 | ||
| Digestion | 1570 | ||
| Stomach Peptic Activity | 1571 | ||
| Pancreatic Proteases | 1572 | ||
| Brush Border Membrane and Cytoplasmic Peptidases | 1572 | ||
| Colonic Digestion | 1573 | ||
| Absorption | 1573 | ||
| Peptide Absorption | 1574 | ||
| Amino Acid Absorption | 1574 | ||
| Digestibility | 1574 | ||
| See also | 1576 | ||
| Further Reading | 1576 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1576 | ||
| PROTEIN: Quality and Sources | 1577 | ||
| Assessment of Protein Quality | 1578 | ||
| Metabolic Studies | 1578 | ||
| Influence of Energy Intake on Nitrogen Balance | 1578 | ||
| Assays in Laboratory Animals | 1578 | ||
| Amino Acid Score Adjusted for Digestibility | 1578 | ||
| Amino Acid Analysis of Food Proteins | 1578 | ||
| Amino Acid Scoring Pattern | 1579 | ||
| Correction for Protein Digestibility | 1580 | ||
| Calculations and Examples | 1581 | ||
| Protein Concentration | 1581 | ||
| Protein/Energy Ratio | 1581 | ||
| Improvement of Protein Quality | 1581 | ||
| Amino Acid Profile | 1581 | ||
| Digestibility and Bioavailability | 1583 | ||
| Protein Concentration | 1583 | ||
| Protein Quality and Dietary Sources | 1584 | ||
| See also | 1584 | ||
| Further Reading | 1584 | ||
| Requirements and Rolein Diet | 1585 | ||
| Terminology | 1585 | ||
| Metabolic Demands for Amino Acids | 1585 | ||
| Qualitative Aspects of the Metabolic Demand: Plant versus Animal Sources | 1587 | ||
| Nitrogen Balance | 1588 | ||
| Inherent Difficulties with Nitrogen Balance Studies | 1588 | ||
| Protein-Energy Interactions | 1588 | ||
| Adaptation | 1589 | ||
| Dietary Protein Allowances for Individuals and Populations and Implications of Adaptation | 1589 | ||
| Protein Requirements for Growth and Special Needs | 1590 | ||
| Pregnancy Requirements | 1590 | ||
| Areas of Uncertainty | 1591 | ||
| Requirements for Infants and Children, Pregnancy and Lactation | 1591 | ||
| Optimal Protein Intakes and Implications of Adaptation for Nutrition Policy | 1591 | ||
| See also | 1592 | ||
| Further Reading | 1592 | ||
| Synthesis and Turnover | 1593 | ||
| Whole-Body Protein Homeostasis | 1593 | ||
| Protein Turnover | 1594 | ||
| Models and Tracer Methods for the Study of Protein Turnover | 1594 | ||
| Applications | 1596 | ||
| Extent and Physiological Implications of Protein Turnover | 1596 | ||
| Regulatory Mechanisms of Protein Turnover Control | 1596 | ||
| Postprandial Protein Utilization | 1597 | ||
| See also | 1599 | ||
| Further Reading | 1600 | ||
| R: REFUGEES:Nutritional Implications | 1601 | ||
| Introduction | 1601 | ||
| Trends | 1602 | ||
| Nutrition Implications of Displacement | 1602 | ||
| Macronutrients | 1603 | ||
| Micronutrients (Vitamins and Mineral Deficiencies) | 1603 | ||
| Addressing Nutrition in Refugees | 1604 | ||
| Food Baskets for Populations (General Food Distribution) | 1604 | ||
| Addressing Acute Malnutrition among young children | 1605 | ||
| Management of Moderate Acute Malnutrition | 1605 | ||
| Addressing Severe Acute Malnutrition | 1605 | ||
| Challenges | 1605 | ||
| See also | 1606 | ||
| Further Reading | 1606 | ||
| RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS, INFLUENCE ON DIET | 1607 | ||
| Introduction | 1607 | ||
| Judaism | 1607 | ||
| Christianity | 1608 | ||
| Islam | 1609 | ||
| Hinduism | 1609 | ||
| Buddhism | 1610 | ||
| Conclusion | 1610 | ||
| Further Reading | 1611 | ||
| RIBOFLAVIN\r | 1612 | ||
| Absorption, Transport, and Storage | 1612 | ||
| Absorption by Human Subjects | 1613 | ||
| Riboflavin Transport at other Sites and Storage | 1613 | ||
| Metabolism and Excretion | 1614 | ||
| Metabolic Function and Essentiality | 1615 | ||
| Fatty Acid Oxidation | 1615 | ||
| Iron Economy | 1615 | ||
| Malaria | 1615 | ||
| Cataracts and Photoreceptors | 1616 | ||
| Interaction with Vitamin B6 | 1616 | ||
| Effect on Folate Metabolism | 1616 | ||
