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Book Details
Abstract
Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry has been written keeping in mind the severe need for a comprehensive text to meet the curriculum needs of the undergraduate pharmacy students. It not only provides all the curriculum topics to the students but also contains all the vital reactions/mechanisms that the students look for in an organic chemistry book.
- Entire subject matter has been written in a systematic and lucid style in simple language.
- All the basic concepts and fundamentals of organic chemistry have been explained with well-chosen examples.
- For better understanding of the subject matter, important points have been highlighted in the form of the textboxes titled as Remember, Learning Plus and Noteworthy Points, wherever required.
- Summary of the topics in the form of Memory Focus has been given at relevant places to help the students to revise the subject matter quickly.
- Stepwise mechanism of the reactions as per the syllabus has been illustrated, laying emphasis on the reactive intermediates involved.
- At the end of each chapter, Revision Questions including descriptive questions and short answer questions have been given for the students to practice.
Multiple Choice Questions with answers have been included at the end of each chapter.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover \r | Front Cover | ||
| Front Matter \r | i | ||
| Copyright \r | iv | ||
| PREFACE | v | ||
| Dedication \r | vii | ||
| Contents | ix | ||
| Chapter 1 - Structure and Properties\r | 1 | ||
| Introduction | 1 | ||
| Wave Mechanical Model of Atom (Atomic Orbitals) | 2 | ||
| Physical significance of Wave Function | 4 | ||
| Quantum Numbers | 5 | ||
| Principal quantum number (n) | 5 | ||
| Magnetic quantum number (m) | 7 | ||
| Shapes of Orbitals | 11 | ||
| Shapes of s Orbitals | 11 | ||
| Difference between 1s and 2s Orbitals | 11 | ||
| Shapes of p Orbitals | 12 | ||
| Shapes of d Orbitals | 13 | ||
| Signs of Wave Functions | 14 | ||
| s Orbitals | 14 | ||
| p Orbitals | 14 | ||
| d Orbitals | 15 | ||
| Rules for Filling of Orbitals or Electronic Configuration of Atoms | 16 | ||
| Aufbau Principle | 16 | ||
| n+l rule or Bohr Bury's rule | 17 | ||
| Pauli's Exclusion Principle | 17 | ||
| Applications | 17 | ||
| Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity | 19 | ||
| Explanation | 20 | ||
| Extra Stability of Half-Filled and Completely Filled Subshells | 21 | ||
| Part - BFormation of Molecules | 29 | ||
| Introduction | 29 | ||
| Valence Bond (VB) Theory | 30 | ||
| Application of VB Theory: Formation of Hydrogen Molecule | 30 | ||
| Limitations of Valence Bond Theory | 31 | ||
| Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory | 33 | ||
| Molecular Orbitals | 32 | ||
| Conditions of Formation of Molecular Orbitals | 34 | ||
| Differences Between Atomic and Molecular Orbitals | 36 | ||
| Formation oF Bonding and Antibonding Molecular orbitals (LCAO Method) | 37 | ||
| Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals in Terms of Wave Functions | 38 | ||
| Differences between Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals | 39 | ||
| Combination of Atomic Orbitals-Sigma (σ) and PI (π) Molecular Orbitals | 40 | ||
| Difference between σ and π Molecular Orbitals | 41 | ||
| comparison of Valence Bond Theory and Molecular Orbital Theory | 42 | ||
| Hybridization | 43 | ||
| Conditions for Hybridization | 43 | ||
| Characteristics of Hybridization | 43 | ||
| Types of Hybridization | 44 | ||
| Intermolecular Forces | 53 | ||
| Hydrogen Bonding | 56 | ||
| Factors Responsible for the Formation of Hydrogen Bond and Strength of Hydrogen Bond | 55 | ||
