Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
The first edition of Equine Locomotion has established itself as the book in the equine literature that discusses all aspects of equine locomotion and gait analysis, written by an international team of editors and contributors.
The new edition continues this trend and gives the reader a complete picture of the horse in motion, at the same time including many recent findings in this area. The book begins with a history of man’s association with the horse and then continues to discuss with comprehensive descriptions of the present state of knowledge beginning with the initiation of gait and ending with the more scientific area of computer modeling. In the new edition, the list of contributors continues to comprise of authors who are acknowledged experts in their subject areas and includes many new illustrations.
• international team of editors and contributors, with leading experts from the USA, the Netherlands, Sweden and France (all centres of excellence for the study of equine locomotion)
• editors are from two of the worlds leading locomotion centres – Utrecht and Michigan
• highly illustrated with nearly 500 detailed line drawings and illustrations
• covers all you will ever need to know about equine locomotion, gait analysis and much more
• international team of editors and contributors, with leading experts from the USA, the Netherlands, Sweden and France (all centres of excellence for the study of equine locomotion)
• editors are from two of the worlds leading locomotion centres – Utrecht and Michigan
• highly illustrated with nearly 500 detailed line drawings and illustrations
• covers all you will ever need to know about equine locomotion, gait analysis and much more
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | cover | ||
| Equine Locomotion | i | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Table of Contents | v | ||
| Foreword | vii | ||
| References | viii | ||
| Foreword to the first edition | ix | ||
| References | ix | ||
| Preface | xi | ||
| Preface to the first edition | xiii | ||
| Acknowledgments | xv | ||
| Contributors | xvii | ||
| Glossary | xxi | ||
| 1 History | 1 | ||
| Introduction | 1 | ||
| Prehistoric times | 1 | ||
| The ancient cultures | 3 | ||
| The Antique world | 3 | ||
| Through the Dark Ages to the Renaissance | 5 | ||
| From the Renaissance to the 18th century | 5 | ||
| The start of veterinary education | 6 | ||
| The 19th century | 6 | ||
| Muybridge and Marey: revolution in gait analysis | 7 | ||
| German supremacy until World War II | 12 | ||
| The horse in decline | 15 | ||
| The revival in equine locomotion research | 17 | ||
| Equine locomotion research centers and activities | 17 | ||
| Europe | 17 | ||
| Stockholm/Uppsala | 17 | ||
| Vienna | 19 | ||
| Utrecht | 19 | ||
| Alfort | 20 | ||
| Zurich | 21 | ||
| United Kingdom | 21 | ||
| Belgium | 22 | ||
| Other places in Europe | 22 | ||
| North America | 22 | ||
| Saskatoon | 22 | ||
| Michigan | 22 | ||
| Missouri | 23 | ||
| Other places in North America | 23 | ||
| Elsewhere in the world | 24 | ||
| Concluding remarks | 24 | ||
| References | 24 | ||
| 2 Measurement techniques for gait analysis | 31 | ||
| Introduction | 31 | ||
| Interpreting the effects of biological variability | 31 | ||
| Treadmill evaluation | 32 | ||
| Kinematic analysis | 33 | ||
| Markers | 33 | ||
| Calibration | 34 | ||
| Sampling frequency | 35 | ||
| Digitization | 35 | ||
| Smoothing | 35 | ||