| Assessment of Riboflavin Status | 1616 | ||
| Urinary Excretion | 1616 | ||
| The Glutathione Reductase Test | 1616 | ||
| Requirements | 1617 | ||
| Dietary Sources and High Intakes | 1618 | ||
| See also | 1618 | ||
| Further Reading | 1618 | ||
| S: SALT: Epidemiology | 1620 | ||
| Introduction | 1620 | ||
| Occurrence in Nature | 1620 | ||
| A History of Salt Intake | 1620 | ||
| Salt in Food Technology | 1621 | ||
| Other Uses of Salt | 1621 | ||
| The Impact of Refrigeration on Salt Intakes | 1622 | ||
| Changes in Mineral Composition of Food Induced by Industrialization and Migration to Urban or Affluent Communities | 1622 | ||
| Rural-Urban Differences in Salt Intake and Blood Pressure (BP) | 1622 | ||
| Salt and Disease | 1624 | ||
| Salt Intake and BP | 1624 | ||
| Genetic Influences | 1625 | ||
| Age-Related Changes in BP | 1626 | ||
| Intersalt Studies | 1626 | ||
| Intervention Trials | 1627 | ||
| Salt Reduction in Preexisting Hypertension | 1628 | ||
| Gastric Cancer and Stroke | 1628 | ||
| Osteoporosis | 1628 | ||
| Bronchial Hyperreactivity | 1628 | ||
| Sources of Salt Intake | 1628 | ||
| Estimating Salt Intakes and Their Sources | 1628 | ||
| Gains and Losses of Salt During Cooking | 1629 | ||
| The Assessment of Total Discretionary Salt Use | 1629 | ||
| Implications of the Salt-Disease Relationships in Relation to Population and Individual Strategies for Improving Health | 1629 | ||
| Individualized Approaches | 1630 | ||
| Conclusions | 1630 | ||
| See also | 1630 | ||
| Further Reading | 1630 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1631 | ||
| SEASONALITY | 1632 | ||
| Introduction | 1632 | ||
| Definition and Measures of Seasonality | 1632 | ||
| Effects of Agroclimatic Seasonality on Food Availability and Dietary Intakes | 1632 | ||
| Effects of Agroclimatic Seasonality on Time Allocation and Energy Expenditure | 1633 | ||
| Seasonal Patterns of Disease | 1634 | ||
| Coping Strategies | 1635 | ||
| Nutritional Impact of Seasonality | 1636 | ||
| Body Weight, Body Composition, and Growth | 1636 | ||
| Changes in Micronutrient Status | 1637 | ||
| Metabolic Adaptation | 1637 | ||
| Functional Consequences | 1637 | ||
| Extension of the Problem | 1637 | ||
| See also | 1639 | ||
| Further Reading | 1639 | ||
| SELENIUM | 1640 | ||
| Introduction | 1640 | ||
| Metabolism of Selenium | 1640 | ||
| Absorption and Bioavailability | 1640 | ||
| Transport | 1641 | ||
| Metabolism and Distribution | 1641 | ||
| Excretion | 1642 | ||
| Functions of Selenium | 1642 | ||
| Deficiency and Excess | 1642 | ||
| Selenium Deficiency Diseases | 1642 | ||
| Selenium Toxicity | 1644 | ||
| Selenium and Human Health | 1642 | ||
| Immune Function | 1642 | ||
| Cancer | 1644 | ||
| Cardiovascular Disease | 1644 | ||
| Assessment of Selenium Status | 1645 | ||
| Dietary Intake of Selenium | 1645 | ||
| Requirements and Recommended Dietary Intakes | 1646 | ||
| Conclusion | 1646 | ||
| See also | 1646 | ||
| Further reading | 1646 | ||
| SKELETAL MUSCLE\r | 1647 | ||
| Introduction | 1647 | ||
| Structure and Function | 1647 | ||
| Overview | 1647 | ||
| Structure | 1648 | ||
| Actin and Myosin | 1648 | ||
| Classification | 1648 | ||
| Energetics | 1648 | ||
| Adaptations to Nutrients and Exercise | 1649 | ||
| Substrate Utilization in Skeletal Muscle | 1649 | ||
| Insulin-Dependent Glucose Uptake | 1649 | ||
| Insulin-Independent Glucose Uptake | 1649 | ||
| Changes to Fiber Type Composition | 1650 | ||
| Muscle Growth | 1651 | ||
| Muscle Regeneration | 1651 | ||
| Adaptation with Age and Chronic Disease | 1651 | ||
| Changes in Muscle Composition | 1651 | ||
| Muscle Loss | 1652 | ||
| Protein Synthesis | 1652 | ||
| Protein Degradation | 1652 | ||
| Diet-Induced Metabolic Dysfunctions | 1652 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 1652 | ||
| See also | 1652 | ||
| Further Reading | 1652 | ||
