Comprehensive Renewable Energy

Trevor Letcher

BOOK

Comprehensive Renewable Energy

Trevor Letcher

(2012)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-0-08-087873-7
Edition
Language: English
Pages: 4422
Subjects: Surgical orthopaedics & fractures
Energy technology & engineering
Alternative & renewable energy sources & technology

Abstract

Comprehensive Renewable Energy, winner of a 2012 PROSE Award for Best Multi-volume Reference in Science from the Association of American Publishers, is the only work of its type at a time when renewable energy sources are seen increasingly as realistic alternatives to fossil fuels. As the majority of information published for the target audience is currently available via a wide range of journals, seeking relevant information (be that experimental, theoretical, and computational aspects of either a fundamental or applied nature) can be a time-consuming and complicated process.

Comprehensive Renewable Energy is arranged according to the most important themes in the field (photovoltaic technology; wind energy technology; fuel cells and hydrogen technology; biomass and biofuels production; hydropower applications; solar thermal systems: components and applications; geothermal energy; ocean energy), and as such users can feel confident that they will find all the relevant information in one place, with helpful cross-referencing between and within all the subject areas, to broaden their understanding and deepen their knowledge. It is an invaluable resource for teaching as well as in research.

Available online via SciVerse ScienceDirect and in print.

Editor-in Chief, Professor Ali Sayigh (Director General of WREN (World Renewable Energy Network) and Congress Chairman of WREC (World Renewable Energy Congress, UK) has assembled an impressive, world-class team of Volume Editors and Contributing Authors. Each chapter has been painstakingly reviewed and checked for consistent high quality. The result is an authoritative overview which ties the literature together and provides the user with a reliable background information and citation resource.
The field of renewable energy counts several journals that are directly and indirectly concerned with the field. There is no reference work that encompasses the entire field and unites the different areas of research through deep foundational reviews. Comprehensive Renewable Energy fills this vacuum, and can be considered the definitive work for this subject area. It will help users apply context to the diverse journal literature offering and aid them in identifying areas for further research.
Research into renewable energy is spread across a number of different disciplines and subject areas. These areas do not always share a unique identifying factor or subject themselves to clear and concise definitions. This work unites the different areas of research and allows users, regardless of their background, to navigate through the most essential concepts with ease, saving them time and vastly improving their understanding.
There are more than 1000 references from books, journals and the internet within the eight volumes. It is full of color charts, illustrations and photographs of real projects and research results from around the world.
The only reference work available that encompasses the entire field of renewable energy and unites the different areas of research through deep foundational reviews.
Allows readers, regardless of their background, to navigate through the most essential concepts with ease, saving them time and vastly improving their understanding

"…a useful acquisition for libraries that wish to acquire only one resource on the subject or for libraries that collect comprehensively in this area." --CHOICE, March 2013

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
e9780080878720v1.pdf	1
Cover\r	1
Comprehensive Renewable Energy\r	2
Copyright	5
Editor-In-Chief	6
Volume Editors\r	8
Contributors For All Volumes	12
Preface\r	20
Contents\r	24
Introduction to Photovoltaic Technology	36
1.02.1 Introduction	36
1.02.2 Guide to the Reader	37
1.02.2.1 Quick Guide	37
1.02.2.2 Detailed Guide	38
1.02.3 Conclusion	42
References	42
Solar Photovoltaics Technology: No Longer an Outlier	44
1.03.1 A Look at Policies, Progress, and Prognosis	44
1.03.2 A Glimpse at the Industry, the World, and the Markets	47
1.03.3 The Technologies	49
1.03.3.1 Evolutionary Technologies	50
1.03.3.2 Disruptive Technologies	52
1.03.3.3 Revolutionary Photovoltaics: The Chase Toward the Next Generations	56
1.03.4 Conclusions	58
e9780080878720v2	836
Cover\r	836
Comprehensive Renewable Energy \r	837
Copyright\r	840
Editor-In-Chief\r	841
Volume Editors \r	843
Contributors for all Volumes \r	847
Preface\r	855
Contents\r	859
Wind Energy - Introduction	867
2.01.1 Introduction	867
2.01.2 Pros and Cons of Wind Energy	869
2.01.3 Brief Content Presentation	871
2.01.4 Conclusions	874
References	875
Further Reading	876
Relevant Websites	876
Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects	877
2.02.1 Introduction	877
2.02.2 Energy Consumption around the Planet	878
2.02.3 Electrical Power and Electrical Generation	880
2.02.4 Fossil Fuel Status of Our Planet	883
2.02.4.1 Oil Data	883
2.02.4.2 Natural Gas Data	886
2.02.4.3 Coal Data	886
2.02.5 The Role of RES and Fossil Fuels in the Energy Future of Our Planet	887
2.02.5.1 The Energy Balance of Our Planet	887
2.02.5.2 Time Depletion of Fossil Fuels	888
2.02.5.3 Environmental Impacts of Energy: Carbon Dioxide Emissions	888
2.02.5.4 Comparing RES and Fossil Fuels (Pros and Cons) with Emphasis on Wind Energy	891
2.02.6 Wind Power Status in the World Market	891
2.02.7 Time Evolution of the Major Wind Power Markets	893
2.02.8 Forecasting the Wind Power Time Evolution	897
2.02.9 The Future and Prospects of Wind Energy	901
2.02.10 Conclusions	903
References	903
Further Reading	905
Relevant Websites	905
History of Wind Power	907
2.03.1 Sails	907
2.03.2 Early Wind Devices and Applications	907
2.03.3 Persian Vertical Axis Designs	910
2.03.4 The Introduction of Windmills into Europe	910
2.03.5 Horizontal Axis Machines	911
2.03.6 Post and Tower Mills	912
2.03.7 Technological Developments	914
2.03.8 Theory and Experiment: The Early Science	915
2.03.9 The End of Windmills	917
2.03.10 The American Wind Pump	917
2.03.11 Electrical Power from the Wind	918
2.03.12 Large Machines	920
2.03.13 The Smith-Putnam Machine	922
2.03.14 Postwar Programs	924
2.03.15 The Mother of All Modern Wind Turbines	926
2.03.16 Ulrich Hütter	927
2.03.17 The Battle of the Blades: Two versus Three	927
2.03.18 Large Two-Bladed Wind Turbines	930
2.03.19 The California Wind Rush	932
2.03.20 Other Manufacturers	937
2.03.21 Large Vertical Axis Wind Turbines	937
2.03.22 Organizations: BWEA, EWEA, and IEA	937
Further Reading	938
Wind Energy Potential	939
2.04.1 Introduction	940
2.04.2 Wind Characteristics	940
2.04.2.1 Origin of Wind	940
2.04.2.2 Meteorology of Wind	940
2.04.2.3 Wind Direction and Wind Velocity	940
2.04.2.4 Fundamental Causes of Wind	940
2.04.3 Wind Measurements	941
2.04.3.1 Wind Speed	941
2.04.3.2 Cup Anemometers	941
2.04.3.3 Other Anemometers	941
2.04.3.4 Wind Direction	942
2.04.3.5 Wind Rose	942
2.04.3.6 Wind Speed Profiles	943
2.04.4 Analysis of Wind Regimes	947
2.04.4.1 Wind Speed Variation with Time	947
2.04.4.2 Mathematic Representation of Wind Speed	949
2.04.4.3 Wind Resource Atlas Models	952
2.04.4.4 Wind Resource Atlas	953
2.04.5 Dynamic Study of Wind Speed	953
2.04.5.1 Stochastic Models for Simulating and Forecasting Wind Speed Time Series	954
2.04.5.2 Bayesian Adaptive Combination of Wind Speed Forecasts from Neural Network Models	954
2.04.6 Wind Energy	955
2.04.6.1 Wind Energy Production	955
2.04.6.2 Wind Energy Potential	956
2.04.7 Conclusions	957
References	957
Further Reading	958
Wind Turbines: Evolution, Basic Principles, and Classifications	959
2.05.1 Introduction	959
2.05.2 Evolution of Modern Wind Turbines	959
2.05.2.1 Growth in Installed Capacity	960
2.05.2.2 Increase in Turbine Size	961
2.05.2.3 Improvements in System Performance	962
2.05.2.4 Advances in the Control and Power Transmission Systems	964
2.05.2.5 Economic Evolution	966
2.05.3 Basic Principles	966
2.05.3.1 Power Available in the Wind	966
2.05.3.2 Power Coefficient, Torque Coefficient, and Tip Speed Ratio	968
2.05.3.3 Airfoil Lift and Drag	968
2.05.4 Classifications of Wind Turbines	970
2.05.4.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines	970
2.05.4.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines	972
2.05.5 Rotor Performance Curves	976
References	977
Further Reading	977
Energy Yield of Contemporary Wind Turbines	979
2.06.1 From Wind Power to Useful Wind Energy	980
2.06.1.1 Assessment of Wind Energy Losses	980
2.06.2 Wind Potential Evaluation for Energy Generation Purposes	983
2.06.2.1 Wind Speed Distributions	983
2.06.2.2 Determination of Weibull Main Parameters	986
2.06.2.3 The Impact of the Scale and Shape Factor Variation	988
2.06.2.4 Performance Assessment for the Weibull Distribution	990
2.06.2.5 Long-Term Study of Wind Energy Potential	990
2.06.2.6 Calm Spell Period Determination	991
2.06.2.7 Wind Gust Determination	992
2.06.3 Power Curves of Contemporary Wind Turbines	993
2.06.3.1 Description of a Typical Wind Turbine Power Curve	993
2.06.3.2 Producing a Wind Turbine Power Curve	993
2.06.3.3 Power Curve Modeling	995
2.06.3.4 Power Curve Estimation	997
2.06.4 Estimating the Energy Production of a Wind Turbine	998
2.06.4.1 From the Instantaneous Power Output to Energy Production	998
2.06.4.2 Estimating the Annual Wind Energy Production	1000
2.06.4.3 Estimating the Mean Power Coefficient	1001
2.06.4.4 The Impact of the Scale Factor Variation on the Mean Power Coefficient	1002
2.06.4.5 The Impact of the Shape Factor Variation on the Mean Power Coefficient	1003
2.06.4.6 The Impact of the Shape and Scale Factor Variation on the Annual Energy Production	1004
2.06.4.7 Energy Contribution of the Ascending and Rated Power Curve Segments	1004
2.06.4.8 Energy Yield Variation due to the Use of Theoretical Distributions	1006
2.06.5 Parameters Affecting the Power Output of a Wind Turbine	1006
2.06.5.1 The Wind Shear Variation	1006
2.06.5.2 Extrapolation of the Shape and Scale Parameters of Weibull at Hub Height	1010
2.06.5.3 Estimation of Wind Speed at Hub Height, Upstream of the Machine	1010
2.06.5.4 The Impact of Air Density Variation	1012
2.06.5.5 The Impact of the Wake Effect	1015
2.06.6 The Impact of Technical Availability on Wind Turbine Energy Output	1017
2.06.6.1 Causes of Technical Unavailability	1018
2.06.6.2 Estimating Technical Availability	1019
2.06.6.3 Experience Gained from the Monitoring of Technical Availability	1021
2.06.7 Selecting the Most Appropriate Wind Turbine	1024
2.06.7.1 The Role of Wind Turbine Databases	1025
2.06.7.2 Selecting the Most Appropriate Wind Turbine	1028
2.06.7.3 Determination of General Trends	1030
2.06.8 Conclusions	1030
References	1032
Further Reading	1034
Relevant Websites	1034
Wind Parks Design, Including Representative Case Studies	1035
2.07.1 Introduction	1035
2.07.2 The Selection of the Wind Park’s Installation Site	1037
2.07.2.1 Aiming at the Maximization of the Electricity Produced	1037
2.07.2.2 The Effect of Land Morphology on the Site Selection	1040
2.07.2.3 Aiming at the Minimization of the Set-Up Cost	1043
2.07.2.4 Installation Issues of the Wind Turbines	1043
2.07.2.5 Aiming at the Minimization of the Time Required for the Wind Park Project Implementation	1047
2.07.3 The Wind Potential Evaluation	1049
2.07.4 The Selection of the Wind Turbine Model	1052
2.07.5 The Micro-Siting of a Wind Park	1056
2.07.6 The Calculation of the Annual Electricity Production	1062
2.07.7 Social Approval of the Wind Park	1068
2.07.8 The Wind Park Integration in Local Networks	1072
2.07.8.1 The Power Quality Disturbances Caused by the Wind Turbines	1072
2.07.8.2 Wind Power Penetration in Weak Networks and Dynamic Security	1074
2.07.8.3 The Connection of Wind Parks in Electricity Networks	1075
2.07.9 Economic Analysis	1076
2.07.9.1 The Project’s Set-Up Cost Calculation and the Funding Scheme	1076
2.07.9.2 The Calculation of the Investment’s Annual Revenues	1076
2.07.9.3 Annual Expenses	1077
2.07.9.4 Investment’s Annual Net Profits	1077
2.07.9.5 Economic Indexes	1077
2.07.10 Presentation of Characteristic Case Studies	1077
2.07.10.1 The Design of a Wind Park in a Small Noninterconnected Power System	1078
2.07.10.2 The Design of a Wind Park in a Large Noninterconnected Power System	1082
2.07.10.3 The Roscoe Wind Park in Texas – Largest Onshore Wind Park	1084
2.07.10.4 The Thanet Wind Park in the United Kingdom – Largest Offshore Wind Park	1086
2.07.11 Epilog	1087
References	1088
Further Reading	1089
Aerodynamic Analysis of Wind Turbines	1091
2.08.1 Introduction	1091
2.08.2 Momentum Theory	1092
2.08.2.1 One-Dimensional Momentum Theory	1092
2.08.2.2 The Optimum Rotor of Glauert	1093
2.08.2.3 The Blade-Element Momentum Theory	1094
2.08.3 Advanced Aerodynamic Modeling	1097
2.08.3.1 Vortex Models	1097
2.08.3.2 Numerical Actuator Disk Models	1098
2.08.3.3 Full Navier–Stokes Modeling	1098
2.08.4 CFD Computations of Wind Turbine Rotors	1099
2.08.5 CFD in Wake Computations	1100
2.08.6 Rotor Optimization Using BEM Technique	1102
2.08.7 Noise from Wind Turbines	1104
References	1105
Further Reading	1106
Mechanical-Dynamic Loads	1109
2.09.1 Introduction	1110
2.09.2 Dynamic Analyses	1110
2.09.3 Load Cases	1112
2.09.4 Loads	1113
2.09.4.1 Aerodynamic Loads	1113
2.09.4.2 Hydrodynamic Loads	1115
2.09.4.3 Gravitational Loads	1117
2.09.4.4 Inertial Loads	1117
2.09.4.5 Control Loads	1117
2.09.4.6 Mooring System Loads	1118
2.09.4.7 Current Loads	1119
2.09.4.8 Ice Loads	1119
2.09.4.9 Soil Interaction Loads	1119
2.09.5 Case Studies: Examples of Load Modeling in the Integrated Analyses	1120
2.09.5.1 Onshore Wind Turbine: Wind-Induced Loads	1120
2.09.5.2 Offshore Wind Turbine: Wave- and Wind-Induced Loads	1124
2.09.6 Conclusions	1128
Appendix A: Environmental Conditions	1128
A.1 General	1128
A.2 Joint Distribution of Wave Conditions and Mean Wind	1128
Appendix B: Wind Theory	1129
Appendix C: Wave Theory	1131
C.1 Regular Wave Theory	1131
C.2 Modified Linear Wave Theory	1132
C.3 Irregular Wave Theory	1132
References	1133
Electrical Parts of Wind Turbines	1135
2.10.1 Introduction	1136
2.10.2 Power Control	1138
2.10.2.1 Pitch Control	1139
2.10.2.2 Yaw System	1143
2.10.3 Electricity Production	1145
2.10.3.1 The Generator	1145
2.10.3.2 Wind Turbine Generators	1147
2.10.3.3 Power Electronics	1160
2.10.4 Lightning Protection	1164
2.10.5 Small Wind Turbines	1167
2.10.6 Outlook	1169
2.10.7 Wind Turbine Industry	1172
2.10.7.1 Major Wind Turbine Manufacturers	1172
2.10.7.2 Subproviders	1190
References	1194
Further Reading	1194
Relevant Websites	1194
Wind Turbine Control Systems and Power Electronics	1195
2.11.1 Control Objectives	1196
2.11.2 Wind Turbine Modeling	1199
2.11.2.1 Mechanical Part	1200
2.11.2.2 Electrical Part – Generators and Converters	1202
2.11.2.3 Full Model	1207
2.11.3 Control	1209
2.11.3.1 Overall Control Strategy	1209
2.11.3.2 Pitch Control	1211
2.11.3.3 Generator Control	1218
2.11.3.4 Coupled Pitch–Generator Control	1224
2.11.3.5 Grid Control	1224
2.11.3.6 Yaw Control	1226
2.11.3.7 Grid Issues	1228
2.11.4 Fault Accommodation	1230
2.11.5 Hardware	1232
2.11.5.1 Sensors	1232
2.11.5.2 Actuators	1234
References	1235
Further Reading	1236
Relevant Websites	1236
Testing, Standardization, Certification in Wind Energy	1237
2.12.1 Introduction	1237
2.12.1.1 Brief History of Standardization in Wind Energy	1237
2.12.1.2 Wind Energy Technology-Specific Issues	1238
2.12.1.3 Overview and Status of International Wind Energy Standards	1238
2.12.2 Standards with Design Requirements for Wind Turbines	1239