| Transformation | 36 | ||
| Normalization | 36 | ||
| Kinematic data | 37 | ||
| Sagittal plane analysis | 37 | ||
| Multi-planar analysis | 37 | ||
| Three-dimensional analysis | 37 | ||
| Methods of kinematic analysis | 38 | ||
| Electrogoniometry | 38 | ||
| Photographic systems | 39 | ||
| Optoelectronic systems | 39 | ||
| Electromagnetic systems | 40 | ||
| Ultrasonographic system | 41 | ||
| Kinetic analysis | 41 | ||
| Ground reaction force | 41 | ||
| Normalization | 43 | ||
| Force plate | 43 | ||
| Force shoes | 45 | ||
| Indirect methods of GRF measurement | 46 | ||
| Inverse dynamic analysis | 47 | ||
| Tissue strain | 47 | ||
| Strain transducers | 47 | ||
| Measuring strains in hard tissues | 47 | ||
| Measuring strains in tendons and ligaments | 48 | ||
| Sonomicrometry | 49 | ||
| Calculation of strains | 49 | ||
| Measurement of rein tension | 50 | ||
| Accelerometers, gyroscopes and magnetometers | 50 | ||
| Pressure mats | 52 | ||
| Hoof pressure mats | 52 | ||
| Saddle pressure mats | 53 | ||
| Electromyography | 53 | ||
| EMG equipment | 54 | ||
| The electromyogram | 54 | ||
| New technologies | 55 | ||
| References | 55 | ||
| 3 Signals from materials | 61 | ||
| Introduction and definition of signals | 61 | ||
| Choosing the sampling frequency (Nyquist – Shannon sample theorem) | 61 | ||
| Motion of a wheel | 61 | ||
| Resampling and normalization | 61 | ||
| Aliasing – anti-aliasing filter | 63 | ||
| Signal processing | 63 | ||
| Time curve analysis | 63 | ||
| Differentiation | 63 | ||
| Definition of differentiation | 63 | ||
| The physical concept of Newton | 63 | ||
| Phase-plane analysis (practical use of differentiation) | 64 | ||
| Increasing, decreasing and finding a local maximum or the minimum (extreme values) | 64 | ||
| Integration | 64 | ||
| Transformation of the coordinate system | 65 | ||
| Fourier analysis (time domain – frequency domain) | 65 | ||
| Filtering | 66 | ||
| Differentiation in time and frequency domain | 67 | ||
| Integration in time and frequency domain | 67 | ||
| System analysis in time and frequency domain (convolution, special filters) | 68 | ||
| Decision-making | 69 | ||
| Fuzzy logic | 69 | ||
| Artificial neural network | 69 | ||
| References | 70 | ||
| 4 Locomotor | 73 | ||
| Introduction | 73 | ||
| Muscles, motors of movements | 74 | ||
| Summary | 74 | ||
| Muscle fiber-types | 74 | ||
| 5 Gaits and interlimb coordination | 85 | ||
| Introduction | 85 | ||
| Classification and description of gaits | 85 | ||
| Walk | 88 | ||
| Other walking gaits | 88 | ||
| Trot | 88 | ||
| Pace | 91 | ||
| Canter and gallop | 91 | ||
| Jump | 92 | ||
| Gait transitions | 92 | ||
| Velocity-related changes in stride variables | 93 | ||
| Gait development and training effects | 94 | ||
| Influence of the treadmill on gait characteristics | 94 | ||
| Locomotion and respiratory coupling | 95 | ||
| References | 96 | ||
| 6 Forelimb function | 99 | ||
| Terminology | 99 | ||
| Musculotendinous architecture | 99 | ||
| Extrinsic muscles of the forelimb | 101 | ||
| Intrinsic muscles of the forelimb | 103 | ||
| Sagittal plane analysis of forelimb kinematics and kinetics | 105 | ||
| The trot | 106 | ||
| Scapula | 106 | ||
| Shoulder joint | 106 | ||
| Elbow joint | 106 | ||
| Carpal joint | 106 | ||
| Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint | 108 | ||
| Distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint | 109 | ||
| Functional interpretation | 110 | ||
| The walk | 111 | ||