| SODIUM: Physiology | 1654 | ||
| Physiological, Clinical, and Nutritional Importance of Sodium | 1654 | ||
| Distribution | 1654 | ||
| Sodium in Extracellular Fluid | 1655 | ||
| Regulation of ECF Sodium | 1655 | ||
| Sodium-Retaining Hormones | 1656 | ||
| Natriuretic Hormones | 1656 | ||
| Adequate, Inadequate, and Excess Sodium | 1656 | ||
| Unresolved Issues | 1657 | ||
| See also | 1657 | ||
| Further Reading | 1657 | ||
| SPORT AND EXERCISE NUTRITION | 1658 | ||
| Introduction | 1658 | ||
| Nutrition for Training | 1658 | ||
| Protein Requirements | 1658 | ||
| Fat and CHO | 1659 | ||
| Vitamins and Minerals | 1660 | ||
| Water and Electrolyte Balance | 1661 | ||
| Dietary Supplements | 1661 | ||
| Nutrition for Competition | 1662 | ||
| Further Reading | 1662 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1662 | ||
| STARVATION AND FASTING: Biochemical Aspects | 1663 | ||
| The Feeding/Fasting Cycle | 1664 | ||
| Energy Requirements and Metabolism | 1664 | ||
| Energy Production | 1664 | ||
| Carbohydrate Metabolism | 1664 | ||
| Protein Metabolism | 1666 | ||
| Fat Metabolism | 1667 | ||
| Metabolic Consequences of Fasting and Starvation | 1667 | ||
| General Considerations | 1667 | ||
| Regulation of Adaptation | 1668 | ||
| Postabsorptive State | 1670 | ||
| Prolonged Fasting | 1670 | ||
| See also | 1672 | ||
| Further Reading | 1672 | ||
| STROKE NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT | 1673 | ||
| Introduction | 1673 | ||
| Risks of Protein-Energy Malnutrition | 1673 | ||
| Prestroke Nutritional Status | 1674 | ||
| Poststroke Eating Problems | 1674 | ||
| Organizational Factors | 1674 | ||
| Management of Stroke-related Psychosocial and Physical Problems Impairing Food Consumption | 1675 | ||
| Evidence-based Guideline Recommendations | 1675 | ||
| Psychosocial Problems | 1675 | ||
| Communication Problems | 1675 | ||
| Impairments of Arm Movement and Posture | 1676 | ||
| Visual Field Loss and Visual Neglect | 1676 | ||
| Attention Span, Short-Term Memory | 1676 | ||
| Swallowing Difficulties | 1676 | ||
| Screening and Assessment | 1676 | ||
| Nutritional Management and Treatment | 1678 | ||
| Nutrient Requirements | 1678 | ||
| Artificial Nutritional Support | 1678 | ||
| Evaluation of Nutritional Support | 1683 | ||
| See also | 1684 | ||
| Further Reading | 1684 | ||
| SUCROSE:Dietary Sucrose and Disease | 1685 | ||
| Introduction | 1685 | ||
| Effects on Energy Intake and Body Weight | 1685 | ||
| Sweetened Beverages | 1685 | ||
| Nutrient Dilution | 1686 | ||
| Dental Caries | 1686 | ||
| Type 2 Diabetes | 1686 | ||
| Cardiovascular Disease | 1686 | ||
| Summary | 1686 | ||
| See also | 1687 | ||
| Further Reading | 1687 | ||
| SUPPLEMENTATION: Developed Countries | 1688 | ||
| Prevalence of Micronutrient Supplement Use | 1688 | ||
| Motivation for Micronutrient Supplement Use | 1688 | ||
| Research Approach for Determining the Health Impact of Micronutrient Supplements | 1689 | ||
| Evidence Supporting Recommendations for Micronutrient Supplement Use | 1690 | ||
| Importance of Life Cycle | 1690 | ||
| Infants | 1690 | ||
| Iron | 1690 | ||
| Vitamin D | 1691 | ||
| Children | 1691 | ||
| Calcium | 1691 | ||
| Adults | 1691 | ||
| Vitamin E | 1691 | ||
| Selenium | 1692 | ||
| Folate | 1692 | ||
| Calcium | 1692 | ||
| Elderly | 1693 | ||
| Vitamin D | 1693 | ||
| Vitamin B12 | 1693 | ||
| Folate | 1693 | ||
| Calcium | 1693 | ||
| See also | 1693 | ||
| Further Reading | 1693 | ||
| Developing Countries\r | 1695 | ||
| Introduction | 1695 | ||
| Iodine Supplementation | 1695 | ||
| Vitamin A Supplementation | 1695 | ||
| Iron/Folate Supplementation | 1696 | ||
| Zinc Supplementation | 1697 | ||
| Multiple Micronutrient Supplementation | 1698 | ||
| See also | 1698 | ||
| Further Reading | 1698 | ||
| Dietary Supplements | 1700 | ||
| Introduction | 1700 | ||