2.12.2.1 Wind Turbine Design-Related IEC Standards	1240
2.12.2.2 Other Standards Related to Wind Turbine-Specific Design Aspects	1242
2.12.3 Testing Methods for Wind Turbines and Wind Plants	1242
2.12.3.1 Introduction	1242
2.12.3.2 Wind Speed Measurement	1243
2.12.3.3 Power Performance Testing	1243
2.12.3.4 Mechanical Load Measurements	1244
2.12.3.5 Acoustic Noise Measurements	1245
2.12.3.6 Electrical Characteristics and Power Quality Measurements	1246
2.12.3.7 Rotor Blade Testing	1246
2.12.3.8 Safety and Function Testing	1247
2.12.3.9 Measurement Quality	1248
2.12.4 Certification in the Wind Industry	1249
2.12.4.1 General Aspects of Certification in Wind Energy	1249
2.12.4.2 Certification Systems in Wind Energy	1249
2.12.5 Conclusions	1254
References	1254
IEC Standards (to be purchased via IEC or the National Standardization Institutes)	1255
Relevant Websites	1255
Design and Implementation of a Wind Power Project	1257
2.13.1 Introduction	1258
2.13.2 Project Management	1259
2.13.3 Finding Good Wind Sites	1260
2.13.4 Feasibility Study	1260
2.13.4.1 Impact on Neighbors	1261
2.13.4.2 Grid Connection	1261
2.13.4.3 Land for Wind Power Plants	1261
2.13.4.4 Opposing Interests	1261
2.13.4.5 Local Acceptance	1262
2.13.4.6 Permission	1262
2.13.5 Project Development	1262
2.13.5.1 Verification of Wind Resources	1262
2.13.5.2 Land Lease	1263
2.13.5.3 Micro-Siting and Optimization	1263
2.13.5.4 Environment Impact Assessment	1263
2.13.5.5 Public Dialogue	1263
2.13.5.6 Appeals and Mitigation	1264
2.13.6 Micro-Siting	1264
2.13.6.1 Wind Wakes	1264
2.13.6.2 Energy Rose	1265
2.13.6.3 Wind Farm Layout	1265
2.13.6.4 Optimization	1267
2.13.7 Estimation of Power Production	1269
2.13.7.1 Long-Term Wind Climate	1269
2.13.7.2 Wind Data	1269
2.13.7.3 Wind Data Sources	1272
2.13.8 Planning Tools	1273
2.13.8.1 The Wind Atlas Method	1273
2.13.8.2 Wind Measurements	1278
2.13.8.3 Pitfalls	1279
2.13.9 Choice of Wind Turbines	1282
2.13.9.1 Wind Turbine Size	1282
2.13.9.2 Type of Wind Turbines	1283
2.13.9.3 Wind Turbines Tailored to Wind Climate	1284
2.13.9.4 Supplier	1284
2.13.10 Economics of Wind Power Plants	1286
2.13.10.1 Investment	1287
2.13.10.2 Economic Result	1288
2.13.10.3 Revenues	1289
2.13.10.4 Calculation of Economic Result	1289
2.13.10.5 Risk Assessment	1290
2.13.10.6 Financing	1291
2.13.11 Documentation	1291
2.13.11.1 Project Description	1291
2.13.11.2 Environment Impact Assessment	1292
2.13.11.3 Economic Reports	1292
2.13.12 Building a Wind Power Plant	1293
2.13.12.1 Selection of Suppliers	1293
2.13.12.2 Contracts	1293
2.13.12.3 Supervision and Quality Control	1293
2.13.12.4 Commissioning and Transfer	1294
2.13.13 Operation	1294
2.13.13.1 Maintenance	1294
2.13.13.2 Condition Monitoring	1294
2.13.13.3 Performance Monitoring	1295
2.13.13.4 Decommissioning and Site Restoration	1295
2.13.14 Business Models	1295
2.13.15 Summary and Conclusion	1295
References	1296
Further Reading	1296
Offshore Wind Power Basics	1297
2.14.1 Introduction	1298
2.14.2 Offshore Wind Energy Status	1298
2.14.2.1 History and Background	1298
2.14.2.2 Offshore Wind Energy Activity	1300
2.14.3 Offshore Wind Farms – Basic Features	1306
2.14.3.1 Wind Turbine Design	1306
2.14.3.2 Support Structures and Towers	1307
2.14.3.3 Supplementary Equipment	1316
2.14.4 Offshore Wind Farm Design, Installation, and Maintenance	1318
2.14.4.1 Equipment Selection Requirements	1318
2.14.4.2 Other Wind Farm Design Considerations	1321
2.14.4.3 Installation and Transportation Facilities	1322
2.14.4.4 O&M Facilities	1324
2.14.5 Offshore Wind Energy Economic Considerations	1325
2.14.6 Environmental and Social Issues	1329
2.14.6.1 Noise Impacts	1329
2.14.6.2 Visual Impacts	1329
2.14.6.3 Impacts on Wild Life	1329
2.14.7 Future Trends and Prospects	1330
References	1332
Further Reading	1334
Relevant Websites	1334
Wind Energy Economics	1335
2.15.1 Introduction	1336
2.15.2 Basic Financial Issues	1337
2.15.2.1 Definitions	1337
2.15.2.2 Price Calculation Methods	1338
2.15.2.3 Recommended Practices	1338
2.15.2.4 Interest Rates	1338
2.15.2.5 Amortization Periods	1338
2.15.3 Cost and Performance Issues	1340
2.15.3.1 Balance of Plant Costs	1340
2.15.3.2 Operational Costs	1340
2.15.3.3 Size of Wind Farm	1341
2.15.3.4 Installed Costs and Wind Speeds	1341
2.15.4 Onshore Wind	1341
2.15.4.1 Historical Cost and Performance Trends	1341
2.15.4.2 Current Plant Costs	1342
2.15.4.3 Current Electricity Generation Costs	1343
2.15.4.4 Small Wind Turbines	1343
2.15.4.5 Historical Price Trends	1344
2.15.4.6 Current Installed Costs	1345
2.15.5 Analysis of Offshore Costs	1346
2.15.5.1 Operation and Maintenance Costs	1346
2.15.5.2 Water Depth and Distance from Shore	1347
2.15.6 Electricity-Generating Costs	1347
2.15.6.1 Generation Cost Comparisons	1348
2.15.6.2 Cost Comparisons – Wind and Other Plant	1349
2.15.6.3 Cost Comparisons on a Level Playing Field	1349
2.15.7 External Costs	1350
2.15.7.1 Types of External Cost	1350
2.15.7.2 Costing Pollution	1351
2.15.7.3 Market Solutions	1351
2.15.7.4 The UK Climate Change Levy	1352
2.15.7.5 Renewable Energy Support Mechanisms	1352
2.15.7.6 Embedded Generation Benefits	1352
2.15.8 Variability Costs	1353
2.15.8.1 Electricity Networks	1354
2.15.8.2 Characteristics of Wind Energy	1355
2.15.8.3 Assimilating Wind	1355
2.15.8.4 Extra Short-Term Reserve Needs and Costs	1356
2.15.8.5 Carbon Dioxide Savings	1357
2.15.8.6 Extra Backup and Its Costs	1357
2.15.8.7 Capacity Credit	1357
2.15.8.8 The Cost of Backup	1358
2.15.8.9 Transmission Constraints	1358
2.15.8.10 Wind Surpluses at High Penetration Levels	1358
2.15.8.11 Total Costs of Variability	1359
2.15.8.12 Mitigating the Effects and Costs of Variability	1360
2.15.9 Total Cost Estimates	1363
2.15.10 Future Price Trends	1363
2.15.10.1 Future Fuel Prices	1364
2.15.10.2 Price Comparisons in 2020	1365
2.15.11 Conclusions	1365
References	1366
Environmental-Social Benefits/Impacts of Wind Power	1369
2.16.1 Introduction – Scope and Objectives	1370
2.16.2 Main Environmental Benefits of Wind Power	1370
2.16.2.1 General Considerations	1370
2.16.2.2 Avoided Air Pollution – Reduction of CO2 Emissions	1370
2.16.2.3 Reduction of Water Consumption	1371
2.16.3 Main Social Benefits of Wind Power	1373
2.16.3.1 Fossil Fuel Saving/Substitution	1373
2.16.3.2 Regional Development – New Activities	1373
2.16.3.3 Employment Opportunities and Job Positions in the Wind Power Sector	1374
2.16.4 Environmental Behavior of Wind Energy	1376
2.16.5 Methods and Tools for Environmental Impact Assessment	1377
2.16.6 Noise Impact	1379
2.16.6.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Consideration of Noise Impact	1379
2.16.6.2 Research and Development Relevant to Wind Turbine Noise	1384
2.16.7 Wind Turbines’ Visual Impact and Aesthetics	1384
2.16.7.1 General Considerations on Visual Impact and Aesthetics	1384
2.16.7.2 Shadow Flickering	1388
2.16.8 Impacts in Fauna and Flora and Microclimate	1388
2.16.8.1 Impacts in Flora and Fauna	1388
2.16.8.2 Impacts on the Microclimate	1389
2.16.9 Other Environmental Impacts	1390
2.16.9.1 Interference of a Wind Turbine with Electromagnetic Communication Systems	1390
2.16.9.2 Traffic – Transportation and Access	1390
2.16.9.3 Archaeology and Cultural Heritage	1390
2.16.9.4 Health and Safety	1391
2.16.10 Offshore Environmental Impacts	1391
2.16.10.1 Offshore Noise Impact	1391
2.16.10.2 Construction and Decommissioning Noise	1392
2.16.10.3 Operational Noise	1392
2.16.10.4 Visual Impacts	1393
2.16.10.5 Impacts on Marine Mammals	1394
2.16.10.6 Impacts on Fish	1394
2.16.10.7 Impacts on Birds	1395
2.16.10.8 Effects of Offshore Wind Energy on the Microclimate	1396
2.16.11 Mitigation Measures – Conclusions	1396
2.16.11.1 The Importance of Wind Farm Siting	1396
2.16.11.2 Mitigation through Technology	1397
2.16.12 Social Acceptability of Wind Power Projects	1397
2.16.12.1 General Considerations	1397
2.16.12.2 Case Studies for Public Attitude Analysis	1400
2.16.13 The Public Attitude Toward Offshore Wind Parks	1401
2.16.14 Future Trends in Wind Parks’ Social and Environmental Impacts Assessment	1402
2.16.15 Conclusions	1403
References	1403
Further Reading	1404
Wind Energy Policy	1407
2.17.1 Introduction	1407
2.17.2 Energy and the Economy	1408
2.17.2.1 Global Energy Markets	1408
2.17.2.2 Renewable Energy Policy	1411
2.17.3 Fossil Fuel and Nuclear Options for Reducing CO2 Emissions	1414
2.17.3.1 Clean Coal	1414
2.17.3.2 Natural Gas	1415
2.17.3.3 Nuclear Power	1415
2.17.4 Renewable Alternatives to Fossil Fuels	1418
2.17.4.1 Biomass for Generating Electricity	1418
2.17.4.2 Hydraulics and Storage	1419
2.17.4.3 Geothermal	1420
2.17.4.4 Generating Electricity from Intermittent Energy Sources	1420
2.17.5 The Economics of Wind Energy in Electricity Generation	1421
2.17.5.1 Structure of Electricity Grids: Economics	1422
2.17.5.2 Integration of Wind Power into Electricity Grids	1425
2.17.6 Discussion	1431
References	1433
Further Reading	1434
Wind Power Integration	1435
2.18.1 Introduction	1436
2.18.2 Overview of Conventional Electrical Power Systems	1437
2.18.2.1 Structure of an Electrical Power System	1437
2.18.2.2 Operational Objectives of an Electrical Power System	1447
2.18.2.3 Operating States of an Electrical Power System	1447
2.18.3 The Distinctive Characteristics of Wind Energy	1452
2.18.3.1 The Unpredictability and Variability of Wind	1452
2.18.3.2 The Variability of Electrical Energy from Wind Sources	1454
2.18.4 Wind Power and Power System Interaction	1457
2.18.4.1 Comparison between Conventional and Wind Generation Technologies	1458
2.18.4.2 Potential Disturbances in the Interaction of Wind Turbines with the Electrical Network	1459
2.18.5 Planning and Operation of Wind Power Electrical Systems	1462
2.18.5.1 Repercussions of Wind Power for Power System Generation	1462
2.18.5.2 Impact of Wind Power on the Power Transmission and Distribution Networks	1468
2.18.6 Integration of Wind Energy into MGs	1473
2.18.6.1 MG Modeling	1477
2.18.6.2 Benefits of Wind Energy Integration into MGs	1477
2.18.6.3 Problems Associated with Wind Energy Penetration in MGs	1478
2.18.7 Questions Related to the Extra Costs of Wind Power Integration	1478
2.18.8 Requirements for Wind Energy Integration into Electrical Networks	1479
2.18.9 Wind Power Forecasting	1480
2.18.9.1 Physical Models	1481
2.18.9.2 Statistical and Data Mining Models	1481
2.18.9.3 Currently Implemented Forecasting Tools	1482
2.18.10 Future Trends	1483
References	1484
Further Reading	1488
Relevant Websites	1488
Stand-Alone, Hybrid Systems	1489
2.19.1 Introduction	1489
2.19.2 Historical Development of Wind Stand-Alone Energy Systems	1490
2.19.3 Contribution of Wind in Stand-Alone Energy Systems	1492
2.19.4 System Configuration	1495
2.19.4.1 Wind Turbine Generator	1497
2.19.4.2 Storage System Unit	1498
2.19.4.3 Complementary Electric Generator Unit	1498
2.19.4.4 Auxiliary Electronic Equipment	1498
2.19.5 Stand-Alone Hybrid Systems Configurations	1498
2.19.5.1 Stand-Alone Wind Power Systems	1499
2.19.5.2 Stand-Alone Wind–Diesel Power Systems	1502
2.19.5.3 Stand-Alone Wind–Photovoltaic Power Systems	1504
2.19.5.4 Stand-Alone Wind–Hydro Power Systems	1509
2.19.5.5 Stand-Alone Wind–Hydrogen Power Systems	1511
2.19.6 Energy Storage in Wind Stand-Alone Energy Systems	1513
2.19.6.1 Design Parameters of Energy Storage Systems	1515
2.19.6.2 Short Description of Energy Storage Technologies	1515
2.19.7 Design, Simulation, and Evaluation Software Tools for Wind-Based Hybrid Energy Systems	1517
References	1519
Further Reading	1521
Wind Power Industry and Markets	1523
2.20.1 Global Market Development	1523
2.20.2 Trends in the Development of Wind Turbines	1525
2.20.3 Main Drivers behind the Wind Power Development	1526
2.20.4 Market Development in Europe	1528
2.20.4.1 Germany	1528
2.20.4.2 Spain	1529
2.20.4.3 Rest of Europe	1530
2.20.5 Development of Wind Power in North America	1531
2.20.5.1 United States	1531
2.20.6 Wind Power Development in Asia	1532
2.20.6.1 China	1532
2.20.7 Offshore Wind Power Development	1532
2.20.8 Wind Turbine Manufacturers	1533
References	1535
Trends, Prospects, and R – D Directions in Wind Turbine Technology	1537
2.21.1 Brief Description of Wind Power Time Evolution	1538
2.21.2 The Current Wind Turbine Concept	1541
2.21.3 Size Evolution of Wind Turbines	1542
2.21.4 Pitch versus Stall and Active-Stall Wind Turbines	1545
2.21.5 Direct-Drive versus Gearbox	1546
2.21.6 Blade Design and Construction	1548
2.21.7 Innovative Concepts	1551
2.21.8 Environmental Impact Reduction	1553
2.21.9 Offshore Wind Parks	1554
2.21.10 Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines	1559
2.21.11 Small Wind Turbines	1562
2.21.12 Building-Integrated Wind Turbines	1565
2.21.13 Wind Energy Cost Time Evolution	1568
2.21.14 Research in the Wind Energy Sector	1572
2.21.15 Wind Energy Technological Problems and R&D Directions	1575
2.21.16 Financial Support of Wind Energy Research Efforts	1576
2.21.16.1 1998–2002 (FP5)	1576
2.21.16.2 2002–06 (FP6)	1577
2.21.16.3 2007–Today (FP7)	1577
2.21.17 Conclusions	1578
Appendix A Wind Energy Projects Funded by FP5 (1998–2002)	1579
Wind Turbines	1579
Research and Development of a 5MW Wind Turbine	1579
Development of a MW Scale Wind Turbine for High Wind Complex Terrain Sites	1579
Recommendations for Design of Offshore Wind Turbines	1579
Exploring New Concepts for Small and Medium-Sized Wind Mills with Improved Performance	1579
Blades and Rotors	1579
Wind Turbine Rotor Blades for Enhanced Aeroelastic Stability and Fatigue Life Using Passively Damped Composites	1579
Wind Turbine Blade Aerodynamics and Aeroelastics: Closing Knowledge Gaps	1579
Model Rotor Experiments Under Controlled Conditions	1579
Reliable Optimal Use of Materials for Wind Turbine Rotor Blades	1579
Silent Rotors by Acoustic Optimization	1579
Aerolastic Stability and Control of Large Wind Turbines	1580
Innovative Composite Hub for Wind Turbines	1580
Wind Resources Forecasting and Mapping	1580
Development of a Next Generation Wind Resource Forecasting System for the Large-Scale Integration of Onshore and Offshore Wind Farms	1580
A High Resolution Numerical Wind Energy Model for On- and Offshore Forecasting Using Ensemble Predictions	1580
Wind Energy Mapping Using Synthetic Aperture Radar	1580
Wind Farms	1580
Advanced Management and Surveillance of Wind Farms	1580
Efficient Development of Offshore Wind Farms	1580
Condition Monitoring for Offshore Wind Farms	1580
Integration of Wind Power	1580
Wind Energy Network	1580
Towards High Penetration and Firm Power from Wind Energy	1581
More Advanced Control Advice for Secure Operation of Isolated Power Systems with Increased Renewable Energy Penetration andStorage	1581
Wind Power Integration in a Liberalized Electricity Market	1581
Cluster Pilot Project for the Integration of RES Into European Energy Sectors Using Hydrogen	1581
Solar and Wind Technology Excellence, Knowledge Exchange and Twinning Actions Romanian Centre	1581
Appendix B Wind Energy Projects Funded by FP6 (2002–06)	1581
Next generation design tool for optimization of wind farm topology and operation	1581
European Wind Integration Study	1581
South-East Europe Wind Energy Exploitation – Research and Demonstration of Wind Energy Utilization in Complex Terrain and Under Specific Local Wind Systems	1582
Wind Energy Technology Platform Secretariat	1582
Action Plan for High-Priority Renewable Energy Initiatives in Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Area	1582
Self Installing Wind Turbine	1582
Wind on the Grid: An Integrated Approach	1582
Decision Support for Large Scale Integration of Wind Power	1583
Development of a New Principle 3MW Direct Drive Generator and Wind Turbine	1583
Grid Architecture for Wind Power Production with Energy Storage through Load Shifting in Refrigerated Warehouses	1583
Integrated Wind Turbine Design	1583
Prediction of Waves, Wakes and Offshore Wind	1583