| The canter | 113 | ||
| The gallop | 114 | ||
| Three-dimensional kinematics | 115 | ||
| Three-dimensional forelimb kinematics for locomotion at walk and trot in a straight line | 116 | ||
| Distal interphalangeal joint | 116 | ||
| Proximal interphalangeal joint | 119 | ||
| Metacarpophalangeal joint | 119 | ||
| Carpal joint | 120 | ||
| Three-dimensional forelimb kinematics when turning sharply at walk | 120 | ||
| Landing (from first impact to hoof stabilization) | 120 | ||
| Bearing phase (from hoof stabilization to heel-off) | 120 | ||
| Breakover (from heel-off to toe-off) | 122 | ||
| References | 122 | ||
| 7 Hind limb function | 127 | ||
| Introduction | 127 | ||
| Musculotendinous architecture | 127 | ||
| The stay apparatus | 130 | ||
| Sagittal plane analysis of hind limb kinematics and kinetics | 131 | ||
| The trot | 133 | ||
| Hip joint | 133 | ||
| Stifle joint | 135 | ||
| Tarsal joint | 135 | ||
| Metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint | 136 | ||
| Distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint | 137 | ||
| Hoof interaction with the ground | 137 | ||
| The walk | 138 | ||
| The canter | 140 | ||
| Three-dimensional kinematics of the tarsal joint at trot | 142 | ||
| References | 143 | ||
| 8 The role of the hoof and shoeing | 147 | ||
| Introduction | 147 | ||
| Functional anatomy of the foot | 147 | ||
| General anatomy | 147 | ||
| Vascular supply | 148 | ||
| Nerve supply | 148 | ||
| Proprioception | 148 | ||
| Hoof mechanics in the standing horse | 148 | ||
| Hoof–pastern axis | 148 | ||
| Hoof balance | 148 | ||
| Craniocaudal balance | 148 | ||
| Mediolateral balance | 150 | ||
| Four point trimming | 152 | ||
| Hoof mechanics during locomotion | 152 | ||
| Initial ground contact | 152 | ||
| Impact | 152 | ||
| Hoof mechanism | 156 | ||
| Center of pressure | 156 | ||
| Breakover | 157 | ||
| Flight arc | 157 | ||
| Effects of hoof manipulations | 158 | ||
| Hoof angle | 158 | ||
| Hoof length | 161 | ||
| Effects of shoe manipulations | 161 | ||
| Shoe weight | 161 | ||
| Shoe length | 162 | ||
| Shoe width | 163 | ||
| Hoof pads | 163 | ||
| Toe of the shoe | 163 | ||
| Wedges | 164 | ||
| Side wedges | 164 | ||
| Heel/toe wedges | 164 | ||
| Toe grabs and heel caulks | 164 | ||
| Rims, clips and nails | 164 | ||
| Effect of footing | 164 | ||
| Properties of the ground | 164 | ||
| Practical applications to performance | 166 | ||
| Interference | 166 | ||
| Action | 166 | ||
| Practical application to lameness | 166 | ||
| Hoof cracks | 166 | ||
| P3 fracture | 166 | ||
| Laminitis | 166 | ||
| Navicular syndrome | 167 | ||
| Arthrosis and arthritis | 167 | ||
| Spavin | 168 | ||
| Patellar fixation | 168 | ||
| Flexural limb deformities | 168 | ||
| Angular limb deformities | 168 | ||
| Conclusion | 169 | ||
| References | 169 | ||
| 9 Gait adaptation in lameness | 175 | ||
| Introduction | 175 | ||
| Definitions | 175 | ||
| Classification of lameness | 175 | ||
| Kinematics of lameness | 176 | ||
| Supporting limb lameness | 176 | ||
| Temporal stride pattern | 176 | ||
| Summary | 177 | ||
| Hoof movement | 177 | ||
| Summary | 178 | ||
| Limb movement and joint angle patterns | 178 | ||
| Summary | 179 | ||
| Head and trunk movement | 180 | ||
| Compensatory lameness | 181 | ||
| Summary | 182 | ||
| Swinging limb and mixed lameness | 182 | ||
| 10 The neck and back | 199 | ||
| Function | 199 | ||
| Anatomy | 199 | ||
| Bones | 199 | ||
| Vertebral joints | 201 | ||