| How is the Sales Data Derived? | 1700 | ||
| What is a Dietary Supplement? How are they Regulated in Different Countries? | 1700 | ||
| Product Quality and Safety Issues | 1702 | ||
| Interactions | 1702 | ||
| Label Claims | 1703 | ||
| Potential Benefits of Dietary Supplements | 1703 | ||
| Conclusions | 1704 | ||
| See also | 1704 | ||
| Further Reading | 1704 | ||
| Programmatic Issues | 1705 | ||
| Introduction | 1705 | ||
| Micronutrient Supplementation | 1705 | ||
| Choice of Interventions | 1705 | ||
| Cost of Micronutrient Interventions | 1706 | ||
| Prophylactic Micronutrient Supplementation | 1706 | ||
| Vitamin A Supplementation | 1706 | ||
| Efficacy of Prophylactic Supplementation | 1707 | ||
| Form of Supplement | 1707 | ||
| Safety | 1707 | ||
| Delivery Mechanisms | 1708 | ||
| Iron Supplementation | 1708 | ||
| Efficacy | 1708 | ||
| Dose | 1709 | ||
| Multiple Micronutrient Supplements with Iron | 1709 | ||
| Safety | 1709 | ||
| Frequency | 1709 | ||
| Form of Iron | 1711 | ||
| Effective Iron Supplementation Programs | 1711 | ||
| Iodine Supplementation | 1711 | ||
| Efficacy | 1711 | ||
| Dose | 1711 | ||
| Safety | 1711 | ||
| Zinc Supplementation | 1711 | ||
| Efficacy of Preventive Zinc Supplementation | 1712 | ||
| Therapeutic Efficacy of Zinc Treatment for Diarrhea | 1712 | ||
| Dose | 1712 | ||
| Form of Zinc | 1712 | ||
| Effectiveness of Zinc Supplementation Programs | 1712 | ||
| Multiple Micronutrient Supplementation in Pregnancy and Childhood | 1712 | ||
| Calcium Supplementation in Pregnancy | 1712 | ||
| Vitamin D | 1713 | ||
| Efficacy | 1713 | ||
| Dose | 1713 | ||
| Summary | 1713 | ||
| See also | 1713 | ||
| Further Reading | 1713 | ||
| T: \rTEA | 1714 | ||
| Description of Tea | 1714 | ||
| Composition of Tea | 1714 | ||
| Antioxidant Properties of Tea | 1715 | ||
| Tea and Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) | 1715 | ||
| Tea and Cancer | 1716 | ||
| Tea and Diabetes | 1716 | ||
| Tea and Obesity | 1716 | ||
| Conclusion | 1717 | ||
| Further Reading | 1717 | ||
| THIAMIN: \rBeriberi | 1718 | ||
| Epidemiology | 1718 | ||
| Etiology | 1720 | ||
| Experimental Thiamin Deficiency in Man and Measurement of Thiamin Status | 1721 | ||
| Clinical Features of Beriberi | 1722 | ||
| Management/Treatment | 1723 | ||
| Lipid-Soluble Thiamin Derivatives | 1725 | ||
| Case Study | 1725 | ||
| Toxicity | 1726 | ||
| See also | 1726 | ||
| Further Reading | 1726 | ||
| Physiology | 1728 | ||
| Introduction | 1728 | ||
| Dietary Sources of Thiamin | 1728 | ||
| Absorption and Ethyl Alcohol | 1729 | ||
| Transport, Storage, and Excretion | 1730 | ||
| Biological Functions | 1730 | ||
| Assessment of Thiamin Status | 1732 | ||
| Recommended Dietary Allowances | 1732 | ||
| Drug-Nutrient Interactions | 1733 | ||
| Toxicity | 1733 | ||
| See also | 1733 | ||
| Further Reading | 1733 | ||
| THIRST PHYSIOLOGY | 1734 | ||
| Role of Thirst in Water Balance | 1734 | ||
| Perception of Thirst | 1734 | ||
| Assessment of Thirst | 1734 | ||
| The Physiological Regulation of Thirst | 1734 | ||
| Mechanisms of Thirst Regulation | 1737 | ||
| Osmotic Regulation of Thirst | 1737 | ||
| Volemic Regulation of Thirst | 1739 | ||
| Sensory Regulation of Thirst | 1739 | ||
| Mechanisms for Terminating the Sensation of Thirst | 1739 | ||
| Fluid Requirements | 1740 | ||
| See also | 1740 | ||
| Further Reading | 1740 | ||
| TRANS-FATTY ACIDS: \rHealth Effects, Recommendations, and Regulations | 1742 | ||
| Introduction | 1742 | ||
| Dietary Intake | 1742 | ||
| Health Effects | 1742 | ||
| Cardiovascular Disease | 1743 | ||
| Coronary Heart Disease | 1743 | ||
| Lipids and Lipoproteins | 1743 | ||
| Inflammation | 1743 | ||
| Endothelial Function | 1743 | ||
| Cancer | 1743 | ||
| Epidemiological Studies | 1743 | ||
| Clinical Trials | 1744 | ||
| Diabetes | 1744 | ||
| Insulin Sensitivity | 1744 | ||