Dissemination Strategy on Electricity Balancing for large Scale Integration of Renewable Energy	1584
Distant Offshore Wind Farms with No Visual Impact in Deepwater	1584
Standardization of Ice Forces on Offshore Structures Design	1584
Hogsara Island Demonstration Project	1584
Appendix C Wind Energy Projects Funded by FP7 (Since 2007)	1584
Off-Shore Renewable Energy Conversion Platforms – Coordination Action	1584
Marine Renewable Integrated Application Platform	1585
Multi-Scale Data Assimilation, Advanced Wind Modeling and Forecasting with Emphasis to Extreme Weather Situations foraSecure Large-Scale Wind Power Integration	1585
Pilot Demonstration of Eleven 7MW-Class WEC at Estinnes in Belgium	1585
Northern Seas Wind Index Database	1585
PROcedures for TESTing and Measuring Wind Energy Systems	1585
Reliability Focused Research on Optimizing Wind Energy Systems Design, Operation and Maintenance: Tools, Proof of Concepts, Guidelines & Methodologies for a New Generation	1586
Future Deep Sea Wind Turbine Technologies	1586
High Altitude Wind Energy	1586
High Power, High Reliability Offshore Wind Technology	1586
References	1586
Further Reading	1589
Relevant Websites	1590
Special Wind Power Applications	1591
2.22.1 Introduction – The Water Demand Problem	1592
2.22.2 Desalination Processes and Plants	1592
2.22.2.1 General Considerations	1592
2.22.2.2 Membrane/RO Desalination Processes	1594
2.22.3 Energy Requirements of Desalination Processes	1595
2.22.3.1 General Issues	1595
2.22.3.2 Utilizing RESs in Desalination	1596
2.22.4 Integrated Systems of RES with Desalination Plants	1598
2.22.5 RO–Wind Desalination	1598
2.22.5.1 Basic Characteristics	1598
2.22.5.2 Design Issues	1599
2.22.5.3 Operational Issues – Technical Difficulties	1600
2.22.6 Wind–RO Configuration Possibilities	1600
2.22.6.1 Systems with Backup (Diesel/Grid)	1600
2.22.6.2 Systems without Backup	1600
2.22.6.3 Near-Constant Operating Conditions	1600
2.22.6.4 Storage Devices	1600
2.22.6.5 RO Unit Switching	1600
2.22.6.6 Wind Turbine Derating	1601
2.22.6.7 Variable Operating Conditions	1601
2.22.7 Implementation of Projects	1601
2.22.8 Implementation of Projects with Hybrid Energy Systems	1601
2.22.9 Economic Considerations in RES-Based Desalination	1602
2.22.9.1 Introductory Comments	1602
2.22.9.2 Parameters Affecting Economics of Desalination	1602
2.22.10 Examples of Wind-Based Desalination Applications – Case Studies	1604
2.22.10.1 General Issues for the Case Studies Analysis	1604
2.22.10.2 Libya	1605
2.22.10.3 Morocco	1605
2.22.10.4 Spain	1605
2.22.10.5 Milos Island, Greece	1605
2.22.11 Technological Developments and Future Trends in Hybrid Desalination Systems	1606
2.22.12 Telecommunication Stations	1606
2.22.12.1 General Considerations	1606
2.22.13 The Wind Power-Based T/C Station	1607
2.22.13.1 Configuration Options Overview	1608
2.22.14 Applications of Wind Energy in T/C Stations	1608
2.22.15 Wind Water Pumping Systems	1608
2.22.16 Water Pumping System Applications	1610
References	1611
Further Reading	1612
e9780080878720v3	1613
Cover\r	1613
Comprehensive Renewable Energy \r	1614
Copyright	1617
Editor-In-Chief\r	1618
Volume Editors	1620
Contributors For All Volumes	1624
Preface	1632
Contents	1636
Solar Thermal Systems: Components and Applications - Introduction	1644
3.01.1 The Sun	1645
3.01.2 Energy-Related Environmental Problems	1646
3.01.2.1 Acid Rain	1647
3.01.2.2 Ozone Layer Depletion	1647
3.01.2.3 Global Climate Change	1648
3.01.2.4 Renewable Energy Technologies	1648
3.01.2.4.1 Social and economic development	1649
3.01.2.4.2 Land restoration	1649
3.01.2.4.3 Reduced air pollution	1649
3.01.2.4.4 Abatement of global warming	1649
3.01.2.4.5 Fuel supply diversity	1649
3.01.2.4.6 Reducing the risks of nuclear weapons proliferation	1649
3.01.3 Environmental Characteristics of Solar Energy	1650
3.01.3.1 Equation of Time	1651
3.01.3.2 Longitude Correction	1651
3.01.3.3 Solar Angles	1651
3.01.3.3.1 Declination angle, δ	1653
3.01.3.3.2 Hour angle, h	1654
3.01.3.3.3 Solar altitude angle, α	1654
3.01.3.3.4 Solar azimuth angle, z	1655
3.01.3.3.5 Sun rise and set times and day length	1655
3.01.3.3.6 Incidence angle, θ	1655
3.01.3.4 The Incidence Angle for Moving Surfaces	1656
3.01.3.4.1 Full tracking	1657
3.01.3.4.2 N–S axis tilted/tilt daily adjusted	1657
3.01.3.4.3 N–S axis polar/E–W tracking	1657
3.01.3.4.4 E–W axis horizontal/N–S tracking	1659
3.01.3.4.5 N–S axis horizontal/E–W tracking	1660
3.01.3.4.5(i) Comparison	1660
3.01.3.5 Sun Path Diagrams	1660
3.01.4 Solar Radiation	1661
3.01.4.1 Thermal Radiation	1661
3.01.4.2 Transparent Plates	1664
3.01.5 The Solar Resource	1665
3.01.5.1 Typical Meteorological Year	1665
3.01.5.2 Typical Meteorological Year – Second Generation	1666
References	1667
The Solar Resource	1670
3.02.1 Introduction	1671
3.02.2 Sun–Earth Astronomical Relations	1672
3.02.3 Solar Constant	1675
3.02.4 Solar Spectrum	1676
3.02.4.1 Planck’s Law	1676
3.02.4.2 Wien’s Displacement Law	1676
3.02.4.3 Stefan–Boltzmann Law	1677
3.02.5 Interference of Solar Radiation with the Earth’s Atmosphere	1677
3.02.5.1 The Earth’s Atmosphere	1677
3.02.5.2 Optical Air Mass	1678
3.02.5.3 Attenuation of Solar Direct Radiation	1679
3.02.5.4 Rayleigh and Mie Scattering, Reflection, and Absorption	1679
3.02.6 Models of Broadband Solar Radiation on Horizontal and Tilted Surfaces	1682
3.02.6.1 Calculation of Solar Radiation on a Horizontal Plane	1683
3.02.6.2 The Meteorological Radiation Model	1686
3.02.6.3 Calculation of Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface	1688
3.02.6.4 Quality Control of Solar Radiation Values	1692
3.02.7 Evaluation of Models	1692
3.02.7.1 The Standard Deviation	1693
3.02.7.2 The Root Mean Square Error	1693
3.02.7.3 The Mean Bias Error	1694
3.02.7.4 The Mean Absolute Bias Error	1694
3.02.7.5 The t-test	1694
3.02.7.6 The Index of Agreement (d)	1695
3.02.7.7 The Coefficient of Determination (R2)	1695
3.02.8 Models of Solar Spectral Radiation	1697
3.02.9 Net Solar Radiation	1697
3.02.10 Networks of Solar Radiation Stations – Solar Atlases	1701
3.02.11 Utility Tools for Solar Radiation Calculations	1705
3.02.12 Instruments for Measuring Solar Radiation	1707
3.02.12.1 Solar Radiometers	1707
3.02.12.2 The World Radiometric Reference	1710
3.02.12.3 Calibration of Solar Radiometers	1710
3.02.12.4 Uncertainty of Solar Radiometers	1710
3.02.12.5 Correction of Common Solar Radiometer Errors	1710
Appendix A: Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation	1710
Appendix B: Radiometric Terminology	1721
Appendix C: The Sun as a Blackbody	1722
Appendix D: Physical Constants and Conversion Factors	1723
References	1723
History of Solar Energy	1728
3.03.1 Introduction	1728
3.03.1.1 The Sun	1729
3.03.2 The Early Times	1729
3.03.3 The Middle Ages	1730
3.03.4 The Twentieth Century	1734
3.03.4.1 Solar Engines – Solar Collectors	1734
3.03.4.2 The Development of Flat-Plate Collectors	1736
3.03.4.3 The Development of Selective Surfaces	1736
3.03.4.4 Space Heating and Cooling with Solar Collectors	1737
3.03.4.5 Concentrating System for Power Production	1738
3.03.5 The First Scientific Solar Energy Meetings	1739
3.03.6 Evacuated-Tube Collectors	1739
3.03.7 Heat Pipes	1740
3.03.8 Desalination with Solar Energy	1740
3.03.8.1 Solar Distillation	1740
3.03.8.2 Solar-Assisted Desalination	1743
References	1744
Further Reading	1745
Low Temperature Stationary Collectors	1746
3.04.1 Introduction	1746
3.04.1.1 Flat-Plate Collectors	1746
3.04.1.2 Absorbers for Liquid FPCs	1747
3.04.1.2.1 Stamped absorbers	1747
3.04.1.2.2 Tube absorbers	1747
3.04.1.2.3 Roll-bond absorbers	1749
3.04.1.2.4 Organic absorbers	1750
3.04.1.3 Absorbers for Air FPCs	1751
3.04.1.4 Absorber Coating	1751
3.04.1.5 Cover Material for FPCs	1754
3.04.1.6 Back and Side Insulation for FPCs	1756
3.04.1.7 Enclosure or Casing for FPCs	1756
3.04.1.8 Evacuated Tube Collectors	1759
3.04.2 Optical Analysis	1763
3.04.2.1 Reflection and Transmission of Radiation	1763
3.04.2.2 Antireflective Coatings	1768
3.04.2.3 Absorption of Solar Radiation	1769
3.04.2.4 Transmittance–Absorptance Product	1770
3.04.2.5 Absorbed Solar Energy	1771
3.04.3 Thermal Analysis	1772
3.04.3.1 Steady-State Energy Balance of FPC	1772
3.04.3.1.1 Radiation exchange between glazing and sky hrc−a	1773
3.04.3.1.2 Convection exchange between glazing and ambient hcc−a	1774
3.04.3.1.3 Radiation exchange between absorber and glazing hrp−c	1775
3.04.3.1.4 Convection exchange between absorber and cover hcp−c	1775
3.04.3.1.5 Conduction back and edge exchange between absorber and ambient	1775
3.04.3.1.6 Overall thermal loss determination qloss	1776
3.04.3.2 Solar Collector Top Heat Loss Coefficient Ut	1777
3.04.3.3 Useful Energy Transferred to the Working Fluid	1777
3.04.3.4 Collector Heat-Removal Factor	1781
3.04.4 Collector Performance Determination	1784
3.04.4.1 Collector Efficiency	1784
3.04.4.2 Incident Angle Modifier	1786
3.04.4.3 Determination of Effective Thermal Capacity	1788
References	1789
Low Concentration Ratio Solar Collectors	1792
3.05.1 Introduction	1793
3.05.1.1 Maximum Concentration Ratio	1793
3.05.2 Flat-Plate Collectors with Diffuse Reflectors	1794
3.05.3 Reverse Flat-Plate Collectors	1795
3.05.4 Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPC)	1796
3.05.4.1 Optical and Thermal Analysis of CPCs	1797
3.05.5 Concentrating Evacuated Tube Collectors	1801
3.05.6 Integrated Collector Storage Systems	1802
References	1805
High Concentration Solar Collectors	1808
3.06.1 Introduction	1810
3.06.2 General Considerations of High-Concentration Solar Collectors	1810
3.06.2.1 Basic Characteristics	1810
3.06.2.1.1 Components	1810
3.06.2.1.2 Characteristics	1810
3.06.2.1.2(i) Specular reflectivity	1810
3.06.2.1.2(ii) Shape accuracy	1810
3.06.2.2 Types	1811
3.06.2.2.1 Application	1811
3.06.2.2.2 Control	1811
3.06.2.3 System Determination of Performance	1811
3.06.2.3.1 Definition of efficiencies	1811
3.06.2.3.2 Sunshape	1811
3.06.2.4 Optical and Thermal Analysis of High-Concentration Solar Collector Systems	1812
3.06.2.4.1 Structure	1812
3.06.2.4.1(i) Geometry	1812
3.06.2.4.1(ii) Tracking accuracy	1812
3.06.2.4.2 Reflector	1812
3.06.2.4.2(i) Photogrammetry	1812
3.06.2.4.2(ii) Deflectometry	1813
3.06.2.4.2(iii) Reflectivity measurement	1813
3.06.2.4.2(iv) Laser	1814
3.06.2.4.2(v) Abrasion test	1814
3.06.2.4.3 Linear receiver	1815
3.06.2.4.3(i) Infrared light	1815
3.06.2.4.3(ii) Receiver reflection method	1815
3.06.2.4.3(iii) ParaScan	1815
3.06.2.4.3(iv) Vacuum hydrogen absorption	1816
3.06.2.4.3(iv)(a) Thermocouples	1816
3.06.2.4.3(v) Mass flow measurements	1816
3.06.2.4.3(vi) Further thermal tests (heat transport, pressure)	1816
3.06.2.4.4 Area receiver	1816
3.06.2.4.4(i) Luminance	1816
3.06.2.4.4(ii) Thermography	1816
3.06.2.4.4(iii) Infrared light	1817
3.06.2.4.4(iv) Absorber tests	1817
3.06.2.4.4(v) Moving bar, TCs	1817
3.06.2.4.4(vi) Mass flow measurements and thermal tests	1817
3.06.2.5 Operation and Maintenance	1817
3.06.2.5.1 Cleaning	1817
3.06.3 Parabolic Trough Collectors	1817
3.06.3.1 Introduction	1817
3.06.3.2 Basic Characteristics	1817
3.06.3.2.1 Structure	1817
3.06.3.2.2 Components	1818
3.06.3.2.3 Specific characteristics	1818
3.06.3.3 Types	1819
3.06.3.3.1 Size	1819
3.06.3.3.2 Material	1819
3.06.3.3.3 Heat transfer fluid	1819
3.06.3.3.4 Specific control components	1820
3.06.3.3.5 Drives	1820
3.06.3.3.6 Tracking system	1820
3.06.3.3.7 Diverse	1820
3.06.3.4 Construction and Installation	1821
3.06.3.4.1 Prefabrication	1821
3.06.3.4.2 In situ assembly	1821
3.06.3.4.3 Adjustment	1821
3.06.3.5 System-Specific Determination of Performance	1821
3.06.3.5.1 Definition of efficiencies	1821
3.06.3.5.2 Error sources	1821
3.06.3.6 Models of Collectors and Their Construction Details	1821
3.06.3.6.1 LS-1, LS-2, and LS-3	1821
3.06.3.6.2 EuroTrough	1822
3.06.3.6.3 Solargenix collector	1823
3.06.3.6.4 HelioTrough	1824
3.06.3.6.5 Ultimate Trough collector	1824
3.06.3.6.6 PT-1	1825
3.06.3.6.7 SkyTrough	1825
3.06.3.6.8 SenerTrough	1826
3.06.3.6.9 Research	1826
3.06.3.7 Solar Absorbers for PTCs	1826
3.06.3.7.1 The solar absorber of SCHOTT Solar	1826
3.06.3.7.2 The solar absorber of Siemens	1827
3.06.3.8 Operation and Maintenance	1827
3.06.3.8.1 Cleaning techniques	1827
3.06.3.8.2 Maintenance of HTF quality	1828
3.06.3.8.3 Replacement of parts	1828
3.06.3.8.4 Adjustment	1828
3.06.4 Central Receiver Systems	1828
3.06.4.1 Introduction	1828
3.06.4.2 Basic Characteristics	1828
3.06.4.2.1 Structure	1828
3.06.4.2.2 Components	1829
3.06.4.2.3 Specific characteristics	1829
3.06.4.3 Types	1829
3.06.4.3.1 Geometry of receiver aperture	1829
3.06.4.3.2 Heat transfer medium	1829
3.06.4.3.3 Receiver	1830
3.06.4.3.4 Tower construction	1830
3.06.4.3.5 Heliostat drives, kinematics, coupling, facets, mirror material, and foundation	1830
3.06.4.3.6 Specific control components	1830
3.06.4.3.7 Aim-point strategy	1830
3.06.4.4 System-Specific Determination of Performance	1830
3.06.4.4.1 Receiver efficiency and optical and thermal losses	1830
3.06.4.4.2 Heliostat loss mechanisms, tracking accuracy, and beam error	1831
3.06.4.5 Secondary Optics	1832
3.06.4.5.1 Tower reflector	1832
3.06.4.5.2 Secondary concentrators	1832
3.06.4.6 Models of Heliostats and Their Construction Details	1833
3.06.4.7 Receiver Types on the Market	1835
3.06.4.8 Operation and Maintenance	1838
3.06.4.8.1 Cleaning techniques	1838
3.06.4.8.2 Replacement of parts	1838
3.06.4.8.3 Adjustment	1838
3.06.5 Linear Fresnel Collectors	1838
3.06.5.1 Introduction	1838
3.06.5.2 Basic Characteristics	1838
3.06.5.2.1 Structure	1838
3.06.5.2.2 Components	1838
3.06.5.2.3 Specific characteristics	1838
3.06.5.3 Types	1839
3.06.5.3.1 Size	1839
3.06.5.3.2 Material	1839
3.06.5.3.3 Heat transfer fluid	1839
3.06.5.3.4 Specific operation control components	1839
3.06.5.3.5 Drives	1839
3.06.5.3.6 Tracking system	1839
3.06.5.4 System-Specific Determination of Performance	1839
3.06.5.4.1 Definition of efficiencies	1839
3.06.5.4.2 Error sources	1840
3.06.5.5 Models of Collectors and Their Construction Details	1840
3.06.5.5.1 Solar Power Group	1840
3.06.5.5.2 Solarmundo	1841
3.06.5.5.3 Ausra/Areva	1841
3.06.5.5.4 NOVATEC BioSol	1841
3.06.5.5.5 Mirroxx	1842
3.06.5.5.6 Research	1842
3.06.5.6 Operation and Maintenance	1842
3.06.5.6.1 Cleaning techniques	1842
3.06.5.6.2 Replacement of parts	1842
3.06.6 Solar Dish	1842
3.06.6.1 Introduction	1842
3.06.6.2 Basic Characteristics	1843
3.06.6.2.1 Structure	1843
3.06.6.2.2 Components	1843
3.06.6.2.3 Specific characteristics	1843
3.06.6.3 Types	1844
3.06.6.3.1 Geometry, material use, and surface characteristics of the concentrator	1844
3.06.6.3.2 Geometry of receiver aperture with Stirling device	1844
3.06.6.3.3 Characteristics of Stirling or Brayton engine	1844
3.06.6.3.4 Working gas	1845
3.06.6.4 System-Specific Determination of Performance	1845
3.06.6.4.1 Definition of efficiencies	1845
3.06.6.4.2 Error sources	1846
3.06.6.5 Models of Solar Dishes and Their Construction Details	1846
3.06.6.5.1 First models	1846
3.06.6.5.2 EuroDish	1846
3.06.6.5.3 Stirling Energy Systems	1847
3.06.6.5.4 SAIC and STM	1847
3.06.6.5.5 Infinia Solar System	1847
3.06.6.5.6 Others	1847
3.06.6.5.7 Research	1847
3.06.6.6 Operation and Maintenance	1848
3.06.6.6.1 Control system/diverse	1848
3.06.7 Criteria for the Choice of Technology	1848
3.06.7.1 Location	1848
3.06.7.2 Grid Capacity and Net System	1849
3.06.7.3 Local Cost Structure	1849
3.06.7.4 Country-Specific Subsidies, Feed-in Tariffs, and Environmental Laws	1849
References	1850
Thermal Energy Storage	1854
3.07.1 Introduction	1855
3.07.1.1 Definition of Thermal Energy Storage	1855
3.07.1.2 TES and Solar Energy	1856
3.07.1.3 Design of Storages	1856
3.07.1.4 Integration of Storages into Systems	1857
3.07.2 Methods for TES	1857
3.07.2.1 Sensible Heat	1857
3.07.2.1.1 Definition	1857
3.07.2.1.2 Air	1858