| Intervertebral discs | 201 | ||
| Ligaments | 201 | ||
| Muscles and nerves | 201 | ||
| Biomechanics | 205 | ||
| Coordination and locomotion | 206 | ||
| Walk | 206 | ||
| Trot | 207 | ||
| Neck muscle activity and neck orientation | 208 | ||
| Effect of neck orientation on neck muscle activity | 209 | ||
| Trunk muscle activity and thoracolumbar movements | 209 | ||
| Canter | 209 | ||
| Walk vs trot vs canter | 211 | ||
| Neck dysfunction | 211 | ||
| Effect of different head and neck positions on physiology and performance during exercise | 212 | ||
| Discussion of measurements from the neck | 216 | ||
| Back dysfunction | 216 | ||
| Introduction | 216 | ||
| Kinematic examination of normal horses | 216 | ||
| Kinematic examination of horses with back pain | 218 | ||
| Differences between horses with and without back pain | 218 | ||
| The effect of head and neck position on the movement of the back | 219 | ||
| The effect of local analgesia in the movement of the back | 220 | ||
| General conclusions | 220 | ||
| References | 224 | ||
| 11 The effects of conformation | 229 | ||
| Introduction | 229 | ||
| The study of equine conformation | 229 | ||
| History and tradition | 229 | ||
| Subjective evaluation | 229 | ||
| Quantitative analysis | 230 | ||
| Conformation and growth | 230 | ||
| Conformation, performance and soundness | 232 | ||
| Deviations of limb and toe axis | 232 | ||
| Head, neck and body | 234 | ||
| Forelimbs | 236 | ||
| Hind limbs | 238 | ||
| Predicting performance and soundness by conformation analysis | 241 | ||
| References | 242 | ||
| 12 Genetic contributions to exercise and athletic performance | 245 | ||
| Introduction | 245 | ||
| Historical background and the pre-Mendelian era | 245 | ||
| Selection for locomotor performance | 246 | ||
| New genomics technologies for trait mapping and gene expression | 246 | ||
| Selection for locomotor soundness | 251 | ||
| Conformational lameness-causing disorders | 251 | ||
| Neuromuscular lameness-causing disorders | 253 | ||
| Degenerative lameness-causing disorders | 254 | ||
| Developmental lameness-causing disorders | 254 | ||
| Complex chondrodysplasia: osteochondrosis | 254 | ||
| Simple chondrodysplasia: dwarfism | 257 | ||
| Conclusions | 259 | ||
| References | 259 | ||
| 13 The response of musculoskeletal tissues to exercise | 267 | ||
| General introduction | 267 | ||
| Articular cartilage | 268 | ||
| Introduction | 268 | ||
| Basic principles of articular cartilage biology | 268 | ||
| Developmental aspects of articular cartilage | 270 | ||
| The effect of exercise on articular cartilage during growth and development | 271 | ||
| The effect of exercise on articular cartilage in young adult animals | 273 | ||
| Conclusion | 274 | ||
| Bone | 274 | ||
| Introduction | 274 | ||
| Morphology and physiology of bones | 274 | ||
| General response of bone to exercise | 275 | ||
| The need for exercise | 275 | ||
| The response of bone to exercise in the horse | 276 | ||
| Conclusion | 278 | ||
| Muscles | 278 | ||
| Overview | 278 | ||
| A synopsis of equine muscle exercise physiology | 279 | ||
| Muscular adaptations to training | 284 | ||
| Muscle fiber size | 284 | ||
| Muscle fiber type transitions | 284 | ||
| Metabolic changes and increased capillary density | 284 | ||
| Physiological adaptations and buffering capacity | 286 | ||
| Other training consequences | 286 | ||
| Overtraining | 286 | ||
| Detraining | 286 | ||
| Possible mechanisms underlying muscular adaptations to training | 287 | ||