| Dietary Recommendations and Regulations | 1744 | ||
| Trans Fat Alternatives | 1745 | ||
| Conclusions | 1745 | ||
| Disclaimer | 1745 | ||
| Further Reading | 1746 | ||
| TUBERCULOSIS: Nutritional Management | 1747 | ||
| Introduction | 1747 | ||
| Nutritional Status of Tuberculosis Patients | 1747 | ||
| Effect of Nutritional Factors on the Course of TB | 1748 | ||
| Controlled Intervention Studies of Nutritional Supplements in the Management of TB | 1748 | ||
| Nutritional Management of TB | 1749 | ||
| Nutrient-Drug Interactions | 1751 | ||
| Conclusions | 1751 | ||
| Disclaimer | 1751 | ||
| See also | 1751 | ||
| Further Reading | 1751 | ||
| U: ULTRATRACE ELEMENTS | 1753 | ||
| Definition | 1753 | ||
| Absorption, Transport, and Storage | 1754 | ||
| Metabolism and Excretion | 1754 | ||
| Requirements and High Intakes | 1754 | ||
| Aluminum | 1754 | ||
| Arsenic | 1760 | ||
| Boron | 1760 | ||
| Bromine | 1761 | ||
| Cadmium | 1761 | ||
| Fluorine | 1761 | ||
| Germanium | 1761 | ||
| Lead | 1762 | ||
| Lithium | 1762 | ||
| Molybdenum | 1762 | ||
| Nickel | 1762 | ||
| Rubidium | 1763 | ||
| Silicon | 1763 | ||
| Tin | 1763 | ||
| Vanadium | 1763 | ||
| Dietary Sources | 1763 | ||
| See also | 1764 | ||
| Further Reading | 1764 | ||
| URBAN NUTRITION | 1765 | ||
| Introduction | 1765 | ||
| Urbanization | 1765 | ||
| Contemporary Food Supplies and Diets for the Cities | 1766 | ||
| Urbanization and Nutritional Transition | 1766 | ||
| Urban Agriculture | 1766 | ||
| Street-Vended Ready-to-Eat Foods | 1767 | ||
| Nutrition and Health in the Urban World | 1767 | ||
| Nutritional Deficiencies of Urban Populations | 1767 | ||
| Nutritional Excess in Urban Populations | 1768 | ||
| Diet, Nutrition, and Quality of Life | 1768 | ||
| Conclusions | 1768 | ||
| See also | 1769 | ||
| Further Reading | 1769 | ||
| V: \rVEGETERIAN DIETS | 1770 | ||
| lntroduction | 1770 | ||
| History | 1770 | ||
| Vegetarian Patterns and Practices | 1770 | ||
| Differences Between Vegetarian Eating and Vegetarianism | 1771 | ||
| Nutritional Features of Well-Planned Vegetarian Diets | 1772 | ||
| Morbidity and Mortality of Vegetarian Versus Omnivorous Diets | 1772 | ||
| Nutritional Adequacy | 1773 | ||
| Adequate Vegetarian Dietary Patterns | 1774 | ||
| Possibly Inadequate Vegetarian Dietary Patterns | 1774 | ||
| Key Nutritional Concerns for Vegetarians | 1775 | ||
| Key Nutrients for Vegetarians Over the Life Cycle | 1775 | ||
| Conclusions | 1775 | ||
| See also | 1776 | ||
| Further Reading | 1776 | ||
| VITAMIN A: Deficiency and Interventions | 1777 | ||
| Introduction | 1777 | ||
| VA Deficiency Disorders (VADD) | 1777 | ||
| Biochemical Depletion | 1778 | ||
| Xerophthalmia | 1778 | ||
| XN and Dark Maladaptation | 1778 | ||
| X1A and X1B | 1779 | ||
| Corneal Xerophthalmia | 1779 | ||
| Other VADD: Infection, Anemia, and Poor Growth | 1779 | ||
| Infection | 1779 | ||
| Anemia and Poor Growth | 1779 | ||
| Epidemiology | 1780 | ||
| Person (High-Risk Groups) | 1780 | ||
| Place (Geographic Clustering) | 1780 | ||
| Time (Periodicity) | 1782 | ||
| Causal Agents (Diet and Infection) | 1782 | ||
| Breastfeeding and Diet | 1782 | ||
| Infection | 1783 | ||
| Impact of Interventions | 1783 | ||
| VA Status | 1783 | ||
| Xerophthalmia | 1783 | ||
| Mortality | 1783 | ||
| Morbidity | 1785 | ||
| Management | 1785 | ||
| Treatment | 1785 | ||
| Prevention | 1786 | ||
| Further Reading | 1786 | ||
| Physiology, DietarySources,andRequirements | 1787 | ||
| Vitamin A: Physiology, Dietary Sources, and Requirements | 1787 | ||
| Major Molecules in Vitamin A Biochemistry and Physiology | 1787 | ||
| Transport | 1788 | ||
| Retinol-Binding Protein (RBP4) | 1788 | ||
| Cellular RBPs | 1788 | ||
| Nuclear Retinoid Receptors | 1788 | ||
| Absorption and Metabolism | 1788 | ||
| Intestinal Metabolism | 1788 | ||
| Hepatic Vitamin A Uptake, Storage, and Release | 1789 | ||