| Consequences of Hydrogen Bonding | 57 | ||
| Types of Hydrogen Bonds | 59 | ||
| Hydrogen Bonding in Ice in Water | 60 | ||
| Density of Water is Maximum at 4C | 61 | ||
| Importance of Hydrogen Bonding | 62 | ||
| Bond Dissociation Energies | 63 | ||
| PART - CAcids and Bases | 71 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 71 | ||
| ARRHENIUS CONCEPT OF ACIDS AND BASES | 71 | ||
| BRONSTED–LOWRY CONCEPT OF ACIDS AND BASES | 73 | ||
| LEWIS CONCEPT OF ACIDS AND BASES | 77 | ||
| Dissociation Constants of Acids and Their Strength | 70 | ||
| Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs | 73 | ||
| Relative Strength of Acids and Bases | 74 | ||
| Advantages of Bronsted-Lowry Concept Over Arrhenius Concept | 74 | ||
| Limitations of Bronsted-Lowry Concept | 75 | ||
| Limitations of Lewis Concept | 76 | ||
| Effect of Substituents on the Strength of Lewis Acids and Bases | 103 | ||
| Inductive effect of the substituents | 103 | ||
| Resonance effect of the substituents | 78 | ||
| Steric effects of the substituents | 79 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Nomenclature of Organic Compounds\r | 91 | ||
| Introduction | 91 | ||
| Iupac Nomenclature of Organic Compounds | 92 | ||
| General Rules of IUPAC System | 93 | ||
| Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons | 97 | ||
| Nomenclature of Saturated Branched Chain Acyclic Hydrocarbon | 97 | ||
| Nomenclature of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons | 101 | ||
| Nomenclature of Cyclic (Alicyclic) Hydrocarbons | 103 | ||
| Nomenclature of Polycyclic Hydrocarbons | 105 | ||
| IUPAC Nomenclature of Compounds Containing One Functional Group, Multiple Bonds and Substituent | 105 | ||
| Nomenclature of Polyfunctional Compounds | 108 | ||
| Some Additional Rules for Solving Complex Compounds | 111 | ||
| Specific Classes of Organic Compounds | 112 | ||
| Nomenclature of Substituted Alicyclic Compounds Having some Functional Group Along with other Substituents | 115 | ||
| Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds | 116 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Stereochemistry\r | 133 | ||
| Introduction | 133 | ||
| Isomerism | 133 | ||
| Structural Isomerism | 134 | ||
| Stereoisomerism | 138 | ||
| Optical Isomerism | 138 | ||
| Polarized light | 139 | ||
| Optical activity | 139 | ||
| Specific rotation | 140 | ||
| Concept of Chirality | 140 | ||
| Chiral structures | 140 | ||
| Achiral structures | 141 | ||
| Chirality in organic compounds | 712 | ||
| Types of Optical Isomers | 143 | ||
| Enantiomerism | 143 | ||
| Essential Condition for Enantiomerism | 145 | ||
| Characteristics of Enantiomers | 145 | ||
| Planar Representation of Three-Dimensional Formulae: Fischer Projection Formulae | 145 | ||
| Diastereomerism: Compounds Having More Than One Chiral Carbon | 148 | ||
| Meso Compounds | 150 | ||
| Number of Possible Stereoisomers in Compounds Containing Different Number of Chiral Centres | 152 | ||
| Racemization | 153 | ||
| Internal and External Compensation | 153 | ||
| Internal Compensation | 153 | ||
| External Compensation | 154 | ||
| Resolution of Racemic Modifications | 155 | ||
| Specification of Configuration | 156 | ||
| Specification of Configuration by R and S Notations | 161 | ||
| Configuration on the Basis of Projection Formulae | 164 | ||
| Configuration of Compounds Containing More Than One Chiral Centre | 164 | ||
| GEOMETRICAl ISOMERISM | 166 | ||
| Configuration of Geometrical Isomers on the Bases of Properties | 168 | ||
| Geometrical Isomerism of Carbon-Nitrogen (C N) Double Bond and N N Double Bond | 171 | ||
| E and Z system of Nomenclature | 172 | ||
