Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Medical Imaging has been revised and updated to reflect the current role and responsibilities of the radiographer, a role that continues to extend as the 21st century progresses. This comprehensive book covers the full range of medical imaging methods/techniques which all students and professionals must understand, and discusses them related to imaging principles, radiation dose, patient condition, body area and pathologies.
There is comprehensive, up-to-date, referencing for all chapters, with full image evaluation criteria and a systematic approach to fault recognition for all radiographic projections. Highly respected editors, Elizabeth and Barry Carver, have brought together an impressive team of contributing authors, comprising academic, radiographer and radiologist clinical experts.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Full colour, including approximately 200 new colour photographs
All techniques have been updated to reflect the use of digital image receptors
All chapters have been updated to reflect current practice, eg CT colonoscopy is now included as part of GI imaging; the nuclear medicine chapter now introduces hybrid imaging; the genitourinary chapter now reflects the use of ultrasound and CT
'The authors have been comprehensive, thorough and innovative. This well-presented book should be adopted by Schools of Diagnostic Imaging in Europe and elsewhere and be a constant companion to the reflective radiographic practitioner.' From the foreword to the first edition by Patrick Brennan.
Medical Imaging has been revised and updated to reflect the current role and responsibilities of the radiographer, a role that continues to extend as the 21st century progresses. This comprehensive book covers the full range of medical imaging methods/techniques which all students and professionals must understand, and discusses them related to imaging principles, radiation dose, patient condition, body area and pathologies.
There is comprehensive, up-to-date, referencing for all chapters, with full image evaluation criteria and a systematic approach to fault recognition for all radiographic projections. Highly respected editors, Elizabeth and Barry Carver, have brought together an impressive team of contributing authors, comprising academic, radiographer and radiologist clinical experts.
Full colour, including approximately 200 new colour photographs.All techniques have been updated to reflect the use of digital image receptors. All chapters have been updated to reflect current practice, eg CT colonoscopy is now included as part of GI imaging; the nuclear medicine chapter now introduces hybrid imaging; the genitourinary chapter now reflects the use of ultrasound and CT.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| Half title page | i | ||
| Medical Imaging: Techniques, Reflection and Evaluation, 2/e | iii | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| Table Of Contents | v | ||
| Foreword | vii | ||
| Preface to first edition | ix | ||
| Preface | xi | ||
| Acknowledgements | xiii | ||
| List of contributors | xv | ||
| Abbreviations | xvii | ||
| 1 Imaging principles | 1 | ||
| 1 Digital imaging | 3 | ||
| Introduction | 3 | ||
| Advantages of digital images | 3 | ||
| Computed radiography | 3 | ||
| Components of a CR system | 3 | ||
| The CR imaging plate | 3 | ||
| The CR cassette | 4 | ||
| The image reader | 4 | ||