| Implications of training-induced changes to the physiologic response to exercise | 288 | ||
| Tendons and ligaments | 290 | ||
| Introduction | 290 | ||
| Tendon composition and structure | 291 | ||
| Tendon biomechanics | 292 | ||
| Effects of exercise | 293 | ||
| The effects of ageing on tendon tissue | 294 | ||
| The effects of exercise on tendon tissue | 294 | ||
| Conclusion | 295 | ||
| General conclusion | 296 | ||
| References | 296 | ||
| 14 Performance in equestrian sports | 305 | ||
| Introduction | 305 | ||
| Racing sports | 305 | ||
| Speed | 305 | ||
| Stride length | 305 | ||
| Stride frequency | 305 | ||
| Efficiency of movement | 306 | ||
| Quarter Horse racing | 306 | ||
| Stride variables | 306 | ||
| Sidedness | 307 | ||
| Effect of urging | 307 | ||
| Thoroughbred racing | 307 | ||
| Stride variables | 307 | ||
| Head and neck motion | 308 | ||
| Lead changes | 308 | ||
| Acceleration | 308 | ||
| Ground reaction forces | 308 | ||
| Limb kinetics | 308 | ||
| Fatigue | 309 | ||
| Injury | 309 | ||
| Training | 309 | ||
| Track surface | 309 | ||
| Standardbred racing | 309 | ||
| Trotters | 309 | ||
| Stride variables | 309 | ||
| Reproducibility of gait | 310 | ||
| Ground reaction forces | 310 | ||
| Sidedness | 310 | ||
| Effect of track design | 311 | ||
| Conformation of trotters | 311 | ||
| Pacers | 311 | ||
| Stride variables | 311 | ||
| Sidedness | 311 | ||
| Conformation | 311 | ||
| Endurance racing | 311 | ||
| Sport horses | 312 | ||
| Quality of movement | 312 | ||
| Stride and swing duration | 312 | ||
| Forelimb kinematics | 312 | ||
| Hind limb kinematics | 312 | ||
| Breed differences | 313 | ||
| Ontogeny of gait | 314 | ||
| Normalization of temporal variables | 315 | ||
| Linear similarity | 315 | ||
| Dynamic similarity | 315 | ||
| Coordination | 315 | ||
| Effect of training | 316 | ||
| Effect of a rider | 320 | ||
| Dressage | 320 | ||
| Rider effects | 321 | ||
| The gaits | 322 | ||
| The walk | 322 | ||
| Half pirouette at the walk | 323 | ||
| The trot | 323 | ||
| The passage | 324 | ||
| The piaffe | 324 | ||
| The canter | 325 | ||
| Lead changes at the canter | 326 | ||
| The canter pirouette | 326 | ||
| The capriole | 327 | ||
| Transitions | 327 | ||
| Conformation of dressage horses | 327 | ||
| Jumping | 327 | ||
| Terminology | 328 | ||
| Jumping mechanics | 328 | ||
| The approach and lift-off | 328 | ||
| The jump suspension | 330 | ||
| The landing and departure | 331 | ||
| Water jump technique | 332 | ||
| Puissance jumping technique | 332 | ||
| Conformation of jumping horses | 332 | ||
| The effect of early training on jumping ability and the predictability of jumping performance | 332 | ||
| The effect of a rider | 333 | ||
| Eventing | 333 | ||
| Dressage performance | 333 | ||
| Speed and endurance performance | 333 | ||
| Effect of added weight on jumping performance | 334 | ||
| Western sports | 334 | ||
| Stability and maneuverability | 334 | ||
| Reaction time | 334 | ||
| Western pleasure gaits | 335 | ||
| Cutting | 335 | ||
| References | 336 | ||
| 15 Horse–rider interaction | 341 | ||
| Introduction | 341 | ||
| Saddle | 341 | ||
| The electronic saddle mat | 341 | ||
| Saddle pressure in the standing horse | 341 | ||
| The effect of the saddle on motion of the back | 342 | ||
| Saddle types | 343 | ||
| Saddle fit and saddle pads | 343 | ||
| Panels and girths | 343 | ||
| Bits and reins | 343 | ||
| Bits | 343 | ||
| Reins | 345 | ||