| Geometrical Isomerism in alicyclic Compounds | 174 | ||
| Conformation of Alkanes | 175 | ||
| Conformation of Ethane | 175 | ||
| Relative stabilities of conformations of ethane | 176 | ||
| Conformations of Propane | 177 | ||
| Conformations of n-Butane | 178 | ||
| Relative stabilities of conformations of n-butane | 179 | ||
| Chapter 4 - Alkanes\r | 189 | ||
| Introduction | 189 | ||
| Structure of Alkanes | 189 | ||
| Structural Isomerism | 191 | ||
| General Methods of Preparation of Alkanes | 192 | ||
| Physical Properties of Alkanes | 202 | ||
| Mechanism of Halogenation | 208 | ||
| Evidences in Support of Free Radical Mechanism | 209 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Alkenes\r | 217 | ||
| Introduction | 217 | ||
| Structure of Alkenes (Structure of Carbon-Carbon Double Bond) | 217 | ||
| Nomenclature of Alkenes | 219 | ||
| Common System | 219 | ||
| IUPAC System | 219 | ||
| Isomerism in Alkenes | 220 | ||
| Method of Preparation of Alkenes | 221 | ||
| Dehydration of Alcohols | 221 | ||
| Mechanism | 221 | ||
| Relative stabilities of carbonium ions | 222 | ||
| Orientation in dehydration of alcohols | 223 | ||
| Rearrangements of carbonium ions | 224 | ||
| Dehydrohalogenation of Alkyl Halides | 225 | ||
| E2 (elimination, bimolecular or second-order) reaction | 226 | ||
| E1 (elimination, unimolecular or first-order) reaction | 227 | ||
| Orientation of E2 and E1 reactions (Saytzeff's rule) | 227 | ||
| Reactivities of alkyl halides in dehydrohalogenation | 228 | ||
| By Partial or Selective Reduction of Alkynes | 229 | ||
| Electrolysis of Sodium or Potassium Salts of Dibasic Acids (Kolbe's Electrolytic Method) | 229 | ||
| Dehalogenation of Vicinal Dihalides | 230 | ||
| Physical Properties of Alkenes | 230 | ||
| Chemical Properties of Alkenes | 231 | ||
| Addition Reactions | 231 | ||
| Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation) | 231 | ||
| Heat of hydrogenation and stability of alkenes | 232 | ||
| Addition of Halogens | 233 | ||
| The two-step ionic mechanism | 233 | ||
| Anti-Markownikoff's addition | 236 | ||
| Addition of Sulphuric Acid | 238 | ||
| Mechanism | 238 | ||
| Addition of Water (Hydration of Alkenes) | 239 | ||
| Mechanism of hydration | 239 | ||
| Halohydrin Formation: Addition of Hypohalous Acids | 239 | ||
| Mechanism | 240 | ||
| Ozonolysis | 240 | ||
| Mechanism of ozonization | 241 | ||
| Application of ozonolysis in determining the position of double bond | 242 | ||
| Mechanism of hydroboration | 244 | ||
| Mechanism of oxidation of trialkyl boranes to alcohols | 244 | ||
| Mechanism for the hydroboration of unsymmetrical alkene | 245 | ||
| Hydroxylation of Alkenes with Osmium Tetra Oxide | 247 | ||
| Stereochemistry of hydroxylation or OsO4 | 247 | ||
| Oxidation with Hot Alkaline KMnO4 (Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes) | 248 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Alkynes\r | 257 | ||
| Introduction | 257 | ||
| Structure of Alkynes (Carbon-Carbon Triple Bond) | 257 | ||
| Isomerism in Alkynes | 258 | ||
| Structural Isomerism in Alkynes | 259 | ||
| Nomenclature of Alkynes (Acetylenes) | 259 | ||
| Classification of Alkynes | 260 | ||
| Commercial Methods of Preparation of Acetylene | 261 | ||
| General Methods of Preparation of Alkynes | 261 | ||
| Physical Properties of Alkynes | 263 | ||
| Chemical Properties of Alkynes | 263 | ||
| Low Reactivity of Alkynes Towards Electrophilic Addition Reactions | 264 | ||
| Addition Reactions | 264 | ||
| Addition of Hydrogen | 264 | ||
| Exhaustive Hydrogenation of Alkynes | 265 | ||
| Controlled Reduction of Alkynes | 265 | ||
| Electrophilic Additions | 266 | ||