| Plasma Concentrations | 1789 | ||
| Relationship of Plasma Retinol to Liver Retinol Concentration | 1789 | ||
| Changes due to Metabolic Disturbances | 1790 | ||
| Vitamin A Kinetics | 1790 | ||
| Tissue Retinoid Metabolism | 1790 | ||
| Physiological Actions | 1791 | ||
| Vision | 1791 | ||
| Functions in Cell Differentiation | 1791 | ||
| Dietary Sources and Nutritional Equivalency | 1791 | ||
| Units of Nutritional Activity | 1791 | ||
| Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels for Vitamin A | 1792 | ||
| Hypervitaminosis A and Vitamin A Toxicity | 1792 | ||
| See also | 1793 | ||
| Further Reading | 1793 | ||
| VITAMIN B6: Physiology | 1794 | ||
| Dietary Forms, Biological Availability, and Metabolism | 1794 | ||
| Digestion and Absorption | 1794 | ||
| Metabolism and Transport | 1794 | ||
| Storage and Body Reserves | 1795 | ||
| Metabolic Functions of Vitamin B6 | 1796 | ||
| The Role of Pyridoxal Phosphate in Amino Acid Metabolism | 1796 | ||
| alpha-Decarboxylation | 1796 | ||
| Racemization of Amino Acids | 1797 | ||
| Transamination | 1797 | ||
| Side-Chain Elimination and Replacement Reactions | 1797 | ||
| The Role of Pyridoxal Phosphate in Glycogen Phosphorylase | 1797 | ||
| The Role of Pyridoxal Phosphate in Steroid Hormone Action | 1797 | ||
| Criteria of Adequacy and Assessment of Nutritional Status | 1798 | ||
| Plasma Concentrations of the Vitamin | 1798 | ||
| Urinary Excretion of 4-Pyridoxic Acid | 1798 | ||
| Coenzyme Saturation of Transaminases | 1798 | ||
| Metabolic Loading Tests | 1799 | ||
| The Tryptophan Load Test | 1799 | ||
| The Methionine Loading Test | 1800 | ||
| Requirements and Recommendations | 1801 | ||
| Possible Benefits of Higher Levels of Intake | 1801 | ||
| Vitamin B6 Requirements of Infants | 1801 | ||
| Pharmacological Uses and Toxicity of Vitamin B6 Supplements | 1802 | ||
| Vitamin B6 and the Side Effects of Oral Contraceptives | 1802 | ||
| Vitamin B6 in the Premenstrual Syndrome | 1802 | ||
| Toxicity of Vitamin B6 | 1803 | ||
| Vitamin B6 Deficiency | 1803 | ||
| Vitamin B6 Dependency Syndromes | 1803 | ||
| Groups at Risk of Deficiency | 1803 | ||
| Drug-Induced Vitamin B6 Deficiency | 1804 | ||
| Estrogens and Vitamin B6 Nutritional Status | 1804 | ||
| See also | 1804 | ||
| Further Reading | 1804 | ||
| VITAMIN B12: Physiology, DietarySources, and Requirements | 1805 | ||
| Introduction | 1805 | ||
| Biochemistry and Metabolic Functions | 1806 | ||
| Physiology | 1806 | ||
| Causes, Mechanisms, and Effects of Cobalamin Deficiency | 1808 | ||
| Diagnosis of Cobalamin Deficiency | 1809 | ||
| Inborn Errors of Cobalamin Metabolism | 1810 | ||
| See also | 1810 | ||
| Further Reading | 1810 | ||
| VITAMIN C: \rDeficiency States | 1811 | ||
| Scurvy: The History and Discovery of Vitamin C | 1811 | ||
| Degradation, Turnover, and Factors that Induce Increased Requirements for Vitamin C | 1812 | ||
| Well-Established Metabolic Functions of Vitamin C that are Impaired by Deficiency | 1813 | ||
| Measurement of Vitamin C Status; Biochemical Tests for Adequacy and Deficiency | 1814 | ||
| Occurrence of Low Intakes and Poor Biochemical Status in Present-Day Societies | 1814 | ||
| See also | 1816 | ||
| Further Reading | 1816 | ||
| Physiology, DietarySources,andRequirements | 1817 | ||
| Introduction | 1817 | ||
| Absorption, Transport, and Storage | 1817 | ||
| Metabolism and Excretion | 1817 | ||
| Metabolic Functions of Ascorbic Acid | 1818 | ||
| Copper-Containing Hydroxylases | 1818 | ||
| 2-Oxoglutarate-Linked, Iron-Containing Hydroxylases | 1819 | ||
| The Role of Ascorbate in Iron Absorption | 1819 | ||
| Inhibition of Nitrosamine Formation | 1819 | ||
| Antioxidant and Prooxidant Actions of Ascorbate | 1820 | ||
| Assessment of Vitamin C Status | 1820 | ||
| Requirements | 1821 | ||
| Minimum Requirement | 1821 | ||