| Rein tension | 345 | ||
| Basic rider movements | 347 | ||
| Trot | 347 | ||
| Rider movements at sitting trot | 347 | ||
| The seat at rising trot | 348 | ||
| Walk | 349 | ||
| Rider movements in the sagittal plane at walk | 349 | ||
| Lateral and rotational rider movements at walk | 350 | ||
| Canter | 353 | ||
| Rider skill | 353 | ||
| General | 353 | ||
| Trot | 353 | ||
| Walk | 354 | ||
| The hand | 355 | ||
| Horse movement in relation to rider skill | 355 | ||
| The influence of the rider’s weight | 357 | ||
| Load carrying at walk | 357 | ||
| Load carrying at trot | 357 | ||
| Rider weight | 357 | ||
| Riding methodology | 357 | ||
| Rhythm | 357 | ||
| Suppleness/relaxation | 358 | ||
| Contact | 358 | ||
| Impulsion | 359 | ||
| Straightness | 359 | ||
| Asymmetry basics | 359 | ||
| Asymmetry in rising trot | 359 | ||
| Collection | 360 | ||
| General | 360 | ||
| Head and neck positions | 361 | ||
| Walk | 361 | ||
| Trot | 361 | ||
| Forward stepping of the hind limbs relative to the hind quarters | 364 | ||
| Hind limb protraction–retraction? | 364 | ||
| Over-track distance | 364 | ||
| Lowering of the hind quarters, and increased hind joint angulation | 365 | ||
| Diagonal dissociation | 365 | ||
| Relative weight bearing | 365 | ||
| Absolute versus relative weight | 365 | ||
| References | 366 | ||
| 16 Ethology and welfare aspects | 369 | ||
| Introduction | 369 | ||
| Development of locomotion | 369 | ||
| Early kinetic activity | 369 | ||
| Grazing | 370 | ||
| Play | 371 | ||
| Development of laterality (sidedness) | 371 | ||
| Natural rhythms of activity | 372 | ||
| The impact of intensive management on locomotion | 372 | ||
| Feeding | 372 | ||
| Impact of housing/restricted grazing on locomotion | 373 | ||
| Effect of management regimes on locomotion and welfare | 373 | ||
| Impact of exercise on welfare | 374 | ||
| Overtraining | 374 | ||
| Problems with locomotory behavior during training or performance | 375 | ||
| Locomotion and the impact of different training methods | 375 | ||
| Head and neck positions | 375 | ||
| Breeding or training certain types of locomotory responses and welfare implications | 376 | ||
| Concluding remarks – new approaches including equitation science | 377 | ||
| References | 377 | ||
| 17 Rehabilitation of the locomotor apparatus | 381 | ||
| General introduction | 381 | ||
| Historical background: rehabilitation defined | 381 | ||
| Longevity and musculoskeletal disorders | 382 | ||
| Prevalence of neck and back pain | 384 | ||
| Patho-anatomical diagnosis | 386 | ||
| Functional assessment | 387 | ||
| Objective measurements | 388 | ||
| Kinematics | 388 | ||
| EMG | 388 | ||
| Pressure algometry | 390 | ||
| Ultrasonography | 394 | ||
| Rehabilitation techniques: manual therapy | 397 | ||
| Evaluation of information on manipulative/mobilization intervention | 398 | ||
| Evaluation of information on exercise and facilitation techniques | 399 | ||
| Exercise-based treatment techniques: motor control | 399 | ||
| Facilitation-based exercise therapy | 401 | ||
| Hydrotherapy | 404 | ||
| Evaluation of information on mechanical and electro-physical intervention | 405 | ||
| Acupuncture | 407 | ||
| Conclusions | 408 | ||
| References | 409 | ||
| 18 Metabolic energetics | 419 | ||
| Introduction | 419 | ||
| Production of energy | 420 | ||
| Aerobic phosphorylation | 420 | ||
| Aerobic glycolysis | 420 | ||
| Fatty acid utilization | 422 | ||
| Anaerobic phosphorylation | 422 | ||