| Nucleophilic Addition Reactions | 271 | ||
| Acidity of Acetylenic Hydrogen | 272 | ||
| Oxidation Reaction of Alkynes | 274 | ||
| Polymerization | 276 | ||
| Distinction Between Alkane, Alkene and Alkyne | 277 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Cycloalkanes\r | 285 | ||
| Introduction | 285 | ||
| Nomenclature of Cycloalkanes | 285 | ||
| Preparation of Cycloalkanes | 289 | ||
| Physical Properties | 295 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 296 | ||
| Relative Stability of Cycloalkanes (Baeyer's Strain Theory) | 298 | ||
| Heat of Combustion and Stability of Cycloalkanes | 299 | ||
| Sachse-Mohr Theory of Strainless Rings | 300 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Dienes\r | 307 | ||
| Introduction | 307 | ||
| Nomenclature | 308 | ||
| Methods of Preparation of Conjugated Dienes | 308 | ||
| Relative Stability of Conjugated Dienes | 309 | ||
| Resonance Structure of Conjugated Dienes | 310 | ||
| Orbital Picture of Conjugated Dienes | 310 | ||
| Conformations of 1,3-butadiene | 311 | ||
| Chemical Properties of Conjugated Dienes | 312 | ||
| Electrophilic Addition Reactions | 312 | ||
| Free Radical Addition to Conjugated Dienes | 316 | ||
| Diels-Alder Reaction | 168 | ||
| Reduction | 319 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Benzene and Polynuclear Compounds | 325 | ||
| Introduction | 325 | ||
| Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds | 325 | ||
| Isomerism of Benzene Derivatives | 328 | ||
| Preparation of Benzene | 329 | ||
| Commercial Preparation of Benzene | 329 | ||
| Laboratory Methods of Preparation of Benzene | 329 | ||
| Properties of Benzene | 331 | ||
| Structure of Benzene | 337 | ||
| Kekule Ring Structure of Benzene | 354 | ||
| Resonance Structure of Benzene | 338 | ||
| Molecular Orbital Structure of Benzene | 339 | ||
| Aromatic Electrophilic Substitution (Characteristic Aromatic Reaction) | 339 | ||
| Electronic Mechanism of Electrophilic Mono-Substitution in Benzene Ring | 340 | ||
| Mechanisms of Some Electrophilic Substitution Reactions of Benzene | 341 | ||
| Theory of Reactivity | 345 | ||
| Directive Influence of Groups in Electrophilic Substitution | 347 | ||
| Orientation | 349 | ||
| Theory of Orientation Based on Stability of Carbonium Ion | 349 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Arenes\r | 359 | ||
| Introduction | 359 | ||
| Structure and Nomenclature of Arenes | 359 | ||
| Isomerism in Arenes | 363 | ||
| The Aromatic Character (Aromaticity) | 364 | ||
| Huckel Rule | 364 | ||
| Aromatic, Antiaromatic and Nonaromatic Compounds | 364 | ||
| Preparation of Arenes | 367 | ||
| Physical Properties | 370 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 370 | ||
| Ortho-Para Ratio in the Formation of Disubstitution Derivatives | 378 | ||
| Orientation in Disubstituted Benzene (Introduction of a Third Group in Benzene Ring) | 380 | ||
| Some Individual Members | 382 | ||
| Toluene, Methylbenzene, Phenylmethane (C6H5CH3) | 382 | ||
| Methods of preparation | 382 | ||
| Physical properties | 382 | ||
| Chemical properties | 382 | ||
| Styrene (an Alkenyl Benzene), 2-Phenyl Ethane, Phenylethylene, Vinylbenzene | 385 | ||
| Methods of preparation | 385 | ||
| Chemical properties | 386 | ||
| Xylene, Dimethylbenzene (C6H4(CH3)2) | 388 | ||
| Mesitylene, 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (C6H2(CH3)3) | 388 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Alkyl Halides\r | 393 | ||
| Introduction | 393 | ||
| Classification | 393 | ||
| Nomenclature of Halogen Derivatives | 395 | ||
| Isomerism in Alkyl Halides | 396 | ||
| General Methods of Preparation of Alkyl Halides | 397 | ||
| Polar Nature of Alkyl Halides | 402 | ||