| CR image formation | 4 | ||
| Advantages of CR vs film/screen radiography | 5 | ||
| Disadvantages of CR vs film/screen radiography | 5 | ||
| DIRECT Digital radiography | 5 | ||
| Amorphous silicon (aSi) FPD | 5 | ||
| Amorphous selenium (aSe) FPD | 6 | ||
| Developments in FPD | 6 | ||
| Digital image display | 6 | ||
| Cathode ray tube (CRT) | 6 | ||
| LCD panels | 6 | ||
| Image resolution | 6 | ||
| Image storage | 7 | ||
| Digital image manipulation | 8 | ||
| Digital image processing | 8 | ||
| Histogram analysis | 8 | ||
| Exposure control | 8 | ||
| The characteristic curve and inherent response of CR and DDR systems | 8 | ||
| Digital system response and LUT | 9 | ||
| Multifrequency processing | 9 | ||
| Quality assurance | 9 | ||
| Quality control for CR | 9 | ||
| Acceptance testing and annual tests | 9 | ||
| Routine QC tests [performed every 3 months] | 9 | ||
| Quality control for DDR | 9 | ||
| Implementing a digital imaging system | 9 | ||
| Common errors | 10 | ||
| Conclusions | 10 | ||
| References | 10 | ||
| 2 Film/screen imaging | 11 | ||
| Introduction | 11 | ||
| Imaging plates | 11 | ||
| Intensifying screens and film emulsion technology | 11 | ||
| The X-ray cassette | 11 | ||
| Radiographic film | 11 | ||
| Film manufacture | 12 | ||
| Film construction (Fig. 2.1) | 12 | ||
| Base | 12 | ||
| Photographic emulsion | 12 | ||
| Effect of exposure on silver halides | 12 | ||
| The latent image | 12 | ||
| Types of film | 12 | ||
| Intensifying screens | 13 | ||
| Screen construction (Fig. 2.3) | 13 | ||
| Base | 13 | ||
| Substratum | 13 | ||
| Phosphor layer | 13 | ||
| Luminescence | 13 | ||
| Fluorescence (Fig. 2.4) | 13 | ||
| Phosphorescence | 13 | ||
| Types of phosphor | 14 | ||
| Quantum detection efficiency (QDE or absorption efficiency) | 14 | ||
| Conversion efficiency | 14 | ||
| Spectral sensitivity and spectral emission | 14 | ||
| Factors affecting screen performance | 14 | ||
| Crossover (Fig. 2.7) | 14 | ||
| Other factors | 14 | ||
| Comparison of film/screen systems | 15 | ||
| Asymmetric screen/film systems | 15 | ||
| References | 15 | ||
| 3 Exposure factors, manipulation and dose | 17 | ||
| Image quality | 17 | ||
| Density | 17 | ||
| Contrast | 17 | ||
| Unsharpness | 19 | ||
| Exposure factor selection | 19 | ||
| Exposure indicators | 20 | ||
| System sensitivity: S number | 20 | ||
| Exposure index (EI) | 20 | ||
| lgM | 20 | ||
| Dosimetry | 20 | ||
| References | 21 | ||
| 2 Skeletal radiography | 23 | ||
| 4 Introduction to skeletal, chest and abdominal radiography | 25 | ||
| Projection names | 25 | ||
| Patient preparation | 25 | ||
| Image recording (CR cassettes and digital plates) | 25 | ||
| Change in terminology for focus film and object film distances | 26 | ||
| Anatomical markers | 26 | ||
| Image identification | 26 | ||
| Exposure factors – evaluation of images | 26 | ||
| Dose reduction methods | 26 | ||
| Specific notes for Section 2: Skeletal radiography | 26 | ||
| Commonly encountered pathologies that affect the skeleton and its articulations | 27 | ||
| Acromegaly | 27 | ||
| Ankylosing spondylitis | 27 | ||
| Bone age | 27 | ||
| Chondrosarcoma | 27 | ||
| Enchondroma | 27 | ||
| Gout | 27 | ||
| Metastases | 27 | ||
| Myeloma | 27 | ||
| Osteoarthritis | 27 | ||
| Osteochondritis | 27 | ||
| Osteomalacia | 27 | ||
| Osteomyelitis | 27 | ||
| Osteoporosis | 28 | ||
| Osteosarcoma | 28 | ||
| Paget’s disease | 28 | ||
| Perthes’ disease | 28 | ||