3.07.2.1.2.1 Thermal analysis of air systems	1859
3.07.2.1.3 Water	1859
3.07.2.1.3.1 Thermal analysis of water storage systems	1862
3.07.2.1.4 Other materials	1862
3.07.2.1.5 Underground thermal energy storage	1862
3.07.2.2 Latent Heat	1864
3.07.2.2.1 Definition	1864
3.07.2.2.2 Exergy analysis of a latent storage system	1865
3.07.2.3 Thermochemical Heat	1867
3.07.2.3.1 Definition	1867
3.07.2.3.2 Chemical reactions	1867
3.07.2.3.3 Sorption systems	1867
3.07.2.4 Comparison of Thermal Storage System Types	1870
3.07.3 Economics of TES	1870
3.07.3.1 TES and Energy Savings	1870
3.07.3.2 Thermoeconomics of TES	1871
3.07.4 Case Studies	1875
3.07.4.1 Combisystems	1875
3.07.4.2 BTES in a UK Office Building	1880
3.07.4.3 Molten Salts in High-Temperature Solar Power Plants	1882
3.07.4.4 Concrete and Other Solid Materials in High-Temperature Solar Power Plants	1885
3.07.4.5 PCM in Buildings as Passive Energy System	1886
3.07.4.6 PCM in Buildings as Active Energy System	1890
3.07.4.7 Seasonal Storage of Solar Energy	1891
3.07.4.8 Open Absorption Systems for Air Conditioning	1893
References	1896
Photovoltaic/Thermal Solar Collectors	1898
3.08.1 Introduction	1899
3.08.1.1 The Origins of PV/T Solar Energy Collectors	1899
3.08.1.2 Categorization of PV/T Collectors	1899
3.08.1.3 History of PV/T Collectors	1901
3.08.1.3.1 Early work on PV/T collectors	1901
3.08.1.3.2 The development of PV/T collectors	1901
3.08.2 Aspects of PV/T Collectors	1902
3.08.2.1 Electrical and Thermal Conversion of the Absorbed Solar Radiation	1902
3.08.2.2 The Effect of Illumination and Temperature to the Electrical Performance of Cells	1904
3.08.2.3 Design Principles of Flat-Plate PV/T Collectors	1906
3.08.2.4 Concentrating PV/T Collectors	1908
3.08.2.5 Aspects for CPVs	1910
3.08.2.6 Application Aspects of PV/T Collectors	1911
3.08.2.7 Economical and Environmental Aspects of PV/T Collectors	1912
3.08.3 PV/T Collector Performance	1912
3.08.3.1 PV/T Collector Analysis Principles	1912
3.08.3.2 Flat-Plate PV/T Collectors with Liquid Heat Recovery	1913
3.08.3.2.1 PV/T-water collector energy balance equations	1913
3.08.3.2.2 PV/T collector thermal losses	1914
3.08.3.2.3 The electrical part of the PV/T collector	1914
3.08.3.2.4 Thermal energy of PV/T collector	1914
3.08.3.2.5 Thermal energy of PV/T collector	1914
3.08.3.3 Flat-Plate PV/T Collectors with Air Heat Recovery	1914
3.08.3.3.1 PV/T-air collector energy balance equations	1915
3.08.3.3.2 Pressure drop	1915
3.08.3.3.3 Influence of geometrical and operational parameters	1916
3.08.3.4 PV/T-Air Collector in Natural Airflow	1917
3.08.3.4.1 Analysis of airflow rate	1917
3.08.3.4.2 Estimation of heat transfer coefficient, hc,and friction factor, f	1918
3.08.3.5 Design of Modified PV/T Systems	1919
3.08.3.6 Hybrid PV/T System Design Considerations	1920
3.08.3.6.1 PV/T collector efficiency test results	1921
3.08.3.7 Thermosiphonic PV/T Solar Water Heaters	1922
3.08.4 Application of PV/T Collectors	1923
3.08.4.1 Building Application Aspects	1923
3.08.4.1.1 PV/T collectors in the built environment	1923
3.08.4.1.2 The booster diffuse reflector concept	1924
3.08.4.2 PV/T Collectors Applied to Buildings	1925
3.08.4.2.1 PV/T-water collectors	1925
3.08.4.2.2 PV/T-air collectors	1928
3.08.4.3 The PVT/DUAL System Concept	1929
3.08.4.3.1 Modified PVT/DUAL systems	1929
3.08.4.4 PV/T–STC Combined Systems	1930
3.08.4.5 FRESNEL/PVT System for Solar Control of Buildings	1932
3.08.4.6 CPC/PVT Collector New Designs	1934
3.08.4.7 PV/T Collectors in Industry and Agriculture	1935
3.08.4.7.1 PV/T collectors in industry	1935
3.08.4.7.2 PV/T in agriculture	1937
3.08.4.7.3 PV/T collectors combined with other renewable energy sources	1938
3.08.4.7.4 Commercial PV/T collectors	1938
3.08.5 Epilog	1939
References	1939
Solar Selective Coatings	1944
3.09.1 Introduction	1944
3.09.1.1 Introductory Remarks and Definitions	1945
3.09.1.2 Definitions of Some Key Optical Properties	1946
3.09.2 Classes of Selective Absorbers	1947
3.09.2.1 Intrinsic Materials or Mass Absorbers – A Single Material Is Used Exhibiting the Desired Selectivity	1947
3.09.2.2 Tandem Stacks or Inverse Tandem Stacks of a Reflecting Surface and a Semiconductor on Top of It	1948
3.09.2.2.1 Some simple methods for the preparation of ‘tandem stacks’	1948
3.09.2.2.2 Silicon and/or germanium on proper base surfaces	1949
3.09.2.2.3 Inverse tandem stacks	1949
3.09.2.3 Multilayer Stacks (Interference Stacks)	1949
3.09.2.4 Metal Particles in a Dielectric or Metal Matrix (Cermets)	1950
3.09.2.5 Surface Roughness	1951
3.09.2.6 Quantum Size Effects	1952
3.09.3 Characterization of Selective Surfaces	1952
References	1953
Further Reading	1955
Glazings and Coatings	1956
3.10.1 Introduction	1958
3.10.1.1 Summary	1958
3.10.1.2 Historical Development of Glass Manufacture	1958
3.10.1.3 Modern Windows	1959
3.10.1.4 Emerging Technologies	1959
3.10.2 Thermal and Optical Properties of Glazing and Coatings	1959
3.10.2.1 General Considerations	1959
3.10.2.1.1 Solar irradiation	1959
3.10.2.1.2 Optical properties of a glazing	1960
3.10.2.1.3 Definitions of useful terms	1960
3.10.2.1.4 Basic laws for solar and thermal radiation	1961
3.10.2.2 Optical Analysis of Glazing and Coatings	1962
3.10.2.2.1 Basic laws for the refraction and transmission of radiation	1962
3.10.2.2.2 Combined absorption and reflection for total transmittance	1963
3.10.2.3 Thermal Properties	1964
3.10.2.3.1 Theoretical background	1964
3.10.2.3.2 Practical considerations	1965
3.10.2.3.3 Other useful terms	1965
3.10.3 Low-Emittance Coatings	1966
3.10.3.1 General Considerations	1966
3.10.3.2 Solar Control Versus Thermal Insulation	1966
3.10.3.3 Deposition Methods	1967
3.10.3.3.1 Thermal evaporation	1967
3.10.3.3.2 Electron beam gun evaporation	1967
3.10.3.3.3 Sputtering	1967
3.10.3.3.4 Chemical methods	1967
3.10.3.4 Types of Coatings	1968
3.10.3.4.1 Doped metal oxides	1968
3.10.3.4.2 Coatings with metal layers	1968
3.10.3.4.3 Use of interface layers	1970
3.10.3.4.4 Application of a chemically and mechanically resistant top layer	1970
3.10.3.4.5 Development of asymmetrical coatings	1970
3.10.3.4.6 Development of Ag-based coatings resistant to high temperatures	1970
3.10.3.4.7 Development of coatings with double Ag layers	1970
3.10.3.5 Conclusions – Resumé	1970
3.10.4 Glass and Windows	1970
3.10.4.1 Float Glass	1970
3.10.4.1.1 Manufacture	1971
3.10.4.2 Toughened Glass	1971
3.10.4.2.1 Manufacture and properties	1972
3.10.4.3 Use of Glass in Solar Collectors	1972
3.10.4.3.1 Light admittance	1972
3.10.4.3.2 Weather protection and heat loss suppression	1973
3.10.4.4 Windows in the Built Environment	1973
3.10.4.5 Single-Glazed Windows	1974
3.10.4.5.1 Clear single glazing	1974
3.10.4.5.2 Tinted single glazing	1974
3.10.4.5.3 Reflective single glazing	1974
3.10.4.5.4 Low-emittance single glazing	1974
3.10.4.5.5 Self-cleaning single glazing	1974
3.10.4.6 Multiple-Glazed Windows	1975
3.10.4.6.1 Double glazing	1975
3.10.4.6.2 Triple and quadruple glazing for ultrahigh thermal insulation	1976
3.10.4.7 Window Frames	1976
3.10.4.7.1 Aluminum	1976
3.10.4.7.2 Wood and wood composites	1976
3.10.4.7.3 Plastics (vinyl, fiberglass, thermoplastics)	1977
3.10.4.7.4 Hybrid	1977
3.10.4.7.5 Effect of frames on the window thermal properties	1977
3.10.4.8 Spacers and Sealants	1978
3.10.4.9 Emerging Technologies	1979
3.10.4.10 Conclusions – Epilogue	1979
3.10.5 Evacuated Glazing	1979
3.10.5.1 Operating Principles	1979
3.10.5.2 Technology and Related Problems	1979
3.10.5.3 The State of the Art	1980
3.10.5.4 Comparison with Conventional Glazing	1981
3.10.5.5 Electrochromic Evacuated Glazing	1981
3.10.5.6 Conclusions	1982
3.10.6 Transparent Insulation	1982
3.10.6.1 Historical Background	1982
3.10.6.2 Optical and Thermal Properties	1982
3.10.6.3 Types of Available Materials	1983
3.10.6.3.1 Granular aerogels	1983
3.10.6.3.2 Monolithic silica aerogel	1984
3.10.6.3.3 Glass capillary structures	1984
3.10.6.4 Conclusions	1985
3.10.7 Chromogenic Materials and Devices	1985
3.10.7.1 Introduction	1985
3.10.7.2 Electrochromics	1985
3.10.7.3 Electrochromic Devices: Principles of Operation and Coloration Mechanisms	1986
3.10.7.4 Materials for Electrochromic Devices	1987
3.10.7.4.1 Transparent electrical conductors	1987
3.10.7.4.2 Active electrochromic film	1987
3.10.7.4.2(i) Tungsten oxide	1987
3.10.7.4.2(ii) Molybdenum oxide	1988
3.10.7.4.2(iii) Prussian blue	1988
3.10.7.4.3 Ion storage and protective layers	1988
3.10.7.4.3(i) Vanadium pentoxide	1988
3.10.7.4.3(ii) Other IS materials	1989
3.10.7.4.4 Protective layers – magnesium fluoride	1989
3.10.7.5 Performance of a Typical EC Device	1989
3.10.7.6 Photoelectrochromics	1989
3.10.7.7 Gasochromics	1993
3.10.7.8 Thermochromics	1993
3.10.7.9 Metal Hydride Switchable Mirrors	1993
3.10.7.10 Other Switching Devices	1993
3.10.7.10.1 Suspended particle devices	1994
3.10.7.10.2 Polymer-dispersed liquid crystal devices	1994
3.10.7.10.3 Micro-blinds	1994
3.10.7.11 Conclusions – Epilogue	1994
References	1994
Further Reading	1997
Relevant Websites	1997
Modeling and Simulation of Passive and Active Solar Thermal Systems	2000
3.11.1 Introduction	2002
3.11.2 Passive Solar Design Techniques and Systems	2002
3.11.2.1 Direct-Gain Modeling	2004
3.11.2.1.1 Transient heat conduction and steady-periodic (frequency domain) solution	2005
3.11.2.1.1(i) Admittance transfer functions for walls	2007
3.11.2.1.1(i)(a) Analysis	2009
3.11.2.1.2 Building transient response analysis	2010
3.11.2.1.3 Simplified analytical direct-gain room model and solution (passive)	2012
3.11.2.1.3(i) Important design approximation	2016
3.11.2.1.3(ii) Source models	2016
3.11.2.1.3(iii) Periodic solution	2017
3.11.2.1.3(iv) Approximate design method for temperature swings	2017
3.11.2.1.3(v) Detailed frequency domain zone model and building transfer functions	2018
3.11.2.1.3(vi) Analysis of building transfer functions	2020
3.11.2.1.3(vi)(a) Results	2020
3.11.2.1.3(vii) Heating/cooling load and room temperature calculation	2021
3.11.2.1.3(viii) Discrete Fourier series method for simulation	2022
3.11.3 PV/T Systems and Building-Integrated Photovoltaic/Thermal (BIPV/T) Systems	2022
3.11.3.1 Integration of Solar Technologies into the Building Envelope and BIPV/T	2022
3.11.3.2 A Simplified Open-Loop PV/T Model	2024
3.11.3.3 Transient and Steady-State Models for Open-Loop Air-Based BIPV/T Systems	2024
3.11.3.3.1 Air temperature variation within the control volume	2026
3.11.3.3.2 Radiative heat transfer	2026
3.11.3.3.3 Inlet air temperature effects	2026
3.11.3.3.3(i) Electrical efficiency modeling	2027
3.11.3.4 Heat Removal Factor and Thermal Efficiency for Open-Loop BIPV/T Systems	2031
3.11.4 Near-Optimal Design of Low-Energy Solar Homes	2032
3.11.4.1 Envelope and Passive Solar Design	2033
3.11.4.1.1 HVAC and renewable energy systems	2034
3.11.4.2 Overview of the Design of Two Net-Zero Energy Solar Homes	2037
3.11.5 Active Solar Systems	2039
3.11.6 The f-Chart Method	2039
3.11.6.1 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems	2043
3.11.6.1.1 Storage capacity correction	2044
3.11.6.1.2 Collector flow rate correction	2044
3.11.6.1.3 Load heat exchanger size correction	2044
3.11.6.2 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems	2045
3.11.6.2.1 Pebble-bed storage size correction	2045
3.11.6.2.2 Airflow rate correction	2045
3.11.6.3 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems	2046
3.11.6.4 General Remarks	2046
3.11.7 Utilizability Method	2047
3.11.7.1 Hourly Utilizability	2047
3.11.7.2 Daily Utilizability	2049
3.11.7.3 Design of Active Systems with Utilizability Methods	2050
3.11.7.3.1 Hourly utilizability	2050
3.11.7.3.2 Daily utilizability	2051
3.11.8 The Φ¯, f-Chart Method	2051
3.11.8.1 Storage Tank Losses Correction	2053
3.11.8.2 Heat Exchanger Correction	2053
3.11.9 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems	2053
3.11.9.1 The F-Chart Program	2054
3.11.9.2 The TRNSYS Simulation Program	2054
3.11.9.3 WATSUN Simulation Program	2056
3.11.10 Limitations of Simulations	2058
References	2058
Solar Hot Water Heating Systems	2062
3.12.1 Toward a Sustainable Energy System	2062
3.12.1.1 Solar Heat – Renewable Energy Source with High Potential	2062
3.12.1.2 Solar Water Heating	2063
3.12.1.3 Solar Energy for Developing Countries	2065
3.12.1.4 Market Introduction and Market Deployment of Solar Thermal Systems	2065
3.12.1.5 Solar Heat Worldwide	2066
3.12.1.5.1 Distribution by application	2066
3.12.2 Technologies for Solar Hot Water Systems	2068
3.12.2.1 Components and Concepts	2069
3.12.2.1.1 Solar DHW systems with natural circulation	2069
3.12.2.1.2 Solar DHW systems with forced circulation	2069
3.12.2.2 Solar Thermal Collectors	2069
3.12.2.2.1 High-performance flat-plate collectors	2072
3.12.2.2.2 Properties of collectors	2073
3.12.2.2.3 Integration of solar collectors	2073
3.12.2.2.4 New developments in the collector sector	2074
3.12.2.3 The Collector Circuit	2074
3.12.2.3.1 Drain-back system	2076
3.12.2.4 Thermal Storage	2077
3.12.2.4.1 Water storage technology	2077
3.12.2.4.2 Advanced heat storage technologies	2078
3.12.2.5 Decentralized and Centralized Solar Thermal Systems	2078
3.12.2.6 Auxiliary Heat Sources	2079
3.12.2.7 Hygienic Aspects of Solar Hot Water Heaters	2080
3.12.3 Design Principles of Solar Thermal Systems	2081
3.12.3.1 Meteorological Conditions and Simulation Tools	2081
3.12.3.2 The Solar System	2083
3.12.3.3 Collector Orientation and Inclination	2084
3.12.3.4 Solar DHW Systems for Households and Single-Family Houses	2085
3.12.3.5 Solar DHW Systems for Apartment Houses	2086
3.12.3.6 Solar-Combined Heating Systems	2087
3.12.4 Summary and Conclusion	2088
References	2089
Solar Space Heating and Cooling Systems	2092
3.13.1 Active Systems	2092
3.13.1.1 Direct Circulation Systems	2092
3.13.1.2 Indirect Water Heating Systems	2093
3.13.1.3 Air--Water Heating Systems	2095
3.13.2 Space Heating and Service Hot Water	2096
3.13.2.1 Air Systems	2098
3.13.2.2 Water Systems	2099
3.13.2.3 Location of Auxiliary Source	2101
3.13.2.4 Heat Pump Systems	2102
3.13.3 Solar Cooling	2103
3.13.3.1 Solar Sorption Cooling	2104
3.13.3.2 Solar-Mechanical Systems	2105
3.13.3.3 Solar-Related Air Conditioning	2105
3.13.3.4 Adsorption Units	2106
3.13.3.5 Absorption Units	2107
3.13.3.6 Lithium–Water Absorption Systems	2108
3.13.3.6.1 Thermodynamic analysis	2109
3.13.3.6.2 Design of single-effect LiBr–H2O absorption systems	2113
3.13.3.7 Ammonia–Water Absorption Systems	2114
3.13.3.8 Solar Cooling with Absorption Refrigeration	2115
3.13.4 Heat Storage Systems	2116
3.13.4.1 Air Systems Thermal Storage	2117
3.13.4.2 Liquid Systems Thermal Storage	2117
3.13.5 Module and Array Design	2118
3.13.5.1 Module Design	2118
3.13.5.2 Array Design	2118
3.13.5.3 Heat Exchangers	2120
3.13.6 Differential Temperature Controller	2121
References	2122
Solar Cooling and Refrigeration Systems	2124
3.14.1 Introduction	2124
3.14.2 Solar-Powered Cooling	2124
3.14.3 Need for Solar-Powered Cooling	2124
3.14.4 Solar-Powered Cooling Technologies	2125
3.14.4.1 Desiccant Cooling System	2125
3.14.4.2 Solid Desiccant	2126
3.14.4.3 Liquid Desiccant	2126
3.14.4.4 Absorption Systems	2127
3.14.4.5 Adsorption Systems	2129
3.14.4.6 Ejector Systems	2132
3.14.4.7 Photovoltaic–Compression Systems	2132
3.14.5 Relative Comparison of Solar Cooling Technologies	2133
3.14.5.1 Solar Coefficient of Performance	2133
5.14.5.2 Capital Cost Comparison	2134
5.14.5.3 Life-Cycle Cost Comparison	2134
3.14.6 Application of Solar Cooling System	2135
3.14.7 Integration with Solar Hot Water and Solar Tthermal Systems for Cost-Effectiveness	2135
5.14.8 Conclusions	2136
References	2136
Solar-Assisted Heat Pumps	2138
3.15.1 Introduction to the Concept of Solar-Assisted Heat Pumps	2138
3.15.2 Heat Pump Fundamentals	2138
3.15.2.1 Principles of Heat Pump Operation	2138
3.15.2.2 Thermodynamic Cycles	2140