| Physical Properties | 403 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 404 | ||
| Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions | 408 | ||
| Types of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions | 409 | ||
| Kinetics of nucleophilic substitution reactions | 409 | ||
| Mechanisms of SN2 (Substitution Nucleophilic Bimolecular) | 409 | ||
| Transition state of a SN2 reaction | 410 | ||
| Factors which infuence SN2 reactions | 410 | ||
| Stereochemistry of SN2 Reaction | 412 | ||
| SN1 Reaction | 412 | ||
| Factors which infuence SN1 reactions | 412 | ||
| Elimination Reactions | 414 | ||
| Mechanism | 415 | ||
| E2 (Elimination bimolecular) | 415 | ||
| E1 (Elimination unimolecular) | 415 | ||
| Miscellaneous Reactions | 416 | ||
| Wurtz Reaction (Formation of Higher Alkanes) | 416 | ||
| Limitations | 416 | ||
| Ionic mechanism | 417 | ||
| Corey-House Reaction | 417 | ||
| Reaction with Magnesium (Formation of Grignard Reagent) | 418 | ||
| Formation of TEL | 418 | ||
| Reduction (Formation of Alkanes) | 419 | ||
| Rearrangement on Heating (Isomerization) | 419 | ||
| Uses Of Alkyl Halides | 420 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Alcohols\r | 427 | ||
| Introduction | 427 | ||
| Classification of Alcohols | 427 | ||
| Monohydric Alcohols | 428 | ||
| Classification of monohydric alcohols | 428 | ||
| Nomenclature of monohydric alcohols | 428 | ||
| Isomerism | 429 | ||
| General Methods of Preparation of Alcohols | 431 | ||
| Structure of Alcohol | 438 | ||
| Physical Properties | 439 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 440 | ||
| Distinction Between 1, 2 And 3 Alcohols | 452 | ||
| Ethylene Glycol | 456 | ||
| Preparation of Ethylene Glycol | 456 | ||
| Physical Properties | 458 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 458 | ||
| Glycerol (1,2,3-Propanetriol) | 465 | ||
| Preparation | 465 | ||
| Physical Properties | 467 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 467 | ||
| Summary | 474 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Phenols\r | 483 | ||
| Introduction | 483 | ||
| Classification and Nomenclature Of Phenols | 484 | ||
| Monohydric Phenols | 484 | ||
| Dihydric Phenol | 484 | ||
| Preparation of Phenols | 485 | ||
| Physical Properties | 487 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 488 | ||
| Reactions of the Phenolic - OH Group | 489 | ||
| Explanation of the acidic nature of phenol | 489 | ||
| Reactions Due to Benzene Ring | 493 | ||
| Special Reactions | 497 | ||
| Uses of Phenol | 501 | ||
| Distinction Between Alcohols and Phenols | 502 | ||
| Effects of Phenol on Human Health | 502 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Ethers and Epoxides\r | 509 | ||
| Introduction | 509 | ||
| Nomenclature | 510 | ||
| Common System | 510 | ||
| IUPAC System | 510 | ||
| Special Names | 511 | ||
| Isomerism | 511 | ||
| Chain Isomerism | 511 | ||
| Position Isomerism | 512 | ||
| Functional Isomerism | 512 | ||
| Metamerism | 512 | ||
| Structure of Ethers | 512 | ||
| Preparation of Ethers | 513 | ||
| Physical Properties | 516 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 517 | ||
| Uses of Ether | 519 | ||
| Epoxide | 519 | ||
| Structure of Epoxides | 520 | ||
| Preparation of Epoxides | 520 | ||
| Reactions of Epoxides | 521 | ||
| Physiological Effects of Ethylene Oxide | 524 | ||
| Acid-Catalysed Cleavage | 525 | ||
| Base-Catalysed Cleavage | 526 | ||
| Orientation Cleavage | 526 | ||
| Chapter 15 - Amines\r | 533 | ||
| Introduction | 533 | ||
| Classification Of Amines | 533 | ||
| Structure Of Amine | 535 | ||
| Nomenclature Of Amines | 535 | ||
| Isomerism Of Amines | 538 | ||