| Rheumatoid arthritis | 28 | ||
| Trauma | 28 | ||
| Avulsion fractures | 28 | ||
| Comminuted fracture | 28 | ||
| Compound fracture | 28 | ||
| Complicated fracture | 28 | ||
| Dislocation | 28 | ||
| Depressed fracture | 28 | ||
| Displaced fracture | 28 | ||
| Epiphyseal injuries | 28 | ||
| Greenstick fracture | 29 | ||
| Hairline fracture | 29 | ||
| Simple fracture | 29 | ||
| Spiral fracture | 29 | ||
| Subluxation | 29 | ||
| Torus fracture | 29 | ||
| References | 29 | ||
| 5 Fingers, hand and wrist | 31 | ||
| Thumb | 31 | ||
| Anteroposterior (AP) thumb | 31 | ||
| Positioning | 31 | ||
| Method 1: Patient supine (Fig. 5.1A,B) | 31 | ||
| Method 2: Patient seated alongside table (Fig. 5.2) | 31 | ||
| Method 3: Patient seated with back to table (Fig. 5.3) | 31 | ||
| PA thumb (Fig. 5.4) | 32 | ||
| Positioning | 32 | ||
| Beam direction and FRD (all AP methods and PA method) | 33 | ||
| 3 Chest and abdomen | 235 | ||
| 23 Chest and thoracic contents | 237 | ||
| Common findings on the chest image | 237 | ||
| The PA chest projection and comments on its implementation | 237 | ||
| Erect | 237 | ||
| PA | 239 | ||
| Comments on exposure technique selection | 239 | ||
| Positioning choices for the PA projection | 239 | ||
| Direction of central ray | 239 | ||
| Centring point | 240 | ||
| PA chest projection (Fig. 23.3A,B,C) | 240 | ||
| Positioning | 240 | ||
| Beam direction and FRD | 240 | ||
| Centring | 240 | ||
| Collimation | 240 | ||
| Criteria for assessing image quality | 240 | ||
| AP erect chest (Figs 23.4, 23.5) | 242 | ||
| Positioning | 242 | ||
| Beam direction and FRD | 243 | ||
| Centring | 243 | ||
| Collimation | 243 | ||
| Criteria for assessing image quality | 243 | ||
| Supine AP chest | 244 | ||
| 4 Accident and emergency | 261 | ||
| 25 Accident and emergency | 263 | ||
| The role of the radiographer in the multidisciplinary team | 263 | ||
| The team role of the radiographer: image interpretation | 264 | ||
| The team role of the radiographer: suitable equipment choice | 264 | ||
| Mechanisms of injury | 264 | ||
| Further projections and adapted techniques | 266 | ||
| The upper limb | 266 | ||
| Adapted projections of the hand | 266 | ||
| Adapted projections of the thumb | 267 | ||
| Adapted projections of the wrist and forearm | 268 | ||
| Adapted projections of the elbow and humerus | 269 | ||
| Adapted projections of the shoulder joint | 273 | ||
| Adapted projections of the foot, ankle and leg | 274 | ||
| Adapted projections of the knee, thigh and hip | 276 | ||
| Adapted projections of the pelvis and hips | 276 | ||
| Adapted projections of the spine | 278 | ||
| The cervical spine | 278 | ||
| The thoracolumbar spine | 279 | ||
| Adapted projections of the craniofacial skeleton | 280 | ||
| The cranial vault | 280 | ||
| Facial bones | 280 | ||
| Selection of trauma imaging equipment | 281 | ||
| References | 281 | ||
| 5 Breast imaging | 283 | ||
| 26 Breast imaging | 285 | ||
| Introduction and rationale | 285 | ||
| Symptomatic mammography | 285 | ||
| Asymptomatic mammography | 285 | ||
| Communication with women undergoing mammography | 285 | ||
| Breast screening | 286 | ||
| Breast disease demonstrated with mammography | 286 | ||
| Benign breast conditions | 286 | ||
| Breast cancer | 286 | ||
| Dose implications for the breast undergoing mammography | 287 | ||
| Digital mammography | 287 | ||
| Alternative and complementary imaging techniques | 287 | ||