3.15.2.3 Classification of Heat Pumps	2144
3.15.2.4 Renewable Heat Sources	2145
3.15.3 Solar-Assisted Heat Pump System	2149
3.15.3.1 Classification, Configurations, and Functions	2149
3.15.3.2 Direct Solar-Assisted Heat Pump Systems	2150
3.15.3.3 Series Solar-Assisted Heat Pump Systems	2151
3.15.3.4 Parallel Solar-Assisted Heat Pump	2154
3.15.3.5 Dual-Source Solar-Assisted Heat Pump	2159
3.15.3.6 Other Configurations	2160
3.15.4 Solar-Assisted Heat Pump System with Seasonal Storage	2162
3.15.4.1 Fundamental Options of Seasonal Energy Storage	2162
3.15.4.2 Classification and Evaluation of Seasonal Ground Storage	2164
3.15.4.3 Heat and Mass Transfer in the Ground Store, General Consideration	2167
3.15.4.4 Applications	2168
References	2170
Solar Desalination	2172
3.16.1 Introduction	2172
3.16.2 Solar Thermal Desalination Systems	2173
3.16.3 Photovoltaics-Driven Desalination Systems	2179
3.16.4 Solar Stills	2184
3.16.5 Solar Humidification–Dehumidification	2185
3.16.6 Solar Membrane Distillation	2186
3.16.7 Technologies Selection Guidelines	2189
3.16.8 Solar Desalination Applications	2190
3.16.8.1 Solar Thermal MES Plant for Seawater Desalination, Abu Dhabi, UAE	2190
3.16.8.2 Solar Thermal MED Plant for Seawater Desalination, Almeria, Spain	2192
3.16.8.3 PV–RO Plant for Seawater Desalination, Lampedusa Island, Italy	2196
3.16.8.4 PV–RO Plant for Brackish Water Desalination, Ceara, Brazil	2199
3.16.8.5 PV–RO Plant for Seawater Desalination, Pozo Izquierdo, Gran Canaria Island	2201
3.16.8.6 PV Water Pumping RO for Brackish Water Desalination, Saudi Arabia	2201
3.16.8.7 PV–RO Brackish Water Desalination, Aqaba, Jordan	2203
3.16.9 Lessons Learned	2206
3.16.10 Economics	2207
3.16.11 Market	2207
3.16.12 Conclusions	2207
References	2208
Industrial and Agricultural Applications of Solar Heat	2210
3.17.1 Introduction	2211
3.17.2 Characteristics of Industrial and Agricultural Energy Use	2211
3.17.2.1 Application Temperatures	2211
3.17.2.2 Economics	2212
3.17.3 Selection of Appropriate Solar Collector and Energy Storage Technologies	2212
3.17.3.1 Collector Types	2212
3.17.3.2 Aperture Cover Materials	2213
3.17.3.3 Flat-Plate Absorbers	2214
3.17.3.4 Line-Axis Collectors	2214
3.17.3.5 Nonconvecting Solar Panels	2215
3.17.4 System Component Layouts	2216
3.17.4.1 Components	2216
3.17.4.2 Generic Solar Industrial Process Heat System Layouts	2216
3.17.4.3 Real Solar Industrial Process Heat Systems	2218
3.17.4.4 Operational Limits	2219
3.17.5 Solar Hot Water Industrial and Agricultural Process Heat System Design	2220
3.17.5.1 Conceptual Distinctions	2220
3.17.5.2 Design Methodologies	2221
3.17.6 Solar Drying Technologies	2222
3.17.6.1 Solar Drying Processes	2222
3.17.6.2 Solar Dryer Types	2223
3.17.6.3 Practical Issues in the Use of Solar Dryers	2225
3.17.6.3.1 Analysis of solar dryers	2225
3.17.7 Solar Furnaces	2228
3.17.8 Greenhouses	2229
3.17.8.1 Achieving a Desired Interior Microclimate	2229
3.17.8.2 Greenhouse Heating and Cooling	2229
3.17.9 Heating and Ventilation of Industrial and Agricultural Buildings	2230
3.17.9.1 Solar Air Heating	2230
3.17.9.2 Direct Solar Gain and Thermal Mass	2230
3.17.10 Solar Cooking	2231
3.17.10.1 Types of Solar Cooker	2231
3.17.10.2 Analysis of Solar Cookers	2232
3.17.11 Solar Desalination	2232
3.17.11.1 Solar Desalination Systems	2232
3.17.11.2 Passive Basin Stills	2234
3.17.12 Solar Refrigeration	2235
3.17.12.1 Types of Solar Refrigeration	2235
3.17.12.2 Uses of Solar Refrigeration	2235
Acknowledgments	2235
References	2236
Concentrating Solar Power	2238
3.18.1 Introduction	2239
3.18.2 General Principles of Concentrating Systems	2239
3.18.2.1 Concentration Effect	2239
3.18.2.2 Energy and Mass Balance	2240
3.18.2.3 Grid-Connected or Island Systems	2240
3.18.2.4 Recooling	2240
3.18.2.4.1 Closed-circuit recooling systems	2240
3.18.2.4.2 Wet cooling systems	2240
3.18.2.4.3 Mechanical draft cooling systems	2241
3.18.2.4.4 Natural draft cooling towers	2241
3.18.2.4.5 Hybrid cooling towers	2242
3.18.2.4.6 Fan-assisted natural draft cooling towers	2243
3.18.2.4.7 Air-driven condensers	2243
3.18.3 Power Conversion Systems	2243
3.18.3.1 Solar Only	2243
3.18.3.1.1 Steam cycles	2243
3.18.3.1.2 Organic Rankine cycles	2246
3.18.3.1.3 Gas turbines	2247
3.18.3.1.4 Solar dishes	2248
3.18.3.2 Increase in Operational Hours	2248
3.18.3.2.1 Hybridization	2248
3.18.3.2.1(i) Integrated solar combined cycle system	2249
3.18.3.2.1(i)(a) Preheating for fossil power plants	2250
3.18.3.2.1(i)(b) Gas engine	2250
3.18.3.2.1(i)(c) Burner	2250
3.18.3.2.1(i)(d) Gas turbine	2251
3.18.3.2.2 Storage	2252
3.18.3.2.2(i) Solid media	2252
3.18.3.2.2(ii) Organic media	2252
3.18.3.2.2(iii) Phase-change materials	2252
3.18.3.2.2(iv) Adiabatic pressurized air storage	2253
3.18.3.2.2(v) Others	2254
3.18.4 Cogeneration	2254
3.18.4.1 Solar Cooling	2254
3.18.4.1.1 Principles and technologies of solar cooling	2255
3.18.4.1.2 Thermally driven cooling systems	2255
3.18.4.1.3 Absorption chillers	2255
3.18.4.1.4 Adsorption chillers	2256
3.18.4.1.5 Best-practice examples for solar cooling	2256
3.18.4.1.6 State of the art of solar cooling	2257
3.18.4.1.7 Market expectations for solar cooling	2257
3.18.4.2 Desalination	2257
3.18.4.3 Off-Heat Usage	2258
3.18.5 Examples	2258
3.18.5.1 Commercial	2258
3.18.5.1.1 SEGS	2258
3.18.5.1.2 Andasol 1–3	2259
3.18.5.1.3 PS10, PS20	2260
3.18.5.1.4 STJ	2262
3.18.5.1.5 Nevada Solar One	2263
3.18.5.1.6 Sierra SunTower	2263
3.18.5.1.7 Dish farm California	2265
3.18.5.1.8 PE 1	2265
3.18.5.1.9 AORA	2265
3.18.5.1.10 Kimberlina solar thermal power plant	2266
3.18.5.1.11 Others/under construction	2266
3.18.5.1.11(i) Gemasolar	2266
3.18.5.2 Research	2267
3.18.5.2.1 Solar One	2267
3.18.5.2.2 Solar Two	2268
3.18.5.2.3 CESA-1	2269
3.18.5.2.4 DISS	2269
3.18.5.2.5 STJ	2270
3.18.5.2.6 SSPS	2270
3.18.5.2.7 Others	2270
3.18.5.2.7(i) Themis	2270
3.18.5.2.7(ii) Solar Research Facility Unit	2271
3.18.5.2.7(iii) EURELIOS	2271
3.18.5.2.7(iv) SEDC	2271
3.18.5.2.7(vi) CSIRO	2271
3.18.5.2.7(vii) Sunshine	2272
3.18.5.2.7(viii) SPP-5	2272
3.18.5.3 Studies	2272
3.18.5.3.1 GAST	2272
3.18.5.3.2 PHOEBUS	2272
3.18.6 Economical Aspects	2272
3.18.7 Environmental Aspects	2273
3.18.7.1 Emission	2273
3.18.7.2 Impact on Flora and Fauna	2273
3.18.7.3 Life Cycle Assessment	2273
3.18.8 Future Potential	2274
3.18.8.1 Desertec	2274
3.18.8.2 United States and Europe	2274
3.18.8.3 MENA Region	2277
3.18.8.4 Future Research Fields	2277
References	2277
Passive Solar Architecture	2280
3.19.1 Introduction	2280
3.19.1.1 Energy and Urbanization	2280
3.19.1.2 Solar Architecture – History and Concepts	2281
3.19.1.3 Solar Architecture – Comprehensive Design and Operation	2282
3.19.1.3.1 Passive solar heating	2282
3.19.1.3.2 Passive cooling	2285
3.19.2 Role of Solar Architecture in Urban Buildings	2287
3.19.2.1 Development of Cool-Colored Materials	2287
3.19.2.2 Use of Phase Change Materials to Enhance the Performance of Cool-Colored Coatings	2289
3.19.2.3 Development of Thermochromic Coatings	2291
3.19.2.4 Development and Testing of Colored Thin-Film Layers of Asphalt	2291
3.19.2.5 Green Spaces for Urban Buildings	2294
3.19.2.6 Discussion	2296
3.19.3 Control Systems for Solar Architecture	2297
3.19.3.1 Controlled Parameters and Control Variables in Passive Solar Architecture	2298
3.19.3.2 Control Strategies in Solar Architecture	2299
3.19.3.2.1 Conventional control for solar architecture	2299
3.19.3.2.2 Advanced control	2300
3.19.3.2.3 Intelligent systems	2302
3.19.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects	2306
References	2306
e9780080878720v4	2311
Cover\r	2311
Comprehensive Renewable Energy \r	2312
Copyright	2315
Editor-In-Chief \r	2316
Volume Editors\r	2318
Contributors For All Volumes	2322
Preface	2330
Contents	2334
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Technology - Introduction	2342
4.01.1 Introduction	32
4.01.2 Volume Introduction	34
4.01.3 Introduction to Basic Electrochemistry	34
4.01.4 Conclusions	35
References	35
Current Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells	2354
4.02.1 Space Applications of Hydrogen	2354
4.02.1.1 Space Propulsion	2354
4.02.1.2 Space Battery Power and Energy Storage – NiH2 Batteries	39
4.02.1.3 Astronaut Environmental Control and Life Support	39
4.02.1.4 Scientific Instrument Cooling	41
4.02.2 Space Applications of Fuel Cells	56
4.02.2.1 Gemini	57
4.02.2.2 Apollo	57
4.02.2.3 Space Shuttle	57
4.02.3 Other Current Uses of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells	57
4.02.3.1 Current Uses of Hydrogen	57
4.02.3.2 Current Uses of Fuel Cells	61
References	98
Hydrogen Economics and Policy	2386
4.03.1 Introduction	2387
4.03.2 The Hydrogen Energy Chain – Technological Characterizations and Economic Challenges	1490
4.03.2.1 Production	2389
4.03.2.2 Infrastructure	2393
4.03.2.3 Storage	2396
4.03.2.4 End-Use Technologies and Applications	2399
4.03.2.5 Conclusions on Economics	2405
4.03.3 Hydrogen within the Whole-Energy-System Context	2406
4.03.3.1 Effects of Transport Decarbonization on Low-Carbon Energy Resources	2406
4.03.3.2 Decarbonization of the Electricity Grid – Opportunities for Hydrogen	2407
4.03.3.3 Summary on Whole System Interactions	99
4.03.4 Developing Policies to Support Hydrogen	100
4.03.4.1 Policies in the Transport Sector	100
4.03.4.2 Policies in the Electricity Sector	101
4.03.4.3 Policies Relating to Fundamental Scientific Research	128
4.03.5 Conclusion	128
References	129
Further Reading	130
Relevant Websites	132
Hydrogen Safety Engineering: The State-of-the-Art and Future Progress	2418
4.04.1 Introduction	2419
4.04.2 Hazards Related to Hydrogen Properties	2422
4.04.3 Regulations, Codes, and Standards and Hydrogen Safety Engineering	2423
4.04.4 Unignited Releases of Hydrogen	2427
4.04.4.1 Momentum-Controlled Jets	2427
4.04.4.2 The Underexpanded Jet Theory	2430
4.04.4.3 Transition from Momentum- to Buoyancy-Controlled Flow within a Jet	2431
4.04.5 Hydrogen Fires	2432
4.04.5.1 Dimensional Flame Length Correlation	2432
4.04.5.2 The Nomogram for Flame Length Calculation	2365
4.04.5.3 Dimensionless Flame Length Correlation	2433
4.04.5.4 Separation Distance: Jet Flame Tip Location Compared to Lower Flammability Limit Location	2435
4.04.6 Pressure Effects of Hydrogen Unscheduled Releases	2436
4.04.6.1 Unignited Release in a Garage-Like Enclosure	2436
4.04.6.2 Delayed Ignition of Nonpremixed Turbulent Jets	2438
4.04.7 Deflagrations and Detonations	1242
4.04.8 Safety Strategies and Accident Mitigation Techniques	2442
4.04.8.1 Inherently Safer Design of Fuel Cell Systems	2442
4.04.8.2 Mitigation of Release Consequences	2443
4.04.8.3 Reduction of Separation Distances Informed by the Hydrogen Safety Engineering	2443
4.04.8.4 Mitigation by Barriers	2443
4.04.8.5 Mitigation of Deflagration-to-Detonation Transition	2444
4.04.8.6 Prevention of Deflagration-to-Detonation Transition within a Fuel Cell	2444
4.04.8.7 Detection and Hydrogen Sensors	2444
4.04.9 Future Progress and Development	2445
4.04.9.1 Release Phenomena	2445
4.04.9.2 Ignition Phenomena	2445
4.04.9.3 Hydrogen Fires	2445
4.04.9.4 Deflagrations and Detonations	2446
4.04.9.5 Storage	2446
4.04.9.6 High-Pressure Electrolyzers	2446
4.04.9.7 Hazard and Risk Identification and Analysis for Early Markets	2446
4.04.10 Conclusions	2446
Acknowledgments	2448
References	2448
Hydrogen Storage: Compressed Gas	2452
4.05.1 Introduction	2452
4.05.2 Containment Vessels	2452
4.05.3 Theory and Principles of Design	2453
4.05.3.1 Steel Vessels	2453
4.05.3.2 Composite Vessels	2457
4.05.4 Codes and Standards and Best Practices	2457
4.05.4.1 Storage Tanks	2458
4.05.4.2 Connectors – Joints and Fittings for Hydrogen	2243
4.05.4.3 Auxiliary Equipment	2464
4.05.4.4 Basic Safety Requirements When Installing Hydrogen Systems	2465
4.05.4.5 Codes and Standards	2468
4.05.4.6 Case Studies	2469
References	2476
Hydrogen Storage: Liquid and Chemical	2478
4.06.1 Introduction	2478
4.06.2 Physical Hydrogen Storage	2478
4.06.3 Metal Hydrides	2480
4.06.4 Chemical Hydrides	2480
4.06.4.1 Ammonia Borane	246
4.06.4.2 Amidoboranes and Derivatives	1307
4.06.5 Complex Hydrides	2488
4.06.5.1 Borohydrides	2488
4.06.5.2 Amide–Hydride Systems	2490
4.06.6 Pending Issues	201
References	2495
Alkaline Fuel Cells: Theory and Application	2500
4.07.1 Introduction	2501
4.07.2 General Principles and Fundamentals of Alkaline Cells	2501
4.07.2.1 Cathode Catalyst Materials	2503
4.07.2.2 Platinum Group Metal Catalysts	2503
4.07.2.3 Non-Platinum Group Metal Catalysts	2504
4.07.2.4 Cathodes Performance	2504
4.07.2.5 Anode Catalyst Materials	2504
4.07.3 Alkaline Fuel Cells Developed with Liquid Electrolytes	2506
4.07.3.1 Gas Diffusion Electrode for AFC	2506
4.07.3.2 Stack and System Design	2511
4.07.3.3 System Achievements	2513
4.07.4 Alkaline Fuel Cell Based on Anion Exchange Membranes	2516
4.07.4.1 Anion Exchange Membrane Chemistry and Challenges	2516
4.07.4.2 Review of the Main Classes of AEMs	2518
4.07.4.3 Ionomer Development/Membrane Electrode Assembly Fabrication	2519
4.07.4.4 Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Performance	2519
4.07.5 Conclusions	2522
References	2522
PEM Fuel Cells: Applications	2524
4.08.1 Introduction	2525
4.08.2 Features of the PEMFC	2526
4.08.2.1 Proton-Conducting Membranes	2526
4.08.2.2 Modified PFSA Membranes	2529
4.08.2.3 Alternative Sulfonated Membrane Materials	2529
4.08.2.4 Acid–Base Complex Membranes	2530
4.08.2.5 Ionic Liquid Membranes	2530
4.08.2.6 High-Temperature Proton Conductors	2530
4.08.3 Electrodes and Catalysts	2531
4.08.3.1 Anode Materials	2531
4.08.3.2 Cathode Materials	1961
4.08.3.3 Preparation and Physical Structure of the Catalyst Layers	2532
4.08.3.4 Gas Diffusion Layers and Stack Construction	2533
4.08.4 Humidification and Water Management	2535
4.08.4.1 Overview of the Problem	2535
4.08.4.2 Running PEMFCs without Extra Humidification (Air-Breathing Stacks)	2535
4.08.4.3 External Humidification	2536
4.08.5 Pressurized versus Air-Breathing Stacks	2538
4.08.5.1 Influence of Pressure on Cell Voltage	2538
4.08.5.2 Other Factors Affecting Choice of Pressure – Balance of Plant and System Design	365
4.08.6 Operating Temperature and Stack Cooling	405
4.08.6.1 Air-Breathing Systems	2540
4.6.06.2 Separate Reactant and Air or Water Cooling	2540
4.08.7 Applications for Small-Scale Portable Power Generation Markets (500W–5kW)	2541
4.08.7.1 Market Segment	2541
4.08.7.2 The Technologies	2546
4.08.8 Applications for Stationary Power and Cogeneration	129
4.08.8.1 Prospects for Stationary Fuel Cell Power Systems	2549
4.08.8.2 Technology Developers	130
4.08.8.3 System Design	2550
4.08.8.4 Cogeneration and Large-Scale Power Generation	133
4.08.9 Applications for Transport	134
4.08.9.1 The Outlook for Road Vehicles	134
4.08.9.2 Hybrids	134
4.08.9.3 PEMFCs and Alternative Fuels	136
4.08.9.4 Buses	137
4.08.9.5 Fuel Cell Road Vehicle Manufacturers	137
4.08.9.6 Planes, Boats, and Trains	228
4.08.10 Hydrogen Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Systems and the Role of PEMFCs	228
References	228
Further Reading	268
Relevant Websites	268
Prediction of Solar Irradiance and Photovoltaic Power	270
1.13.1 Introduction	271
1.13.2 Applications of Irradiance and PV Power Forecasts	272
1.13.2.1 Grid Integration of PV Power	272
1.13.2.2 Stand-Alone Systems and Small Networks	274
1.13.2.3 Other Applications	274
1.13.3 Models for the Prediction of Solar Irradiance and PV Power	274
1.13.3.1 Basic Steps in a Power Prediction System	275
1.13.3.2 Irradiance Forecasting	277
1.13.3.3 PV Power Forecasting	291
1.13.4 Concepts for Evaluation of Irradiance and Power Forecasts	296
1.13.4.1 Specification of Test Case	296
1.13.4.2 Graphical Analysis	296
1.13.4.3 Statistical Error Measures	297
1.13.4.4 Selection of Data for Evaluation and Normalization	298
1.13.4.5 Reference Forecasts	299
1.13.4.6 Skill Scores and Improvement Scores	300