| Preparation of Amines | 540 | ||
| Industrial Preparation | 543 | ||
| Separation of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Amines | 544 | ||
| Physical Properties | 546 | ||
| Stereochemistry of Amines | 547 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 547 | ||
| Some Important Reactions of Benzene Diazonium Chloride | 559 | ||
| Distinction Between Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Amines | 561 | ||
| Tests for Amines | 561 | ||
| Uses | 562 | ||
| Chapter 16 - Aldehydes and Ketones\r | 569 | ||
| Introduction | 569 | ||
| Nomenclature | 569 | ||
| Isomerism | 571 | ||
| Structure of Carbonyl Group | 572 | ||
| Polar Nature of Carbonyl Group | 572 | ||
| Similarities and differences between C C and C O bonds | 572 | ||
| Methods of Preparation | 573 | ||
| From Alcohols | 573 | ||
| From Calcium Salts of Fatty Acids | 575 | ||
| From Acid Chlorides | 575 | ||
| From Alkynes | 576 | ||
| From Cyanides | 577 | ||
| From Alkenes | 577 | ||
| Oxo Process | 577 | ||
| Wacker's Method | 578 | ||
| From Gem Dihalides | 578 | ||
| Methods of Preparation of Aromatic Aldehydes and Ketones | 578 | ||
| Physical Properties of Carbonyl Compounds | 580 | ||
| Chemical Properties of Carbonyl Compounds | 581 | ||
| Distinction Between Aldehydes and Ketones | 596 | ||
| Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones | 596 | ||
| Chapter 17 - Carboxylic Acids\r | 605 | ||
| Introduction | 605 | ||
| Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids | 606 | ||
| IUPAC System | 606 | ||
| Isomerism | 608 | ||
| Structure of Carboxyl Group | 609 | ||
| Methods of Preparation | 610 | ||
| Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids | 612 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 613 | ||
| Effect of Substituents on Acidity | 620 | ||
| Some Commercially Important Carboxylic Acids | 622 | ||
| Chapter 18 - Functional Derivatives of Carboxylic Acid | 631 | ||
| Introduction | 631 | ||
| Nomenclature and Isomerism in Acid Derivatives | 632 | ||
| Preparation and Reactions of Acid Chlorides | 635 | ||
| Acid Chlorides | 635 | ||
| Methods of Preparation | 636 | ||
| Physical Properties of Acid Chlorides | 637 | ||
| Chemical Reactions of Acid Chlorides | 637 | ||
| Preparation and Reactions of Acid Amides | 641 | ||
| Acid Amides | 641 | ||
| Preparation | 642 | ||
| Physical properties of acid amides | 643 | ||
| Chemical reactions of acid amides | 643 | ||
| Preparation and Reactions of Acid Anhydrides | 645 | ||
| Acid Anhydrides | 645 | ||
| Preparation | 645 | ||
| Physical properties | 646 | ||
| Chemical reactions of anhydrides | 646 | ||
| Preparation and Reactions of Acid Esters | 647 | ||
| Esters | 647 | ||
| Preparation | 648 | ||
| Physical properties of esters | 649 | ||
| Chemical reactions of esters | 649 | ||
| Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution | 651 | ||
| Role of Carboxylic Group | 651 | ||
| Acid derivatives undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions | 652 | ||
| Order of reactivity of different acid derivatives | 655 | ||
| Role of acid catalysis in nucleophilic acyl substitution | 656 | ||
| Acidic and Alkaline Hydrolysis of Acid Derivatives | 656 | ||
| Mechanism of Acidic Hydrolysis | 656 | ||
| Mechanism of Alkaline Hydrolysis | 656 | ||
| Hydrolysis of Esters | 657 | ||
| Alkaline Hydrolysis of Esters | 657 | ||
| Chapter 19 - Active Methylene Compounds\r | 667 | ||
| Introduction | 667 | ||
| Preparation of Malonic Ester | 668 | ||
| Properties of Malonic Ester | 668 | ||
| Physical Properties | 668 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 669 | ||
| Acetoacetic Ester | 677 | ||
| Preparation of Acetoacetic Ester | 677 | ||