| Magnetic resonance mammography (MRM) | 287 | ||
| Nuclear medicine | 287 | ||
| Ultrasound | 287 | ||
| Digital breast tomosynthesis | 287 | ||
| Mammography technique | 288 | ||
| Equipment | 288 | ||
| Functional requirements | 288 | ||
| Image recording | 288 | ||
| Digital mammography | 288 | ||
| Viewing images | 288 | ||
| Mammographic projections | 288 | ||
| Craniocaudal (CC) (Fig. 26.4A,B) | 289 | ||
| Positioning | 289 | ||
| Criteria for assessing image quality | 290 | ||
| Mediolateral oblique (MLO) (Fig. 26.5A,B) | 290 | ||
| Positioning | 290 | ||
| Criteria for assessing image quality | 291 | ||
| PGMI (perfect, good, moderate, inadequate) system | 292 | ||
| The PGMI system: summary | 292 | ||
| P = perfect | 292 | ||
| G = good | 292 | ||
| M = moderate | 292 | ||
| I = inadequate | 292 | ||
| Supplementary projections | 292 | ||
| Medially rotated CC projection (extended CC) (Fig. 26.6A,B) | 292 | ||
| Mediolateral projection (Fig. 26.7A,B) | 293 | ||
| Positioning (left breast described) | 293 | ||
| Criteria for assessing image quality | 293 | ||
| Localised compression views (paddle views) | 293 | ||
| Magnification (macro) views | 294 | ||
| Ultrasound | 294 | ||
| Normal ultrasonic appearances of the breast | 295 | ||
| Common lesions seen with ultrasound | 295 | ||
| Cysts | 295 | ||
| Complex cysts | 295 | ||
| Benign solid lesions | 295 | ||
| Malignant lesions | 295 | ||
| Limitations of ultrasound in breast disease diagnosis | 295 | ||
| Breast ultrasound equipment | 295 | ||
| The role of ultrasound with mammography | 296 | ||
| Sonography as a standalone diagnostic tool | 296 | ||
| Summary of breast ultrasound technique | 296 | ||
| Storing and viewing ultrasound images | 297 | ||
| Breast lesion localisation | 297 | ||
| Ultrasound in localisation | 297 | ||
| Stereotaxis in localisation | 297 | ||
| References | 298 | ||
| Further reading | 299 | ||
| 6 Paediatric imaging | 301 | ||
| 27 Paediatric imaging in general radiography | 303 | ||
| Introduction | 303 | ||
| Special considerations when imaging children | 303 | ||
| Radiation protection and dose limitation | 304 | ||
| Radiographic examinations in this chapter | 305 | ||
| Facilitating the radiographic examination | 305 | ||
| Common mistakes and errors in paediatric radiographic examination | 306 | ||
| Chest | 306 | ||
| PA erect chest | 306 | ||
| AP erect chest | 306 | ||
| Positioning | 307 | ||
| Beam direction and focus receptor distance (FRD) | 307 | ||
| 7 Contrast studies | 321 | ||
| 28 Contrast media | 323 | ||
| History of radiographic contrast media | 323 | ||
| Requirements of ‘the ideal’ contrast medium and types of contrast agent | 323 | ||
| Negative contrast media | 324 | ||
| Positive contrast media | 324 | ||
| Barium sulphate solutions (BaSO4) used in gastrointestinal imaging | 324 | ||
| Iodine-based contrast media used in medical imaging and their development | 325 | ||
| Ionic monomers – high osmolar contrast media (HOCM) (Fig. 28.2) | 325 | ||
| Ionic dimers – low osmolar contrast media (LOCM) (Fig. 28.3) | 325 | ||
| Non-ionic monomers (LOCM) (Fig. 28.4) | 326 | ||
| Non-ionic dimers (isotonic) – the gold standard (Fig. 28.5) | 326 | ||
| The percentage solution | 326 | ||
| Essential criteria for the ‘ideal’ intravenous contrast agent | 326 | ||
| Possible side-effects of ionic-based contrast media | 326 | ||
| Primary effect – image contrast | 327 | ||
| Secondary effect – adverse events | 327 | ||