1.13.4.7 Evaluation of Forecast Accuracy in Dependence on Meteorological and Climatological Conditions	300
1.13.4.8 Uncertainty Information	301
1.13.5 Evaluation and Comparison of Different Approaches for Irradiance Forecasting	302
1.13.5.1 Measurement Data	302
1.13.5.2 NWP-Based Forecasts	302
1.13.5.3 Results for NWP-Based Forecasting Approaches	304
1.13.5.4 Comparison of Satellite-Based Irradiance Forecasts with NWP-Based Forecasts	306
1.13.5.5 Summary and Outlook	308
1.13.6 Example of a Regional PV Power Prediction System	308
1.13.6.1 Measurement Data	310
1.13.6.2 Overview of the Power Prediction Scheme	311
1.13.6.3 Irradiance Forecasts	311
1.13.6.4 Power Forecasts	312
1.13.7 Summary and Outlook	319
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells: Theory and Application	2568
4.09.1 Introduction	2568
4.09.2 Carbonate Fuel Cell Chemistry and System Configuration	2569
4.09.3 Cell Stack and Power Plant Design	2570
4.09.4 Advantages of MCFC Power Plants	2572
4.09.5 Applications of MCFC Power Plants	2573
4.09.5.1 Self-Generation Applications	1648
4.09.5.2 Grid Support Applications	2574
4.09.5.3 Renewable MCFC Power Plant Applications	2576
4.09.6 Future Advanced MCFC Applications	2579
4.09.6.1 Hydrogen Production – DFC-H2 Concept	2579
4.09.6.2 Carbon Separation	2579
4.09.7 Conclusions	2580
References	2580
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Theory and Materials	2582
4.10.1 Introduction	2582
4.10.1.1 Fuel Cells	2583
4.10.1.2 Thermodynamics	2095
4.10.1.3 The Nernst Equation	2586
4.10.1.4 The SOFC	2587
4.10.1.5 SOFC Components	2587
4.10.1.5.1 Electrolyte	2587
4.10.1.5.2 Cathode	2588
4.10.1.5.3 Anode	2588
4.10.1.5.4 Interconnect	2589
4.10.1.6 Example Systems	555
4.10.2 Conclusion	2595
Acknowledgment	2596
References	2596
Biological and Microbial Fuel Cells	2598
4.11.1 Introduction	2598
4.11.2 Fuel Cells and Biological Fuel Cells	2599
4.11.2.1 Conventional Fuel Cells	2599
4.11.2.2 Biological Fuel Cells	2600
4.11.2.3 Enzymatic Fuel Cells	2600
4.11.2.4 Types of Biofuel Cells and Enzymes	2601
4.11.3 Microbial Fuel Cells	2365
4.11.3.1 Development of MFC	2606
4.11.3.2 Electricity Generation Mechanism in MFC	2606
4.11.3.3 Working Principles of MFC	2607
4.11.3.4 Mediatorless MFC	2608
4.11.3.5 Organic Matter Removal in MFC	2608
4.11.3.6 MFC Operating Conditions and Material Aspects	2609
4.11.3.7 Microbial Electrolysis	2614
4.11.4 Conclusions	2615
Acknowledgment	2616
References	2616
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in Transport	2622
4.12.1 Introduction	2622
4.12.2 Choice of Fuel Cell Technology	2343
4.12.3 Hydrogen Production, Usage, and Infrastructure	2624
4.12.4 Hydrogen Vehicles	2625
4.12.4.1 Forklifts	2625
4.12.4.2 Other Early Markets	2626
4.12.4.3 Buses	2627
4.12.4.4 Cars	2628
4.12.4.5 Ships	2630
4.12.4.6 Aircraft	2631
4.12.5 Legislation	2632
4.12.6 Conclusions	2633
References	2633
H2 and Fuel Cells as Controlled Renewables: FC Power Electronics	2636
4.13.1 Terrestrial Applications	2637
4.13.1.1 Low Carbon Energy Conversion	2637
4.13.2 Traditional Inverter Safe Operating Area	2638
4.13.2.1 General Approach	2638
4.13.2.2 Extending the Inverter SOA	2638
4.13.3 Enabling Poor Voltage Regulation Systems	2640
4.13.3.1 Multiswitch Voltage Source Inverter	2640
4.13.4 Analysis for 250kW Grid-Connected Fuel Cell	2641
4.13.4.1 A 250kW Grid-Connected Solid Oxide Fuel Cell	2641
4.13.4.2 Inverter Power Loss Analysis	2641
4.13.4.3 Buck Converter Power Loss Analysis	2642
4.13.4.4 Operating Point Power Loss Analysis	2643
4.13.5 Experimental Study of a Two-Switch MS-VSI	2644
4.13.5.1 Static Voltage Balancing	2644
4.13.5.2 Dynamic Voltage Balancing	2644
4.13.5.3 Laboratory Test Environment	2644
4.13.5.4 Implementation of Switch Voltage Balance and Gate-Drive Circuitry	2645
4.13.5.5 Commission of Voltage Balance Circuit	2646
4.13.5.6 H-Bridge Operation	2646
4.13.6 Summary	2646
4.13.7 Test Characterization of a H2 PEM Fuel Cell for Road Vehicle Applications	2648
4.13.7.1 Introduction	2648
4.13.7.2 MES-DEA PEMFCs	2649
4.13.7.3 Fuel Cell Test Facility	2651
4.13.7.4 Fuel Cell Test Characterization	2652
4.13.8 Summary	2656
4.13.9 A H2 PEM Fuel Cell and High Energy Dense Battery Hybrid Energy Source for an Urban Electric Vehicle	2658
4.13.9.1 Introduction	2658
4.13.9.2 Vehicle Energy and Power Requirements	2659
4.13.9.3 Fuel Cells for Transportation	2661
4.13.9.4 Fuel Cell Modeling	2661
4.13.9.5 Vehicle Traction Battery	2663
4.13.9.6 Vehicle Performance Evaluation	2665
4.13.10 Summary	2666
Appendix I Model Data and Component Specifications	2666
Appendix II Zebra Equivalent Circuit Model	2668
Acknowledgments	2669
References	2669
Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells	2672
4.14.1 Overview	2672
4.14.2 Why Hydrogen?	2673
4.14.3 Hydrogen for Transport	2674
4.14.4 Stationary Power	2675
4.14.5 The Efficiency Debate	2676
4.14.5.1 A Holistic Approach	2676
4.14.6 From Here to There	2678
4.14.7 Conclusions	2680
References	2680
Further Reading	428
Preface and Context to Hydrogen and Fuel Cells	2682
4.01.1 Introduction	2682
4.01.2 An Overview of This Volume	2685
4.01.2.1 Chapter 4.01: Introduction	2686
4.01.2.2 Chapter 4.02: Current Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells	2688
4.01.2.3 Chapter 4.03: Hydrogen Economics and Policy	2688
4.01.2.4 Chapter 4.04: Hydrogen Safety Engineering: The State-of-the-Art and Future Progress	2688
4.01.2.5 Chapter 4.05: Hydrogen Storage: Compressed Gas	2688
4.01.2.6 Chapter 4.06: Hydrogen Storage: Liquid and Chemical	2688
4.01.2.7 Chapter 4.07: Alkaline Fuel Cells: Theory and Application	2688
4.01.2.8 Chapter 4.08: PEM Fuel Cells: Applications	2688
4.01.2.9 Chapter 4.09: Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells: Theory and Application	1311
4.01.2.10 Chapter 4.10: Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Theory and Materials	2689
4.01.2.11 Chapter 4.11: Biological and Microbial Fuel Cells	2689
4.01.2.12 Chapter 4.12: Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in Transport	2689
4.01.2.13 Chapter 4.13: H2 and Fuel Cells as Controlled Renewables: FC Power Electronics	2689
4.01.2.14 Chapter 4.14: Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells	2689
4.01.3 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology – Supplementary Material	2689
4.01.3.1 Flow Cells or Regenerative Fuel Cells	2689
4.01.3.2 Hydrogen Production – Electrolysis	2691
4.01.3.3 Hydrogen Demonstration Units – State of the Art	2692
4.01.4 Introduction to Basic Electrochemistry	2698
4.01.4.1 Redox Reactions	2699
e9780080878720v5	2702
Cover\r	2702
Comprehensive Renewable Energy \r	2703
Copyright	2706
Editor-In-Chief	2707
Volume Editors	2709
Contributors For All Volumes	2713
Preface\r	2721
Contents\r	2725
Biomass and Biofuels -\r Introduction	2733
5.01.1 Background	2733
5.01.2 Basic Technology	2734
5.01.3 Widespread Deployment of Biomass and Biofuels	2735
5.01.3.1 Biodiesel	2735
5.01.3.2 Other Biofuels	2736
5.01.4 Issues, Constraints, and Limitations	2736
5.01.5 Technology Solutions – New Processes	2737
5.01.5.1 Anaerobic Digestion	2737
5.01.5.2 Advanced Biofuel Processes	2738
5.01.6 Technology Solutions – New Feedstocks	2738
5.01.6.1 Algae	2738
5.01.6.2 Other Options for Increasing Feedstock Availability	2739
5.01.7 Expanding the Envelope	2739
5.01.8 Recent Developments	2740
5.01.9 The Way Forward for Biomass and Biofuels	2741
References	2741
Historical Perspectives on Biofuels	2743
5.02.1 Introduction	2743
5.02.2 Early Engine Developments	2743
5.02.3 Ethanol	2743
5.02.4 Vegetable Oil-Based Fuels	2744
Conclusion	2745
References	2746
Bioethanol Development in Brazil	2747
5.03.1 Background	2747
5.03.1.1 Ethanol from Sugarcane: A Brief History	2747
5.03.1.2 The Brazilian Sugarcane Industry: An Overview	2748
5.03.1.3 Sugarcane Ethanol in Brazil	2748
5.03.1.4 Foreign Presence	2749
5.03.2 Continuing Industry Growth	2749
5.03.2.1 Key Drivers: Flex-Fuel Vehicles and Mandatory Blending	2749
5.03.2.2 Best Agricultural and Environmental Practices	2750
5.03.2.3 Additional Uses of Bioethanol	2750
5.03.2.4 Brazilian Ethanol: A Low-Carbon Solution	2751
5.03.2.5 Sugar Production and Sugar Trade	2751
5.03.2.6 Bioelectricity: From Self-Sufficiency to New Product	2752
5.03.2.7 A Clean Energy Matrix	2752
5.03.3 Social and Environmental Responsibility	2753
5.03.3.1 Competitive Advantages	2753
5.03.3.2 Sugarcane in the Amazon and Other Myths	2753
5.03.3.3 ‘Food versus Fuel’ in Brazil	2754
5.03.3.4 The ‘Green Protocol’ to End Sugarcane Burning	2754
5.03.3.5 Ensuring Employability of Displaced Workers	2754
5.03.3.6 Work Conditions and Social Responsibility	2755
5.03.3.7 The ‘National Commitment’ on Labor Practices	2755
5.03.4 Looking to the Future	2756
5.03.4.1 About UNICA	2757
5.03.4.2 Mission	2757
5.03.4.3 Priorities	2757
5.03.4.4 Strategies	2758
References	2758
Biomass Power Generation	2759
5.04.1 Why Is There a Trend to Build Stand-Alone Biomass Power Plants?	2760
5.04.2 Is Biomass Power Generation Sustainable?	2760
5.04.3 Life-Cycle Analysis	2761
5.04.4 How Does Biomass Power Generation Pay?	2761
5.04.5 Legislation and Regulation	2763
5.04.5.1 Emission Limits	2763
5.04.6 What Technology Choices Are Available?	2764
5.04.6.1 Technology Development	2764
5.04.6.2 Fixed and Moving Grates	2765
5.04.6.3 Suspension Firing	2765
5.04.6.4 Fluidized Beds	2766
5.04.6.5 Gasification	2769
5.04.7 Potential Biofuels	2769
5.04.7.1 Solid Biofuels	2769
5.04.7.2 Liquid Biofuels for Power Generation/Combined Heat and Power	2771
5.04.8 Health and Safety	2772
5.04.8.1 Personnel Issues	2772
5.04.8.2 Process Safety	2773
5.04.9 Material Handling and Fuel Processing	2775
5.04.9.1 Bulk Density	2775
5.04.9.2 Storing Biomass	2775
5.04.9.3 Fuel Preparation	2776
5.04.10 Combustion	2779
5.04.10.1 Principles of Combustion	2779
5.04.10.2 Practicalities	2779
5.04.10.3 Unburnt Carbon and Carbon Monoxide	2781
5.04.10.4 Impact of Biomass Combustion	2781
5.04.11 Environmental Impact	2783
5.04.11.1 Gaseous Emissions	2783
5.04.11.2 Solid Residuals	2783
5.04.12 Conclusions	2784
References	2784
Biomass Co-Firing	2787
5.05.1 Introduction	2788
5.05.1.1 Global Trend	2788
5.05.1.2 Challenges Facing the Power Industry	2789
5.05.2 Available Biomass Materials	2789
5.05.2.1 Wood-Based Fuels	2789
5.05.2.2 Energy Crops	2789
5.05.2.3 Agricultural Residues	2790
5.05.2.4 Processed Wood (Wood Pellets and Torrefied Wood)	2791
5.05.2.5 Liquid Biomass	2792
5.05.2.6 Gaseous Biomass	2793
5.05.3 Combustion Technology	2793
5.05.3.1 Pulverized Coal Combustion	2793
5.05.3.2 Fluidized Bed Combustion	2793
5.05.3.3 Stoker Combustion	2793
5.05.3.4 Cyclone Boilers	2794
5.05.3.5 Gasification	2794
5.05.3.6 Gasification Techniques	2794
5.05.4 Co-firing Methods	2795
5.05.4.1 Direct Co-firing	2795
5.05.4.2 Parallel Co-firing	2796
5.05.4.3 Indirect Co-firing	2796
5.05.5 Global Overview of Biomass Co-firing Plant	2796
5.05.5.1 United States	2796
5.05.5.2 Netherlands	2797
5.05.5.3 United Kingdom	2798
5.05.6 Health and Safety Issues Associated with Co-firing	2800
5.05.6.1 Spontaneous Fires	2800
5.05.6.2 Exposure to Biomass and Coal Dust	2801
5.05.7 Technical Issues regarding Biomass Co-firing	2801
5.05.7.1 Fuel Delivery, Storage, and Preparation	2802
5.05.7.2 Supply of Biomass	2802
5.05.7.3 Properties of Biomass and Their Effects on Plant Operations	2802
5.05.8 Conclusions	2804
References	2804
Further Reading	2805
A Global Bioenergy Market	2807
5.06.1 Bioenergy	2807
5.06.1.1 A Note on Bioenergy Policy Measures	2807
5.06.2 Biofuels, Biomass, and Bioenergy: Definitions	2808
5.06.3 Limitations	2808
5.06.4 Bioenergy Markets and Trade	2809
5.06.4.1 Wood Fuels	2809
5.06.4.2 Liquid Biofuels	2811
5.06.5 A Global Bioenergy Market? The Extent of Bioenergy Markets	2811
5.06.5.1 Energy Market Integration in General	2812
5.06.5.2 Bioenergy Market Integration	2813
5.06.6 Barriers to Bioenergy Trade	2813
5.06.6.1 Import Tariffs, Export Subsidies, and the Like	2813
5.06.6.2 Nonexplicit Trade Barriers	2814
5.06.7 Discussion: The Future of Bioenergy Trade	2814
References	2815
Biomass CHP Energy Systems: A Critical Assessment	2819
5.07.1 Introduction	2819
5.07.2 Biomass CHP Options	2820
5.07.2.1 Combustion	2821
5.07.2.2 Gasification	2821
5.07.2.3 Summary of Technology Properties	2822
5.07.3 Bioenergy System Aspects	2822
5.07.3.1 Biomass Markets and CO2 Effects	2823
5.07.3.2 Biomass Competition between Sectors	2824
5.07.4 Biomass CHP Technology System Aspects	2825
5.07.4.1 Competitiveness of Biomass CHP Options	2826
5.07.4.2 Scale Effects of Biomass CHP	2827
5.07.5 Concluding Remarks	2828
References	2829
Relevant Websites	2829
Ethics of Biofuel Production	2831
5.08.1 Introduction	2831
5.08.2 A Model for Sustainability Management Systems	2831
5.08.3 RTFO	2835
5.08.4 RED	2835
5.08.5 ISCC	2836
5.08.6 RSB	2836
5.08.7 RSPO	2836
5.08.8 RTRS	2837
5.08.9 CEN Standard on Biomass for Transport Biofuels	2837
5.08.10 ISO Standard on Biomass for Energy	2837
5.08.11 Various Standards in the Retail Sector	2838
5.08.12 International Labor Laws	2838
5.08.13 Indirect Land Use Change	2839
5.08.14 Conclusions	2839
References	2839
Life Cycle Analysis Perspective on Greenhouse Gas Savings	2841
5.09.1 Biofuel Potential	2841
5.09.2 Life Cycle Assessment	2842
5.09.3 Net Energy Balances for Biofuels	2846
5.09.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Results	2847
5.09.5 Land Use Change	2849
5.09.6 Direct Land Use Change	2849
5.09.7 Indirect Land Use Change	2852
5.09.8 Soil Nitrous Oxide Emissions	2853
5.09.9 Sources of Processing Energy	2855
5.09.10 Coproducts	2858
5.09.11 Future Biofuel Technologies	2859
5.09.12 Conclusions and Recommendations	2862
References	2862
Biomass Gasification and Pyrolysis	2865
5.10.1 Introduction	2866
5.10.2 Historical Development	2866
5.10.3 Basic Gasification Technology	2867
5.10.4 Gasifier Designs	2868
5.10.4.1 Fixed Bed	2868
5.10.4.2 Fluidized Bed	2869
5.10.4.3 Entrained Flow	2870
5.10.4.4 Plasma	2871
5.10.4.5 Choice of Oxidant	2871
5.10.5 Gasifier Feedstock Supply	2871
5.10.5.1 Waste Biomass Feedstocks	2872
5.10.5.2 Virgin Biomass Feedstocks	2873
5.10.5.3 Typical Fuel Characteristics and Key Contaminants	2873
5.10.5.4 Feedstock Reception and Handling	2874
5.10.6 Gas Processing	2874
5.10.6.1 Contaminants and Their Impacts	2874
5.10.6.2 Gas Cleaning Technologies	2877
5.10.7 Overview of Gasification Technology Options	2879
5.10.8 Pyrolysis	2880
5.10.9 Case Studies	2881
5.10.9.1 Entrained Flow Gasifier	2881
5.10.9.2 Fluidized Bed Gasifiers	2881
5.10.9.3 Fixed Bed	2882
5.10.9.4 Plasma	2883
5.10.10 Recent and Future Developments	2883
5.10.11 Further Reading	2884
References	2884
Biomass to Liquids Technology	2887
5.11.1 Introduction	2888
5.11.1.1 Biofuels Drivers and Issues	2889
5.11.2 The BtL Process	2891
5.11.3 A Brief History of FT	2892
5.11.4 Steps in Biomass Conversion to Liquids via FT	2894
5.11.4.1 Feedstock Preparation and Pretreatment	2894
5.11.4.2 Gasifiers for FT	2900
5.11.4.3 Syngas Cleanup for FT	2904
5.11.4.4 Syngas Conditioning for FT	2909
5.11.4.5 FT Process	2909
5.11.5 Alternative BtL Fuel Options	2915
5.11.5.1 Methanol	2915
5.11.5.2 Dimethyl Ether	2916
5.11.5.3 Gasoline	2917
5.11.5.4 Mixed Alcohols (via Catalysts)	2917
5.11.5.5 Alcohols (via Fermentation)	2918
5.11.5.6 Hydrogen and BioSNG	2918
5.11.5.7 Summary	2919
5.11.6 Timescales and Development of BtL Processes	2919
5.11.7 BtL Implementation Progress	2920
5.11.7.1 BioMCN	2921
5.11.7.2 Enerkem	2922
5.11.7.3 Choren	2922
5.11.7.4 Range Fuels	2922
5.11.7.5 INEOS Bio	2922
5.11.7.6 NSE Biofuels	2923
5.11.7.7 Chemrec	2923
5.11.7.8 Summary	2923
5.11.8 Outline of BtL Economics	2923
5.11.8.1 Capital Costs	2923
5.11.8.2 Feedstock Cost Analysis	2926
5.11.8.3 Economies of Scale	2928
5.11.8.4 Summary	2928
5.11.9 Environmental Issues	2929
5.11.9.1 GHG Savings	2929
5.11.9.2 Comparative Technology GHG Saving Effectiveness	2932
5.11.9.3 Comparative Land Use Effectiveness	2932