| Phosphocreatine reaction | 422 | ||
| Myokinase reaction | 422 | ||
| Anaerobic glycolysis | 422 | ||
| Regulation of aerobic and anaerobic pathways | 422 | ||
| Energy pathway contributions in the exercising horse | 423 | ||
| Energy substrates | 423 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 424 | ||
| Fat | 424 | ||
| Protein | 425 | ||
| Effects of dietary alterations on energy substrate utilization | 425 | ||
| Energy expenditure | 426 | ||
| Aerobic power | 426 | ||
| Oxygen uptake | 426 | ||
| Oxygen uptake at rest and during submaximal exercise | 426 | ||
| Maximum aerobic power | 427 | ||
| Anaerobic power | 427 | ||
| Anaerobic threshold | 429 | ||
| Postexercise oxygen consumption | 429 | ||
| Economy of locomotion | 429 | ||
| Fatigue | 430 | ||
| Training programs | 431 | ||
| Measuring energy expenditure | 431 | ||
| Treadmills | 431 | ||
| Oxygen consumption | 432 | ||
| Lactate analysis | 432 | ||
| Heart rate | 432 | ||
| Blood gases | 433 | ||
| Blood volume | 433 | ||
| Muscle biopsy | 433 | ||
| Hormone profile | 434 | ||
| Effects of exogenous GH | 434 | ||
| Endogenous GH responses to exercise | 435 | ||
| Thermoregulatory consequences of exercise | 435 | ||
| Conclusions | 436 | ||
| References | 436 | ||
| 19 Mechanical analysis and scaling | 443 | ||
| Mechanical analysis | 443 | ||
| Introduction | 443 | ||
| Inverse dynamic analysis | 444 | ||
| Linked segment model | 444 | ||
| Inverse dynamic calculations | 444 | ||
| Measurement of input variables | 446 | ||
| Net joint moment and muscle force | 447 | ||
| Net joint force and joint contact force | 450 | ||
| Continued calculations: power | 450 | ||
| Accuracy of inverse dynamic calculations | 452 | ||
| Three-dimensional analysis | 453 | ||
| Formulas for inverse dynamic calculations | 454 | ||
| Hoof segment | 454 | ||
| Pastern segment | 455 | ||
| Velocity and accelerations | 455 | ||
| Symbols | 455 | ||
| Scaled energetics of locomotion | 455 | ||
| Introduction | 455 | ||
| Geometric scaling | 455 | ||
| Differences in proportion | 457 | ||
| Energy cost of locomotion | 459 | ||
| Muscle work and power | 460 | ||
| Maximum aerobic capacity | 462 | ||
| Concluding remarks | 463 | ||
| References | 463 | ||
| 20 Modeling, simulation and animation | 467 | ||
| Development of a computer model | 467 | ||
| Introduction | 467 | ||
| History of computer modeling | 467 | ||
| Computer modeling and biomechanics | 467 | ||
| Applications of computer models | 467 | ||
| Visualization | 467 | ||
| Kinematics (movement) | 468 | ||
| Kinetics (dynamics) | 469 | ||
| Finite element analysis | 470 | ||
| Development of a computer model: a horse history | 472 | ||
| Development of a computer simulation: a human perspective | 474 | ||
| Introduction | 474 | ||
| Designing musculoskeletal models | 474 | ||
| Practical applications | 476 | ||
| Development of computer animation: an equine perspective | 476 | ||
| Introduction | 476 | ||
| History | 477 | ||
| Modern animation | 478 | ||
| Motion capture | 478 | ||
| Optical systems | 479 | ||
| Non-optical systems | 479 | ||
| References | 485 | ||
| Index | 489 | ||
| A | 489 | ||
| B | 489 | ||
| C | 490 | ||
| D | 491 | ||
| E | 491 | ||
| F | 492 | ||
| G | 493 | ||
| H | 493 | ||
| I | 494 | ||
| J | 495 | ||
| K | 495 | ||
| L | 495 | ||
| M | 496 | ||
| N | 497 | ||
| O | 497 | ||
| P | 498 | ||
| Q | 498 | ||
| R | 498 | ||
| S | 499 | ||
| T | 500 | ||
| U | 501 | ||
| V | 501 | ||
| W | 502 | ||
| X | 502 | ||
| Z | 502 |