| Cardiovascular toxicity | 327 | ||
| Nephrological toxicity | 327 | ||
| Neurotoxicity | 327 | ||
| What happens during a reaction and how reactions may be prevented | 328 | ||
| Non-ionic versus ionic contrast media | 328 | ||
| Administration of intravenous contrast media | 328 | ||
| Precautions taken before administration of contrast media | 328 | ||
| During the injection | 329 | ||
| After the injection | 329 | ||
| Radiographers performing intravenous administration | 329 | ||
| Health and safety | 329 | ||
| Treatment of needlestick injuries | 330 | ||
| Vein choice | 330 | ||
| Arterial administration of contrast media | 330 | ||
| Preparation of injection site | 330 | ||
| Needle insertion technique for administration of an intravenous contrast injection (for IVU) | 330 | ||
| Treatment of adverse reactions to contrast medium | 331 | ||
| Mild reaction | 331 | ||
| Moderate reaction | 331 | ||
| Severe reaction | 331 | ||
| Potential complications for the patient after intravenous cannulation | 332 | ||
| Contrast media used in biliary and hepatic imaging | 332 | ||
| Oral cholecystography | 332 | ||
| Intravenous cholangiogram | 332 | ||
| Endoscopic retrograde ERCP | 332 | ||
| Iodised oils as a contrast medium | 332 | ||
| Contrast media used in other radiographic examinations | 332 | ||
| Contrast media used in ultrasound | 332 | ||
| Contrast media used in MRI | 333 | ||
| Contrast media used in CT | 333 | ||
| References | 334 | ||
| 29 Gastrointestinal tract | 335 | ||
| Notes on position terminology for fluoroscopic examination | 335 | ||
| Upper GI tract | 336 | ||
| Referral criteria for examination of the upper GI tract | 336 | ||
| Barium swallow | 336 | ||
| Barium meal | 336 | ||
| Patient preparation – all examinations of the upper tract | 337 | ||
| Barium swallow and meal | 337 | ||
| Upper (‘high’) barium swallow | 337 | ||
| Contraindications | 337 | ||
| Contrast agent | 337 | ||
| Additional equipment | 337 | ||
| Technique | 337 | ||
| Barium swallow and reflux assessment | 338 | ||
| Patient preparation | 338 | ||
| Contrast agent and pharmaceutical aids | 338 | ||
| Additional equipment | 338 | ||
| Technique | 338 | ||
| Barium meal | 339 | ||
| Patient preparation | 339 | ||
| Contraindications | 339 | ||
| Contrast agents and pharmaceutical aids for the examination | 339 | ||
| Additional equipment | 339 | ||
| Technique | 339 | ||
| Aftercare | 341 | ||
| Possible complications | 341 | ||
| Supplementary techniques | 342 | ||
| Videofluoroscopy | 342 | ||
| Small bowel | 342 | ||
| Referral criteria | 342 | ||
| Barium follow-through (BaFT) | 342 | ||
| Contraindications | 342 | ||
| Patient preparation | 342 | ||
| Contrast agent | 342 | ||
| Additional equipment | 343 | ||
| Technique | 343 | ||
| Complications | 343 | ||
| Patient aftercare | 343 | ||
| Criteria for assessing image quality | 343 | ||
| Small bowel enema (Fig. 29.13A,B) | 344 | ||
| Contraindications | 344 | ||
| Patient preparation | 344 | ||
| Contrast agent | 344 | ||
| Additional equipment | 344 | ||
| Technique | 344 | ||
| Potential complications and post-procedure care | 344 | ||
| Lower GI tract | 345 | ||
| Large bowel | 345 | ||
| Referral criteria | 345 | ||
| Double-contrast barium enema (DCBE) | 345 | ||
| Contraindications | 345 | ||
| Patient preparation | 345 | ||
| Contrast agents | 345 | ||
| Additional equipment/pharmaceuticals | 345 | ||
| Technique | 345 | ||