5.11.9.4 Summary	2933
5.11.10 Summary and Outlook	2935
References	2936
Further Reading	2936
Relevant Websites	2936
Intensification of Biofuel Production	2937
5.12.1 Biodiesel	2937
5.12.1.1 Introduction: The Biodiesel Reaction	2937
5.12.1.2 A Generic Biodiesel Flowsheet	2938
5.12.1.3 Reactors	2938
5.12.1.4 GRP/BRP Separation	2941
5.12.1.5 Other Downstream Processing Steps	2941
5.12.2 Bioethanol	2942
5.12.2.1 Ethanol Dehydration	2942
5.12.2.2 Integrating Alcohol Removal with Fermentation	2944
References	2946
Biofuels from Waste Materials	2949
5.13.1 Introduction	2950
5.13.2 Biodiesel Production from WVO	2950
5.13.2.1 The Significance of Producing Biodiesel from WVO	2950
5.13.2.2 Challenges Facing Biodiesel Production from WVO	2951
5.13.2.3 Quality of WVO-Based Biodiesel	2957
5.13.3 Summary: Biodiesel from Waste	2960
5.13.4 Bioethanol Production from LCWs	2960
5.13.4.1 Significance of Producing Bioethanol from LCWs	2960
5.13.4.2 Sources of LC Biomass	2963
5.13.4.3 LC Biomass Recalcitrance	2963
5.13.4.4 Factors Limiting LC Biomass Digestibility	2964
5.13.4.5 Production of Ethanol from LCWs	2965
5.13.4.6 Challenges to Bioethanol Production from Lignocellulose	2966
5.13.4.7 Pretreatment Processes	2966
5.13.4.8 Saccharification and Fermentation	2980
5.13.4.9 Consolidated Bioprocessing	2982
5.13.5 Summary: Bioethanol from Waste	2982
References	2982
Woody Biomass	2995
5.14.1 Introduction	2996
5.14.2 Novel Short-Rotation Woody Crops/Short-Rotation Forestry for Bioenergy Applications	2996
5.14.2.1 Woody Coppice Production and Harvesting	2996
5.14.2.2 Single-Stem Hardwoods	3000
5.14.2.3 Single-Stem Softwoods	3006
5.14.2.4 Single-Stem Harvest and Handling	3008
5.14.2.5 Comparison of Production Inputs and Costs for Poplar, Pine, Eucalypts, and Willow Biomass	3009
5.14.2.6 Projections of Energy Crop Supply: A Methodology and US Results	3010
5.14.2.7 Sustainability of Short-Rotation Woody Crops/Short-Rotation Forestry	3013
5.14.3 Forestland-Derived Resources	3014
5.14.3.1 Primary Forest Residues	3015
5.14.3.2 Fuelwood	3018
5.14.3.3 Wood Processing Residues	3018
5.14.3.4 Urban Wood Residues	3018
5.14.4 Conclusions	3019
References	3020
Further Reading	3023
Relevant Websites	3023
Potential for Yield Improvement	3025
5.15.1 Introduction	3025
5.15.2 History of Oilseed Rape Production	3025
5.15.3 Yield Potential	3028
5.15.4 Genetic Constraint to Yield Improvement	3031
5.15.5 Crop Management Constraint to Yield Improvement	3031
5.15.6 Genetic Approaches	3032
5.15.7 Conclusions	3033
References	3034
Further Reading	3035
Renewable Fuels: An Automotive Perspective	3037
5.16.1 Introduction	3037
5.16.1.1 Causes for Concern	3037
5.16.1.2 What Are the Options?	3039
5.16.2 Competing Transport Energy Carriers	3040
5.16.2.1 Electrification of the Vehicle Fleet	3040
5.16.2.2 Hydrogen	3042
5.16.2.3 Biofuels	3045
5.16.3 Alcohol as Fuels for ICEs	3048
5.16.3.1 Physicochemical Properties	3049
5.16.3.2 Low-Carbon-Number Alcohols as Fuels for SI Engines	3051
5.16.3.3 Low-Carbon-Number Alcohols as Fuels for Compression-Ignition Engines	3054
5.16.3.4 Safety Aspects of Alcohol Fuels	3055
5.16.4 The Biomass Limit and Beyond	3059
5.16.4.1 The Biomass Limit	3059
5.16.4.2 Beyond the Biomass Limit – Electrofuels	3060
5.16.5 Technologies to Increase the Use of Alcohols in the Vehicle Fleet	3064
5.16.5.1 Tri-Flex-Fuel Vehicles	3064
5.16.5.2 Ternary Blends to Extend the Displacement of Gasoline by Alcohols	3065
5.16.6 Sustainable Organic Fuels for Transport	3067
5.16.7 Conclusions	3070
References	3070
Further Reading	3074
Use of Biofuels in a Range of Engine Configurations	3075
5.17.1 Introduction	3075
5.17.2 Biofuel Blends with Fossil Fuels for Transport Use	3075
5.17.2.1 Ethanol–Diesel Blends	3076
5.17.3 Engine Modifications for Biofuel Operation	3078
5.17.3.1 Petrol (Gasoline) Engines	3078
5.17.3.2 Diesel Engines	3079
5.17.4 Biofuels and Bio-Oils in Stationary Engines	3080
5.17.4.1 Biodiesel/Fossil Diesel Blends	3080
5.17.4.2 Straight Vegetable Oils	3081
5.17.5 Dual Fuel Operation	3081
5.17.5.1 Fuels and Fuel Properties	3082
5.17.5.2 The Dual Fuel Combustion Process	3082
5.17.5.3 Reported Operational Experience on Dual Fuel Stationary Engines	3082
5.17.5.4 Combustion Improvement in Dual Fuel Engines Running on Straight Vegetable Oil	3083
5.17.5.5 Utilization of Biomass-Derived Gaseous Fuels in Stationary Engines	3083
5.17.6 Conclusions	3086
References	3086
Biochar	3089
5.18.1 Introduction	3089
5.18.2 Archaeology and Soil Fertility Beginnings	3090
5.18.2.1 Soil Organic Matter	3090
5.18.2.2 Terra Preta	3091
5.18.3 A New Focus: Carbon Sequestration	3092
5.18.3.1 The Global Carbon Cycle	3094
5.18.3.2 Black Carbons	3094
5.18.3.3 Carbon Sequestration Potential of Biochar	3096
5.18.3.4 Half-Life of Biochar in Soils	3096
5.18.3.5 Efforts to Encourage the Adoption of Biochar into Agricultural Practices	3097
5.18.4 Biochar Sources	3098
5.18.4.1 Slow Pyrolysis and Traditional Charcoal Making	3098
5.18.4.2 Torrefaction and Feedstock Pretreatment	3100
5.18.4.3 Fast Pyrolysis and Bio-Oil	3100
5.18.4.4 Flash Pyrolysis and the Effects of Pressure	3102
5.18.4.5 Gasification and Syngas	3103
5.18.4.6 Biochar as a Coproduct	3103
5.18.5 Biochar Properties	3104
5.18.5.1 Biochar Composition	3104
5.18.5.2 Physical Properties	3105
5.18.5.3 Chemical Properties	3106
5.18.5.4 Biochar Engineering	3109
5.18.6 Promising Biochar Scenarios and Synergies	3110
5.18.6.1 Bioenergy and Biochar Coproduction	3111
5.18.6.2 Farming Impacts	3111
5.18.6.3 Site Remediation	3112
5.18.6.4 Developing Countries	3112
5.18.7 Challenges to Applying Biochar	3114
5.18.7.1 Economics of Alternative Uses	3114
5.18.7.2 Handling	3114
5.18.7.3 Potential Soil/Crop Drawbacks	3115
5.18.8 Future Progress and Development	3116
References	3116
Further Reading	3116
Relevant Websites	3116
Extracting Additional Value from Biomass	3117
5.19.1 Introduction	3117
5.19.2 The Current Position	3119
5.19.3 Future Development – Background	3121
5.19.4 The Future: Extending the Envelope by Exploiting Higher Value Metabolites	3122
5.19.5 Conclusion	3124
References	3125
Further Reading	3125
Relevant Website	3125
Biomass to Chemicals	3127
5.20.1 Introduction	3127
5.20.2 Biodiesel: Conversion of Glycerine Coproduct and Other Side Streams	3128
5.20.2.1 Introduction	3128
5.20.2.2 Biodiesel Production without the By-Product Glycerol	3128
5.20.2.3 Increasing the Value of Glycerol	3128
5.20.2.4 Chemicals from Glycerol	3130
5.20.3 Fuels from Fermentation Processes: Use of Biomass Raw Material, Fuel Production Intermediates, andCoproducts for Chemical Production	3132
5.20.3.1 Lignocellulosic Feedstocks for Chemical Production	3132
5.20.3.2 Lignin: Depolymerization or Direct Use?	3133
5.20.4 Use of Bio-Alcohols as Chemicals and Chemical Intermediates	3136
5.20.4.1 Ethyl Acetate	3137
5.20.4.2 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	3137
5.20.4.3 Hydrogen	3138
5.20.4.4 Ethanol Fuel Cells	3138
5.20.5 Biochar (Solid Biofuel): Chemicals from Pyrolysis Oil	3138
5.20.5.1 Comparison of Major Techniques	3138
5.20.5.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons	3139
5.20.5.3 Fabricated Microwave Pyrolysis	3139
5.20.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects	3140
References	3141
Bioenergy Policy Development	3143
5.21.1 Introduction	3144
5.21.1.1 Greenhouse Gas Reductions: A Complicated Policy Driver	3144
5.21.1.2 Bioenergy Potential	3145
5.21.1.3 Unique Attributes of Biomass and Supply Chains	3146
5.21.2 Bioenergy Policy Development	3147
5.21.2.1 Achieving GHG Reductions with Biomass: A Key Policy Objective	3147
5.21.2.2 Achieving Sustainable Development with Bioenergy: Key Policy Objectives	3148
5.21.2.3 The Role of Energy Markets	3150
5.21.2.4 Correcting Market Failures	3150
5.21.2.5 Environmental Policy Options	3151
5.21.2.6 The Role of Markets in Ensuring Economic Efficiency	3156
5.21.2.7 Scale of Impacts and Nonfinancial Barriers	3156
5.21.3 Application of Environmental Policy Options to Bioenergy	3158
5.21.3.1 Historical Bioenergy Policy Development	3158
5.21.3.2 A Multidimensional Problem	3159
5.21.3.3 Attempts to Address the Problem	3159
5.21.4 A Way Forward	3159
5.21.4.1 The Need for a Holistic Approach	3159
5.21.4.2 Land-Use Challenges	3160
5.21.4.3 Biomass Action Plans	3160
5.21.5 Conclusions	3160
References	3161
Further Reading	3161
e9780080878720v6	3163
Cover\r	3163
Comprehensive Renewable Energy\r	3164
Copyright	3167
Editor-In-Chief \r	3168
Volume Editors	3170
Contributors For All Volumes	3174
Preface	3182
Contents	3186
Hydro Power -\r Introduction	3194
6.01.1 Introduction	3194
6.01.2 Hydroelectricity Progress and Development	3197
6.01.2.1 Key Features of Hydroelectric Power	3199
6.01.2.2 Hydropower Development	3202
6.01.3 Volume Presentation	3205
6.01.3.1 Contributions and Authors, Affiliations of Volume 6	3207
References	3207
Hydro Power: A Multi Benefit Solution for Renewable Energy	3208
6.02.1 Introduction	3209
6.02.2 How Hydropower Works	3209
6.02.2.1 Characteristics of Hydropower Plants	3209
6.02.2.2 Types of Turbines	3217
6.02.2.3 Types of Dams	3221
6.02.3 History of Hydropower	3224
6.02.3.1 Historical Background	3224
6.02.3.2 Hydro Energy and Other Primary Energies	3226
6.02.3.3 World Examples	3226
6.02.4 Hydropower Development in a Multipurpose Setting	3231
6.02.4.1 Benefits of Hydropower	3231
6.02.5 Negative Attributes of Hydropower Project	3234
6.02.6 Renewable Electricity Production	3235
6.02.6.1 Recall	3235
6.02.6.2 Sources of Renewable Electricity Energy	3235
6.02.6.3 Characteristics of Renewable Energy Sources	3235
6.02.6.4 Distribution per Region of the Percentage of Hydroelectricity and Renewable Non-Hydroelectricity Generation intheWorld	3236
6.02.6.5 Findings about Renewable Electricity Production	3237
6.02.7 Conclusion	3238
Further Reading	3239
Management of Hydropower Impacts through Construction andOperation	3242
6.03.1 Introduction	3243
6.03.1.1 Background	3243
6.03.1.2 Upstream Impacts	3246
6.03.1.3 Downstream Impacts	3249
6.03.2 Reservoir Water Quality	3251
6.03.2.1 Introduction	3251
6.03.2.2 General Characteristics of Reservoirs	3252
6.03.2.3 Water Quality Processes – Eutrophication and Oxygenation	3254
6.03.2.4 Water Quality Parameters	3257
6.03.2.5 Nutrient Dynamics	3259
6.03.2.6 Overview of Water Quality Models of a Reservoir	3260
6.03.2.7 Lake Stability	3261
6.03.2.8 Water Quality Models	3263
6.03.2.9 Final Remarks	3266
6.03.3 Management of the Impact of Hydraulic Processes in Hydropower Operation	3266
6.03.3.1 Introduction	3266
6.03.3.2 Reduction of Gas-Supersaturated Water	3268
6.03.3.3 Control of Floating Debris	3272
6.03.3.4 Hydropower Operating Strategies	3276
6.03.3.5 Mitigation Measures	3280
References	3283
Large Hydropower Plants of Brazil	3286
6.04.1 Introduction and Background	3286
6.04.1.1 Historical Evolution of the Electric Sector in Brazil	3287
6.04.1.2 Main Hydroelectric Projects	3289
6.04.2 The 14000MW Itaipu Hydroelectric Project	3289
6.04.2.1 General Description of the Project	3289
6.04.2.2 The Dam	3291
6.04.2.3 The Spillway	3292
6.04.2.4 The Power Plant	3292
6.04.3 The 8125MW Tucurui Hydroelectric Project	3294
6.04.4 The 6450MW Madeira Hydroelectric Complex	3297
6.04.4.1 The Santo Antonio Project	3298
6.04.4.2 The Jirau Project	3299
6.04.5 The Iguaçu River Projects	3301
6.04.5.1 The Foz do Areia Project	3301
6.04.5.2 The Segredo Project	3303
6.04.5.3 The Salto Santiago Project	3304
6.04.5.4 The Salto Osorio Project	3307
6.04.5.5 The Salto Caxias Project	3309
6.04.6 The Uruguay River Projects	3312
6.04.6.1 The Machadinho Project	3312
6.04.6.2 The Itá Project	3314
6.04.6.3 The Campos Novos Project	3316
6.04.6.4 The Barra Grande Project	3317
6.04.7 The Belo Monte Project	3318
References	3320
Overview of Institutional Structure Reform of the Cameroon Power Sector and Assessments	3322
6.05.1 Introduction	3322
6.05.2 Hydro Potential	3323
6.05.2.1 The River System	3323
6.05.2.2 Existing Hydro Plants	3324
6.05.2.2.1 Production and transportation of electricity	3325
6.05.3 Dams	3327
6.05.3.1 Storage Dams Under Operation	3327
6.05.3.2 Hydrology	3328
6.05.4 Mid-Term Development Plan for Hydro Plants in Cameroon	3328
6.05.4.1 Objectives	3328
6.05.4.2 Context of the Development Plan	3330
6.05.4.3 Future Outlook	3330
6.05.4.4 Memve’Elé	3332
6.05.4.5 Mekin Hydropower Project	3334
6.05.4.6 Bini Warak Project	3338
6.05.4.7 Colomines Project	3338
6.05.4.8 Ngassona Falls 210 Project	3339
6.05.4.9 Overview of Institutional Structure Reform	3340
6.05.4.10 Weaknesses of Institutions	3342
6.05.4.11 Investing in the Electric Power Sector	3342
6.05.5 Conclusion	3343
References	3343
Relevant Websites	3344
Recent Hydropower Solutions in Canada	3346
6.06.1 Introduction	3346
6.06.2 Hydroelectric Power in Canada	3346
6.06.2.1 Hydroelectric History in Canada	3346
6.06.2.2 Hydroelectric Opportunities in Canada	3347
6.06.3 Recent Hydropower Solutions in Manitoba	3349
6.06.3.1 General	3349
6.06.3.2 Wuskwatim Generating Station Project	3352
6.06.4 Recent Hydropower Solutions in Quebec	3354
6.06.4.1 Existing Hydropower Solutions	3354
6.06.4.2 More Recent Hydropower Solutions	3354
6.06.4.3 Hydropower Plants Under Construction	3356
6.06.5 Recent Hydropower Implementations in British Columbia	3366
6.06.5.1 General	3366
6.06.5.2 Revelstoke Complex	3368
6.06.6 Conclusion	3370
References	3370
The Three Gorges Project in China	3372
6.07.1 Introduction	3373
6.07.1.1 Location and Natural Condition	3373
6.07.1.2 Project Scale and Main Objectives	3375
6.07.2 Hydraulic Complex Structures	3376
6.07.2.1 Dam	3377
6.07.2.2 Powerhouse	3381
6.07.2.3 Navigation Structures	3386
6.07.2.4 Maopingxi Dam	3393
6.07.3 Project Construction	3393
6.07.3.1 Demonstration and Construction	3393
6.07.3.2 Construction by Stages	3394
6.07.3.3 Construction Management	3401
6.07.4 Challenges and Achievements	3403
6.07.4.1 Resettlements	3403
6.07.4.2 Sediment	3405
6.07.4.3 Protection of Ecosystem and Environment	3406
6.07.4.4 Prevention and Control of Geological Hazards	3409
6.07.4.5 Protection of Cultural Relics	3410
6.07.4.6 Analysis of Dam Break	3412
6.07.4.7 Benefits	3413
6.07.4.8 Technical Advancement	3414
References	3419
Further Reading	3419
Relevant Websites	3419
The Recent Trend in Development of Hydro Plants in India	3420
6.08.1 Present Status and Future Planning	3420
6.08.1.1 World Bank Comments	3422
6.08.2 Hydrology and Climate Change	3423
6.08.3 Environment Study	3427
6.08.4 Reservoir and Downstream Flow	3430
6.08.5 Rehabilitation and Resettlement	3432
6.08.6 Project Planning and Implementation	3433
6.08.7 Storage and ROR Hydroelectric Projects	3435
6.08.8 Sediment Transport and Related Issues	3437
6.08.9 Socioeconomic Development and Hydropower in the Himalaya Northeast Region	3444
6.08.10 Conclusion	3445
References	3445
Hydropower Development in Iran: Vision and Strategy	3446
6.09.1 Introduction	3446
6.09.2 Energy Generation in Iran	3446
6.09.2.1 Energy Flow in Iran	3446
6.09.2.2 Electricity Generation in Iran	3447
6.09.3 Considerations and Requirements for Hydropower Developments	3449
6.09.3.1 Requirements	3449
6.09.3.2 Restrictions and Limitations	3449
6.09.4 Potentiality of Hydropower Projects	3450
6.09.4.1 Under Operation Projects	3450
6.09.4.2 Under Construction Projects	3451
6.09.4.3 Under Study Projects	3451
References	3456
Hydropower Development in Japan	3458
6.10.1 Outline of the History of Hydropower Development in Japan	3458
6.10.1.1 The Start of Hydropower Production	3459
6.10.1.2 The Start of Long-Distance Transmission of Electric Power and Large Hydropower Dams	3459
6.10.1.3 The Development of Dams and Conduit-Type High-Capacity Hydropower Production	3460
6.10.1.4 The Increased Use of River Water as an Energy Source	3461
6.10.1.5 Electric Power Shortages and the Postwar Reorganization of Electric Power	3462
6.10.1.6 Development of Large-Scale Dam-Type Hydropower Plants	3463