| Properties of Acetoacetic Ester | 678 | ||
| Keto-Enol Tautomerism | 684 | ||
| Relative Stabilities of Keto-Enol Forms | 685 | ||
| Keto-Enol Tautomerism in Acetoacetic Ester | 686 | ||
| Chemical Behaviour of Tautomers | 686 | ||
| Chapter 20 - Mechanism of Organic Reactions\r | 691 | ||
| Introduction | 691 | ||
| Cleavage of Bond | 692 | ||
| Types of Reagents | 693 | ||
| Electronic Effects in Covalent Bonds | 694 | ||
| Inductive Effect or Transmission Effect | 694 | ||
| Electromeric Effect | 697 | ||
| Resonance Effect or Mesomeric Effect | 699 | ||
| Hyperconjugation Or No-Bond Resonance | 705 | ||
| Application of the Hyperconjugation Effect | 706 | ||
| Distinction Between Resonance Effect and Inductive Effect | 708 | ||
| Reaction Intermediates | 710 | ||
| Carbocation or Carbonium Ions | 709 | ||
| Free Radicals | 712 | ||
| Carbanions | 714 | ||
| Classification Of Organic Reactions | 717 | ||
| Substitution Reactions | 718 | ||
| Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions | 717 | ||
| Electrophilic Substitution Reaction | 718 | ||
| Free-Radical Substitution | 719 | ||
| Addition Reactions | 721 | ||
| Elimination Reactions | 723 | ||
| Mechanism of Elimination Reaction | 723 | ||
| Rearrangement Reactions | 724 | ||
| Chapter 21 - Electrocyclic and Sigmatropic Rearrangements\r | 731 | ||
| Introduction | 731 | ||
| Stereochemistry of Electrocyclic Reactions | 732 | ||
| Conrotatory and Disrotatory Motions (Ring-Opening and Ring-Closing Reactions) | 735 | ||
| Sigmatropic Rearrangement | 739 | ||
| Classification of Sigmatropic Rearrangements | 740 | ||
| Naming of the Rearrangements | 740 | ||
| Suprafacial and Antarafacial Sigmatropic Shift | 741 | ||
| Cope and Claisen Rearrangement | 742 | ||
| Cope Rearrangement | 742 | ||
| Claisen Rearrangement | 743 | ||
| Migration of Carbon in Sigmatropic Rearrangement | 744 | ||
| Chapter 22 - Biomolecules\r | 751 | ||
| Introduction | 751 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 751 | ||
| Monosaccharides | 752 | ||
| Disaccharides | 756 | ||
| Sweetness of Sugars | 758 | ||
| Polysaccharides | 758 | ||
| Difference between Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and Polysaccharides | 760 | ||
| Functions of Carbohydrates | 761 | ||
| Proteins | 762 | ||
| Structure of Amino Acids | 764 | ||
| Polypeptide Formation | 766 | ||
| Physical Properties of Amino Acids | 767 | ||
| Chemical Properties of Amino Acids | 767 | ||
| Biologically Important Peptides | 768 | ||
| Structure of Proteins | 768 | ||
| Various Interactions of Forces which Stabilize Protein Structures | 770 | ||
| Classification of Proteins | 771 | ||
| Biological Functions or Role of Proteins | 772 | ||
| Denaturation of Proteins | 773 | ||
| Enzymes | 774 | ||
| Properties of Enzymes | 774 | ||
| Mechanism of Enzyme | 775 | ||
| Applications of Enzymes | 775 | ||
| Comparison of Catalysts and Enzymes: Similarities | 776 | ||
| Nucleic Acids | 777 | ||
| Nucleosides and Nucleotides | 778 | ||
| Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids | 780 | ||
| Distinction Between DNA and RNA | 781 | ||
| Mutation | 782 | ||
| Lipids | 783 | ||
| Fats (Triglycerides) | 784 | ||
| Waxes | 785 | ||
| Functions of Fats | 785 | ||
| Characteristics of chemical properties of the lipids | 786 | ||
| Index | 793 | ||
| A | 793 | ||
| B | 794 | ||
| C | 794 | ||
| D | 794 | ||
| E | 795 | ||
| F | 795 | ||
| G | 795 | ||
| H | 795 | ||
| I | 796 | ||
| K | 796 | ||
| L | 796 | ||
| M | 796 | ||
| N | 797 | ||
| O | 797 | ||
| P | 797 | ||
| Q | 798 | ||
| R | 798 | ||
| S | 798 | ||
| T | 799 | ||
| U | 799 | ||
| V | 799 | ||
| W | 799 | ||
| X | 800 | ||
| Z | 800 |