| Lateral decubitus abdomen (Fig. 29.19, 29.20) | 347 | ||
| Positioning | 347 | ||
| Beam direction and focus receptor distance (FRD) | 348 | ||
| Centring | 348 | ||
| Collimation | 348 | ||
| Variation in abdominal tissue thickness over the area of interest (‘belly sag’) | 348 | ||
| AP lateral decubitus | 348 | ||
| Criteria for assessing image quality: all lateral decubitus positions | 348 | ||
| Prone 30–35° to demonstrate the sigmoid colon: Hampton’s projection (Figs 29.21, 29.22) | 348 | ||
| Positioning | 348 | ||
| Beam direction and FRD | 349 | ||
| Centring | 349 | ||
| Collimation | 349 | ||
| Criteria for assessing image quality | 349 | ||
| Patient aftercare | 349 | ||
| Complications | 349 | ||
| Modifications to the barium enema | 349 | ||
| CT colonography (CTC) | 349 | ||
| Indications | 350 | ||
| Contraindications | 350 | ||
| Patient preparation | 350 | ||
| Contrast agents | 350 | ||
| Additional equipment | 350 | ||
| Preparation immediately prior to the examination | 350 | ||
| Technique | 350 | ||
| Acquisition parameters | 351 | ||
| Image assessment: area of interest | 351 | ||
| Problem solving | 351 | ||
| Patient aftercare | 351 | ||
| Complications | 351 | ||
| Additional information | 352 | ||
| References | 352 | ||
| 30 Accessory organs of the gastrointestinal tract | 353 | ||
| Salivary Glands | 353 | ||
| Referral criteria | 353 | ||
| Sialography | 353 | ||
| Contraindications | 353 | ||
| Contrast agent | 353 | ||
| Additional equipment | 353 | ||
| Patient preparation | 353 | ||
| Parotid glands | 353 | ||
| 8 Additional imaging methods | 415 | ||
| 35 Computed tomography | 417 | ||
| Introduction | 417 | ||
| Advantages of CT include: | 417 | ||
| Disadvantages of CT include: | 417 | ||
| Equipment chronology | 418 | ||
| First-generation scanner (Fig. 35.1) | 418 | ||
| Second-generation scanner (Fig. 35.2) | 419 | ||
| Third-generation scanner (Fig. 35.3) | 419 | ||
| Fourth-generation scanner (Fig. 35.4) | 419 | ||
| Electron beam computed tomography (EBCT) | 420 | ||
| Spiral/helical CT | 420 | ||
| Multislice CT | 420 | ||
| Advantages of multislice include: | 420 | ||
| Equipment | 420 | ||
| The X-ray tube | 420 | ||
| Beam shaping filter | 420 | ||
| Collimators | 420 | ||
| Table | 421 | ||
| Detectors | 421 | ||
| Data acquisition system (DAS) | 421 | ||
| Computer system | 421 | ||
| Physical principles of scanning | 421 | ||
| Windowing | 423 | ||
| Image quality | 424 | ||
| CT safety: dose | 425 | ||
| Common clinical applications | 425 | ||
| Preparation for the examination | 426 | ||
| ‘Scout’ | 426 | ||
| Use of IV contrast | 426 | ||
| The brain | 426 | ||
| Common indications | 427 | ||
| Typical protocol | 427 | ||
| Spine | 427 | ||
| The neck | 428 | ||
| The chest (Figs 35.19, 35.20) | 428 | ||
| Cardiac CT | 429 | ||
| Gastrointestinal tract | 430 | ||
| Abdomen | 431 | ||
| Liver (Fig. 35.29) | 431 | ||
| Kidneys and adrenal glands | 433 | ||
| Pancreas | 433 | ||
| Musculoskeletal system (Figs 35.32, 35.33) | 433 | ||
| CT angiography (CTA) | 433 | ||
| Therapy | 435 | ||
| Future developments | 435 | ||
| References | 437 | ||
| 36 Magnetic resonance imaging | 439 | ||
| Introduction | 439 | ||
| Equipment chronology | 439 | ||
| Science and instrumentation | 441 | ||
| Open magnet systems | 441 | ||
| Permanent magnets | 441 | ||
| Resistive magnets | 442 | ||
| Superconducting magnets | 442 | ||
| Closed-bore magnet systems | 442 | ||