| Requirements Estimated from the Plasma and Leukocyte Concentrations of Ascorbate | 1821 | ||
| Requirements Estimated from Maintenance of the Body Pool of Ascorbate | 1821 | ||
| Dietary Sources and High Intakes | 1822 | ||
| See also | 1823 | ||
| Further Reading | 1823 | ||
| VITAMIN D: \rPhysiology, Dietary Sources, and Requirements | 1824 | ||
| Introduction | 1824 | ||
| Origin and Structure of Vitamin D | 1824 | ||
| Production of Vitamin D in the Skin | 1824 | ||
| Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion of Vitamin D | 1825 | ||
| Biologic Functions of Vitamin D on Calcium Metabolism | 1825 | ||
| Evaluation for and Consequences of Vitamin D Deficiency | 1826 | ||
| Nonskeletal Consequences of Vitamin D Deficiency | 1830 | ||
| Recommended Dietary Intake of Vitamin D | 1830 | ||
| Adequate Intake for Ages 0-6 Months | 1831 | ||
| Adequate Intake for Ages 6-12 Months | 1834 | ||
| RDA for Ages 1-18 Years | 1834 | ||
| RDA for Ages 19-70 Years | 1834 | ||
| RDA for Ages 70plus Years | 1834 | ||
| RDA for Pregnancy and Lactation | 1834 | ||
| Healthy Vitamin D Intakes | 1834 | ||
| Tolerable Upper Intake Levels and Vitamin D Intoxication | 1835 | ||
| See also | 1835 | ||
| Further Reading | 1835 | ||
| VITAMIN E: \rMetabolism and Requirements | 1837 | ||
| Introduction | 1837 | ||
| General Description and Scientific Name | 1837 | ||
| Vitamin E Supplements | 1838 | ||
| Dietary Vitamin E | 1838 | ||
| alpha-Tocopherol Equivalents | 1838 | ||
| Vitamin E Actions and Metabolism | 1838 | ||
| Antioxidant Activity | 1838 | ||
| Biologic Activity | 1839 | ||
| Molecular Function | 1839 | ||
| Vitamin E Metabolism | 1839 | ||
| Recommended Intake Levels | 1839 | ||
| Vitamin E Units | 1839 | ||
| Over-Dosage | 1839 | ||
| Precautions and Adverse Reactions | 1840 | ||
| Adverse Effects of Drugs on Vitamin E Status | 1841 | ||
| Vitamin E Bioavailability | 1841 | ||
| Absorption and Plasma Transport | 1841 | ||
| Plasma Concentrations, Kinetics, and Tissue Delivery | 1842 | ||
| Human Vitamin E Deficiency | 1842 | ||
| Chronic Disease Prevention | 1842 | ||
| Further Reading | 1843 | ||
| Physiology and Health Effects | 1844 | ||
| Introduction | 1844 | ||
| Chemistry | 1844 | ||
| Dietary Sources | 1844 | ||
| Absorption Metabolism and Excretion | 1845 | ||
| Tocopherols as Antioxidants | 1847 | ||
| Vitamin E Deficiency | 1848 | ||
| Tocopherols and Low-Density Lipoprotein Modification | 1848 | ||
| Tocopherols and Other Metabolic Functions | 1848 | ||
| Tocopherols and Cardiovascular Disease - Epidemiological Evidence | 1849 | ||
| Tocopherols and Cancer - Epidemiological Evidence | 1850 | ||
| Tocopherols and Other Diseases - Epidemiological Evidence | 1850 | ||
| Vitamin E Status and Requirements | 1850 | ||
| See also | 1851 | ||
| Further Reading | 1851 | ||
| VITAMIN K | 1852 | ||
| Introduction | 1852 | ||
| Food Sources, Absorption, and Catabolism | 1852 | ||
| Vitamin K-Dependent (VKD) Proteins | 1853 | ||
| Vitamin K and Coagulation | 1854 | ||
| Vitamin K and Mineralization | 1854 | ||
| Gas6 and Other VKD Gla Proteins | 1855 | ||
| Potential Non-Gla Functions of Vitamin K | 1855 | ||
| Status, Requirements, and Recommended Intakes | 1856 | ||
| Population Groups at Risk of Vitamin K Deficiency | 1856 | ||
| See also | 1857 | ||
| Further Reading | 1857 | ||
| W: \rWEIGHT MANAGEMENT: Approaches | 1858 | ||
| The Concept of Desirable Weight | 1858 | ||
| Dietary Management | 1858 | ||
| Exercise and Physical Activity | 1860 | ||
| Behavioral Modification | 1862 | ||
| See also | 1863 | ||
| Further Reading | 1863 | ||
| Weight Cycling/Weigh tChange | 1864 | ||
| Weight Cycling - A Health Risk? | 1864 | ||
| The Metabolic Hypothesis | 1864 | ||
| Weight Cycling and Mortality | 1864 | ||
| Weight Cycling and Cardiovascular Disease | 1866 | ||
| Other Health Outcomes: Cancer and Diabetes | 1867 | ||
| Psychological Consequences | 1867 | ||