| Outer cover | 442 | ||
| Cryostat | 442 | ||
| Magnetic shielding | 442 | ||
| Magnet | 443 | ||
| Shim system | 443 | ||
| Gradient system | 443 | ||
| Radiofrequency (RF) transmitter/receiver | 443 | ||
| Receive coils | 444 | ||
| Surface coils | 444 | ||
| Volume coils | 444 | ||
| Phased-array coils | 444 | ||
| Patient transport system | 444 | ||
| MRI Safety | 444 | ||
| RF pulses | 444 | ||
| Magnetic fields | 445 | ||
| Projectiles | 445 | ||
| Implanted devices | 445 | ||
| Foreign bodies | 445 | ||
| The physical principles of mri | 445 | ||
| Resonance | 445 | ||
| Electromagnetic waves | 445 | ||
| Atomic nuclei | 445 | ||
| The hydrogen nucleus | 446 | ||
| The net magnetic vector (NMV) | 446 | ||
| Precession | 446 | ||
| Phase and frequency | 447 | ||
| Signal | 447 | ||
| Contrast | 448 | ||
| T1 | 448 | ||
| T2 | 448 | ||
| Proton density (PD) | 449 | ||
| Weighting | 449 | ||
| Spatial encoding | 449 | ||
| Slice position | 449 | ||
| Phase encoding | 449 | ||
| Frequency encoding | 450 | ||
| Pulse sequences | 450 | ||
| Contrast media | 451 | ||
| Positive contrast media – T1 agents | 451 | ||
| Negative contrast media – T2 agents | 451 | ||
| Use of MRI contrast media | 451 | ||
| Lesion conspicuity | 451 | ||
| Lesion characterisation | 451 | ||
| Lesion extent | 452 | ||
| Contrast-enhanced MRA (CEMRA) | 452 | ||
| Common clinical applications | 452 | ||
| Pulse sequences | 452 | ||
| Spin echo and fast (turbo) spin echo sequences | 452 | ||
| Single shot (SSFSE) | 452 | ||
| Inversion recovery | 453 | ||
| STIR (short tau inversion recovery) | 453 | ||
| FLAIR (fluid-attenuated inversion recovery) | 453 | ||
| Gradient echo (GE) | 453 | ||
| 3D volume scans | 453 | ||
| Inflow angiography (also called time-of-flight) | 453 | ||
| Phase contrast angiography (PCA) | 454 | ||
| Contrast-enhanced MRA (CEMRA) | 454 | ||
| Diffusion techniques | 454 | ||
| Perfusion imaging | 454 | ||
| Suggested MRI protocols by body area | 454 | ||
| The brain | 454 | ||
| Common indications | 455 | ||
| Equipment needed | 455 | ||
| Routine protocol | 455 | ||
| Tumour or infection (Fig. 36.17) | 456 | ||
| Multiple sclerosis | 456 | ||
| Epilepsy (Figs 36.19, 36.20) | 456 | ||
| Vascular abnormalities and presence of flow (Fig. 36.21) | 457 | ||
| Assessment of the internal auditory meati or trigeminal nerves (Fig. 36.24) | 458 | ||
| Pituitary fossa (Figs 36.25, 36.26) | 458 | ||
| Orbits (Figs 36.27, 36.28) | 458 | ||
| Spine | 460 | ||
| Common indications | 460 | ||
| Cervical spine | 460 | ||
| Equipment needed | 460 | ||
| Routine protocol | 460 | ||
| Syringomyelia or tumour (Fig. 36.34) | 460 | ||
| Brachial plexus | 462 | ||
| Thoracic spine | 462 | ||
| Equipment needed | 462 | ||
| Routine protocol | 462 | ||
| Syringomyelia or tumour | 462 | ||
| Scoliosis | 463 | ||
| Lumbar–sacral spine | 463 | ||
| Equipment needed | 463 | ||
| Routine protocol | 463 | ||
| Syringomyelia or tumour | 464 | ||
| Musculoskeletal system | 464 | ||
| Shoulder | 465 | ||
| Glossary of radiographic terms | 519 | ||
| Index | 521 | ||
| A | 521 | ||
| B | 523 | ||
| C | 523 | ||
| D | 526 | ||
| E | 527 | ||
| F | 527 | ||
| G | 528 | ||
| H | 529 | ||
| I | 530 | ||
| J | 531 | ||
| K | 531 | ||
| L | 531 | ||
| M | 533 | ||
| N | 534 | ||
| O | 535 | ||
| P | 536 | ||
| Q | 538 | ||
| R | 538 | ||
| S | 539 | ||
| T | 540 | ||
| U | 541 | ||
| V | 542 | ||
| W | 542 | ||
| X | 542 | ||
| Y | 542 | ||
| Z | 542 |