| Methodological Issues | 1867 | ||
| Conclusions | 1868 | ||
| Further Reading | 1869 | ||
| Weight Maintenance | 1870 | ||
| Definition of Successful Weight Loss Maintenance | 1870 | ||
| Data on Prevalence of Long-term Maintenance of Weight Loss | 1870 | ||
| Why is Weight Loss Maintenance Difficult? | 1870 | ||
| Research Investigating Successful Weight Loss Maintenance | 1870 | ||
| The National Weight Control Registry | 1870 | ||
| Experimental Studies Examining Weight Loss Maintenance | 1871 | ||
| Energy Balance | 1871 | ||
| Diet | 1871 | ||
| Very Low-Calorie Diets | 1871 | ||
| Structured LCDs | 1872 | ||
| Diet Composition | 1872 | ||
| Physical Activity | 1872 | ||
| Strategies for Improving Maintenance of PA | 1872 | ||
| Sedentary Activities | 1872 | ||
| Intensifying the Behavioral Component | 1873 | ||
| Extending Professional Contact | 1873 | ||
| Technology | 1873 | ||
| Social Support | 1873 | ||
| Incentives for Weight Loss and Weight Loss Maintenance | 1873 | ||
| Systems-Level Programs | 1874 | ||
| Conclusion | 1874 | ||
| See also | 1874 | ||
| Further Reading | 1874 | ||
| WHOLE GRAINS | 1876 | ||
| Introduction | 1876 | ||
| Definition of Wholegrains | 1876 | ||
| Structural Components and Composition of Grains | 1876 | ||
| Bran | 1876 | ||
| Endosperm | 1877 | ||
| Germ | 1877 | ||
| Wholegrain Foods and Health Claims | 1878 | ||
| Recommendations for Whole Grain Consumption and Consumption Patterns | 1878 | ||
| Wholegrains and Reduction in Disease Risk | 1878 | ||
| Cardiovascular Disease | 1878 | ||
| Type 2 Diabetes | 1879 | ||
| Cancer | 1880 | ||
| Wholegrains and Potential Mechanisms of Action | 1882 | ||
| Wholegrains and Inflammatory Status | 1882 | ||
| Wholegrains, Body Weight, and Body Fatness | 1882 | ||
| Wholegrains and Blood Pressure | 1883 | ||
| Wholegrains, Antioxidants, and Phytochemicals | 1883 | ||
| Whole Grain, Dietary Fiber, and Fermentable Carbohydrates | 1884 | ||
| Further Reading | 1884 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1884 | ||
| Z: \rZINC: Deficiency Disorders and Prevention Programs | 1885 | ||
| Causes of Zinc Deficiency | 1885 | ||
| Inadequate Dietary Zinc Intake | 1885 | ||
| Other Causes of Zinc Deficiency | 1886 | ||
| High Physiological Requirements | 1886 | ||
| Prevalence of Zinc Deficiency in Developing Countries | 1886 | ||
| Consequences of Zinc Deficiency in Developing Countries: Evidence Derived from Zinc Supplementation Trials | 1887 | ||
| Child Growth | 1887 | ||
| Morbidity and Mortality | 1888 | ||
| Pregnancy | 1888 | ||
| Zinc Intervention Strategies | 1888 | ||
| Preventive Zinc Supplementation | 1888 | ||
| Therapeutic Zinc Supplementation in the Treatment of Diarrhea | 1889 | ||
| Food Fortification with Zinc | 1889 | ||
| Mass Fortification of Staple Foods | 1889 | ||
| Targeted Fortification | 1889 | ||
| Dietary Diversification and Modification | 1889 | ||
| Biofortification | 1890 | ||
| See also | 1890 | ||
| Further Reading | 1890 | ||
| Physiology, Dietary Sources, and Requirements | 1891 | ||
| Introduction | 1891 | ||
| History of Zinc as a Nutrient | 1891 | ||
| Chemistry of Zinc | 1891 | ||
| Zinc in Foods | 1891 | ||
| Control of Zinc Homeostasis | 1892 | ||
| Zinc Absorption | 1892 | ||
| Transport and Distribution | 1893 | ||
| Excretion | 1893 | ||
| Zinc Biochemistry | 1893 | ||
| Homeostasis | 1893 | ||
| Zinc Enzymes | 1893 | ||
| Zinc Transcription Factors | 1893 | ||
| Zinc Physiology | 1894 | ||
| Growth | 1894 | ||
| Immune Function | 1895 | ||
| Reproduction | 1895 | ||
| Nervous System | 1895 | ||
| Antioxidant Defense System | 1895 | ||
| Macronutrient Metabolism | 1895 | ||
| Human Zinc Deficiency | 1895 | ||
| Mild | 1896 | ||
| Severe | 1896 | ||
| Zinc Toxicity | 1896 | ||
| Assessment | 1896 | ||
| Recommended Intakes | 1896 | ||
| See also | 1897 | ||
| Further Reading | 1897 |