6.10.1.7 Hydropower Dams from the Rapid Economic Growth Period to the Stable Growth Period	3463
6.10.2 Current State of Hydropower in Japan	3467
6.10.2.1 Primary Energy in Japan	3467
6.10.2.2 Development of Hydroelectric Power in Japan	3469
6.10.2.3 Hydroelectric Power Development	3469
6.10.2.4 Development of Pumped-Storage Power Plant	3470
6.10.3 Hydropower in Japan and Future Challenges	3473
6.10.3.1 Energy Situation in Japan and Hydropower	3473
6.10.3.2 Hydropower in Japan and Future Challenges	3473
6.10.4 Successful Efforts in Japan	3474
6.10.4.1 Large-Scale Pumped-Storage Power Plants in Tokyo Electric Power Company	3474
6.10.4.2 Sediment Flushing of Reservoir by Large-Scale Flashing Facilities in the Kansai Electric Power Company	3481
6.10.4.3 Reservoir Bypass of Sediment and Turbid Water during Flood in the Kansai Electric Power Company	3487
6.10.4.4 Measures for Ecosystems	3491
Relevant Websites	3500
Evolution of Hydropower in Spain	3502
6.11.1 Hydroelectric Power in Spain	3502
6.11.1.1 Electric Power and Hydroelectric Power	3502
6.11.1.2 The Strategic Importance of Hydroelectric Power	3503
6.11.1.3 Hydrology, River Network, and Hydroelectric Development	3504
6.11.1.4 Power Plants and Main Developments	3506
6.11.1.5 Producing Companies	3508
6.11.2 Evolution of Schemes and First Developments	3508
6.11.2.1 Periods in the Evolution of Development	3508
6.11.2.2 The 1890–1940 Period	3510
6.11.2.3 The 1940–60 Period	3516
6.11.2.4 The 1960–75 Period	3520
6.11.2.5 The Last Three Decades	3526
6.11.3 A Representative Case: The Duero System and Its Evolution	3529
6.11.4 The Future of Hydroelectric Power in Spain	3532
References	3534
Hydropower in Switzerland	3536
6.12.1 Short Recall of Switzerland’s Characteristics	3536
6.12.2 The Drainage Basins of Switzerland	3536
6.12.3 Electricity Production in Switzerland	3536
6.12.3.1 In General	3536
6.12.3.2 Large-Scale Hydropower Plants	3538
6.12.3.3 Small-Scale Hydropower Plants	3539
6.12.3.4 Dams	3539
6.12.4 List of the Dams in Switzerland	3540
6.12.5 New Developments	3542
6.12.6 Dixence, Grande-Dixence, and Cleuson-Dixence Schemes as an Example of Capacity Increase	3543
6.12.6.1 In General	3543
6.12.6.2 First Stage: The Dixence Scheme	3543
6.12.6.3 Second Stage: The Grande-Dixence Scheme	3543
6.12.6.4 Third Stage: The Cleuson-Dixence Scheme	3544
6.12.7 New Hydroelectric Schemes Presently under Construction in Switzerland	3545
6.12.7.1 The Nant de Dranse Scheme	3545
6.12.7.2 The Linthal 2015 Project	3546
6.12.7.3 The Hongrin-Léman Plus Project	3547
Relevant Websites	3547
Long-Term Sediment Management for Sustainable Hydropower	3548
6.13.1 Introduction	3548
6.13.1.1 General	3548
6.13.1.2 The DPSIR Framework	3550
6.13.2 Driving Forces	3550
6.13.3 Pressures	3550
6.13.3.1 Variability in Pressures	3551
6.13.3.2 Measurement Techniques	3553
6.13.4 State	3555
6.13.4.1 Capacity Loss	3555
6.13.4.2 Sedimentation Pattern	3555
6.13.5 Impact	3556
6.13.6 Responses	3558
6.13.6.1 Measures Addressing Driving Forces	3558
6.13.6.2 Measures Addressing Pressures	3558
6.13.6.3 Measures Addressing the State	3559
6.13.6.4 Measures Addressing Impacts	3560
6.13.6.5 Numerical Modeling for Sustainable Sediment Management	3560
6.13.6.6 Assessing Sustainability of Hydropower Projects	3563
6.13.7 Conclusion	3569
References	3569
Durability Design of Concrete Hydropower Structures	3570
6.14.1 Introduction	3571
6.14.1.1 General	3571
6.14.2 Early Cracking	3573
6.14.2.1 General	3573
6.14.2.2 Definition of Early Cracking	3573
6.14.2.3 The Causes of Early Cracking	3573
6.14.2.4 Controlling the Cracking of Concrete Hydropower Structures	3575
6.14.2.5 State-of-the-Art Joints	3575
6.14.3 Durability Problems	3578
6.14.3.1 General	3578
6.14.3.2 How Concrete Hydropower Structures Become Damaged	3579
6.14.3.3 Carbonation and Reinforcement Corrosion	3579
6.14.3.4 Freezing and Thawing	3580
6.14.3.5 Concrete Expansion and Contraction	3580
6.14.3.6 Chloride and Sulfate Attack	3581
6.14.3.7 Alkali–Aggregate Reaction	3582
6.14.3.8 Seepage Scouring	3583
6.14.3.9 Abrasion and Cavitation	3583
6.14.3.10 Other Less Important Factors	3584
6.14.4 Durability Design	3585
6.14.4.1 Performance-Based Durability Design	3585
6.14.4.2 Expert System	3585
6.14.4.3 The Direction of Future Research	3585
6.14.5 How to Maintain a Durable Concrete	3586
6.14.5.1 Material Selection	3586
6.14.5.2 Design	3588
6.14.5.3 Construction	3589
6.14.5.4 Inspection and Assessment	3590
6.14.5.5 Rehabilitation	3590
6.14.6 Case Histories for Durable Concrete	3592
6.14.6.1 Shi Lianghe Key Project in China	3592
6.14.6.2 Fengman Hydropower Structure in China	3592
6.14.6.3 Haikou Key Project in China	3592
6.14.6.4 Butgenbach Dam in Belgium	3593
6.14.6.5 Baoying Key Project in China	3594
6.14.7 Conclusion	3596
References	3596
Pumped Storage Hydropower Developments	3598
6.15.1 Inroduction	3599
6.15.2 Electrical Energy Storage	3599
6.15.2.1 General Issues	3599
6.15.2.2 Applications	3600
6.15.2.3 Storage Technologies	3603
6.15.3 Pumped Storage Hydropower Plant	3605
6.15.3.1 Characteristics	3605
6.15.3.2 History	3605
6.15.3.3 Characteristics of Pump–Turbines	3606
6.15.4 Examples of Remarkable Pumped Storage Power Plants	3611
6.15.4.1 Okinawa Seawater Pumped Storage Power Plant	3611
6.15.4.2 Goldisthal Pumped Storage Power Plant	3619
6.15.4.3 Tianhuangping Pumped Storage Power Plant	3622
6.15.4.4 Coo-Trois Ponts Pumped Storage Power Plant	3624
References	3627
Simplified Generic Axial-Flow Microhydro Turbines	3628
6.16.1 Introduction and Context	3629
6.16.1.1 What Is a Simplified Generic Axial-Flow Microhydro Turbine?	3629
6.16.1.2 Who Would Use Such a Turbine?	3631
6.16.1.3 Representative Designs	3631
6.16.1.4 Energy Alternatives and Unconventional Economics	3635
6.16.1.5 What Is Specific Speed?	3635
6.16.2 Component-Level Design Methods	3636
6.16.2.1 Water Supply	3637
6.16.2.2 Volute	3642
6.16.2.3 Runner	3646
6.16.2.4 Draft Tube	3649
6.16.3 Turbine Selection from an Existing Range	3653
6.16.4 Direct Sizing	3656
6.16.5 Conclusions	3658
Further Reading	3658
References	3659
Development of a Small Hydroelectric Scheme at Horseshoe Bend, Teviot River, Central Otago, New Zealand	3660
6.17.1 Introduction	3660
6.17.2 Background	3661
6.17.3 Scheme Layout and Specifications	3661
6.17.4 Project Development and Processes	3663
6.17.5 Land Tenure	3663
6.17.6 Resource Consents	3663
6.17.7 Project Management	3665
6.17.8 Contract Framework	3665
6.17.9 Interesting Features of Design and Construction	3666
6.17.9.1 Control Valve Positioned at the Tunnel Outlet	3666
6.17.10 RCC Dam Design and Construction	3666
6.17.10.1 Geological and Hydrological Setting	3666
6.17.10.2 Site Layout	3667
6.17.10.3 RCC Mix Design and Handling Characteristics	3668
6.17.10.4 GIN Foundation Grouting Method	3670
6.17.10.5 Commissioning/Performance Monitoring	3673
6.17.11 Conclusions	3675
References	3676
Recent Achievements in Hydraulic Research in China	3678
6.18.1 Introduction	3678
6.18.2 Energy Dissipation	3680
6.18.2.1 Slit Bucket	3680
6.18.2.2 Flaring Pier Gate	3682
6.18.2.3 Jet Flows Collision with Plunge Pool in High-Arch Dams	3685
6.18.2.4 Orifice Spillway Tunnel	3687
6.18.2.5 Vortex Shaft Spillway Tunnel	3688
6.18.3 Aeration and Cavitation Mitigation Measures	3690
6.18.4 Flow-Induced Vibration	3692
6.18.5 Discharge Spraying by Jet Flow	3692
6.18.6 Hydraulic Field Observations	3695
References	3697
e9780080878720v7	3700
Cover	3700
Comprehensive Renewable Energy	3701
Copyright	3704
Editor-In-Chief	3705
Volume Editors	3707
Contributors For All Volumes	3711
Preface	3719
Contents	3723
7.02.1 Introduction	32
7.02.2 Geothermal Systems	34
7.02.3 Geothermal System Properties and Processes	34
7.02.4 Pressure Diffusion and Fluid Flow	35
7.02.5 Heat Transfer	35
7.02.5.1 Porous Layer Model	38
7.02.5.2 Horizontal Fracture Model	38
7.02.5.3 Porous Model with Cold Recharge	39
7.02.6 Two-Phase Regions or Systems	39
7.02.7 Geothermal Wells	39
7.02.8 Utilization Response of Geothermal Systems	41
7.02.9 Monitoring	42
7.02.10 Modelling of Geothermal Systems – Overview	42
7.02.11 Static Modeling (Volumetric Assessment)	56
7.02.12 Dynamic Modeling	57
7.02.13 Geothermal Resource Management	57
7.02.14 Reinjection	57
7.02.15 Renewability of Geothermal Resources	57
7.02.16 Sustainable Geothermal Utilization	58
7.02.17 Conclusions	92
References	59
Further Reading	61
History of Photovoltaics	62
1.04.1 Harnessing Solar Energy – A New Invention?	62
1.04.2 What Was the Catalyst for Photovoltaic Development?	64
1.04.3 A Photovoltaic Modern Historical Timeline	68
1.04.4 Current Photovoltaic Technologies	72
1.04.5 Photovoltaics – Where We Are Now?	74
References	75
Historical and Future Cost Dynamics of Photovoltaic Technology	78
1.05.1 Introduction: Observed Reductions in the Cost of Photovoltaics	78
1.05.2 What Caused the 700× Reduction in the Cost of PV?	79
1.05.2.1 Identifying Drivers of Change	80
1.05.2.2 R&D and Efficiency Improvements	80
1.05.2.3 Sequential Niche Markets	80
1.05.2.4 Expectations about Future Demand	81
1.05.2.5 Learning by Doing	82
1.05.2.6 Intertechnology Spillovers	82
1.05.2.7 Materials	82
1.05.2.8 Drivers Related to Supply and Demand	83
1.05.2.9 Quality and Product Attributes	84
1.05.2.10 Interactions between R&D and Experience in Production	85
1.05.3 Using Learning Curves to Predict Costs	85
1.05.3.1 Use of Experience Curves in Modeling and Policy	85
1.05.3.2 Problems with Using Experience Curves	86
1.05.3.3 How Reliable Are Experience Curve Predictions?	88
1.05.4 Nonincremental Cost-Reducing Developments	92
1.05.4.1 Identifying Breakthroughs	92
1.05.4.2 Results: Combining Expert Opinion and Patent Analysis	96
1.05.5 Modeling Nonincremental Changes in PV	98
1.05.5.1 An Approach to Modeling Nonincremental Technological Change	98
1.05.5.2 Results for Nonincremental Technological Change	99
1.05.5.3 Summary of Nonincremental Modeling	100
1.05.6 Future Progress and Development	100
References	101
Feed-In Tariffs and Other Support Mechanisms for Solar PV Promotion	104
1.06.1 Introduction	105
1.06.2 Overview of Support Mechanisms for Renewable Electricity	106
1.06.2.1 Quota-Based Support (TGC and RPS)	107
1.06.2.2 Tender Systems	108
1.06.2.3 Net Metering	108
1.06.2.4 Feed-In Tariffs	108
1.06.2.5 Tax and Investment Incentives	109
1.06.2.6 Assessment of Support Mechanisms (Effectiveness and Efficiency)	109
1.06.3 Singapore	110
1.06.3.1 Introduction	110
1.06.3.2 Existing Support Schemes	110
1.06.3.3 Challenges and Prospects for the Future	113
1.06.4 United States	114
1.06.4.1 Introduction	114
1.06.4.2 Existing Support Schemes	115
1.06.4.3 Challenges and Prospects for the Future	120
1.06.5 European Union (Germany and Spain)	121
1.06.5.1 Introduction: Europe	121
1.06.5.2 Support Mechanisms	122
1.06.5.3 Germany	122
1.06.5.4 Spain	122
1.06.6 Common Features of Best Practice Promotion Schemes	124
1.06.6.1 Eligible Producers	125
1.06.6.2 Purchase Obligations	125
1.06.6.3 Tariff Calculation Methodology	125
1.06.6.4 Duration of Tariff Payment	128
1.06.6.5 Financing Mechanism	128
1.06.6.6 Progress Report	129
1.06.6.7 Tariff Differentiation According to Plant Size	129
1.06.6.8 Tariff Differentiation According to Plant Type (Location)	130
1.06.6.9 Tariff Degression	130
1.06.6.10 Inflation Indexation	132
1.06.6.11 Design Options for Better Market Integration	133
1.06.6.12 Challenges and Prospects for the Future	134
1.06.7 Conclusion and Outlook	134
1.06.7.1 Leveling the Playing Field	136
1.06.7.2 Investment Structure and Actor Groups on Future Electricity Markets	137
References	137
Finance Mechanisms and Incentives for Photovoltaic Technologies in Developing Countries	142
1.07.1 Background: Photovoltaics, Rural Electrification, and Millennium Development Goals	142
1.07.1.1 Development Assistance for Renewables in Developing Countries	144
1.07.1.2 Analytical Framework for Support Mechanism of PV in Rural Areas	145
1.07.2 PV in Developing Countries: Current Situation	145
1.07.2.1 Evolution of Grid-Connected/Off-Grid PV Systems	145
1.07.2.2 Evolution of Electrification Rates and Off-Grid PV Systems for Rural Areas	145
1.07.2.3 Energy Technology Options for Rural Areas	146
1.07.3 Current Costs of PV in Developing Countries	147
1.07.4 Ownership, Organization, and Local Participation	150
1.07.4.1 Community-Based Model	151
1.07.4.2 Private Ownership/Private Operator	151
1.07.4.3 Rural Energy Service Company Model	151
1.07.5 Financing Channels for PV in Rural Renewable Energy	151
1.07.5.1 Consumer Finance	152
1.07.5.2 Market Development Finance	154
1.07.5.3 Public Sector Finance (Poverty Alleviation)	155
1.07.6 PV Tariff Setting and Incentives for Rural Electrification	155
1.07.6.1 Procedure for Annual Revision	156
1.07.7 Finance Instruments to Promote PV Systems in Rural Areas in Developing Countries	156
1.07.7.1 Capital Subsidies, Consumer Grants, and Guarantees	156
1.07.7.2 Renewable Energy Service Companies	157
1.07.7.3 Leasing or Hire Purchase Model	157
1.07.7.4 Renewable Portfolio Standards	158
1.07.7.5 Small Power Producer Regulation	158
1.07.7.6 Tender System	159
1.07.7.7 Fiscal Incentives: Reduction in VAT and Import Duty Reduction	159
1.07.7.8 Public Finance Pools	159
1.07.7.9 Bank Financing: Low Interest and Soft Loans	159
1.07.7.10 Carbon Financing	160
1.07.7.11 Transitions from Off-Grid to On-Grid Generation Systems	161
1.07.8 Innovative Financing Mechanisms for Rural Renewable Energy	161
1.07.8.1 Renewable Energy Premium Tariff	161
1.07.8.2 GET FiTs for Developing Countries	165
1.07.9 Financial Risk Management	166
1.07.9.1 Risk Characterization	167
1.07.10 Conclusions	168
Acknowledgments	170
References	170
Environmental Impacts of Photovoltaic Life Cycles	174
1.08.1 Introduction	175
1.08.2 Background	175
1.08.3 Life Cycle of Photovoltaics	175
1.08.4 Life-Cycle Inventory	177
1.08.4.1 Modules	177
1.08.4.2 Balance of System	178
1.08.5 Energy Payback Times and Greenhouse Gas Emissions	178
1.08.5.1 Energy Payback Time	178
1.08.5.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions	179
1.08.6 Criteria Pollutant and Heavy Metal Emissions	181
1.08.6.1 Criteria Pollutant Emissions	181
1.08.6.2 Heavy Metal Emissions	182
1.08.7 Life-Cycle Risk Analysis	184
1.08.7.1 Risk Classification	184
1.08.7.2 Risks of Accidents in the Photovoltaic Life Cycle	184
1.08.7.3 Comparison with Other Energy Technologies	186
1.08.7.4 Limitation of the Study	188
1.08.8 Conclusion	188
Acknowledgement	189
References	189
Overview of the Global PV Industry	192
1.09.1 Introduction	193
1.09.2 Development of the Photovoltaic Industry	195
1.09.3 The Photovoltaic Industry in 2010	198
1.09.3.1 Technology Mix	199
1.09.3.2 Solar Cell Production Companies	200
1.09.3.3 Polysilicon Supply	204
1.09.3.4 Polysilicon Manufacturers	204
1.09.4 Outlook	206
References	208
Vision for Photovoltaics in the Future	210
1.10.1 Photovoltaics Today	211
1.10.1.1 Markets	211
1.10.1.2 Technologies	212
1.10.1.3 Competitiveness	212
1.10.1.4 Electricity Prices	212
1.10.1.5 Policy Support	213
1.10.2 Future Market Development	214
1.10.2.1 PV as a Mainstream Power Source in Europe by 2020 and Beyond	214
1.10.2.2 US and Canadian Markets Slowly Taking Off	215
1.10.2.3 Japan Has a Moderately Ambitious PV Target for 2020	215
1.10.2.4 The Rise of Sunbelt Countries	215
1.10.2.5 Global PV Installed Capacity Could Reach More Than 4500GW by 2050	216
1.10.3 The EPIA Vision for 2050	217
1.10.3.1 Introduction	217
1.10.3.2 A Dynamic Vision on PV Competitiveness and Grid Development	218
1.10.3.3 Necessary Steps to Unlocking PV Potential	218
1.10.3.4 Policy Recommendations for a Bright 2050 Future	219
1.10.4 Future Changes in Electricity Systems	220
1.10.4.1 Managing Variability	220
1.10.4.2 From Centralized to Decentralized Energy Generation	220
1.10.4.3 Peak Load Shaving	221
1.10.4.4 Super Smart Grid	221
1.10.4.5 Decentralized Storage	222
1.10.4.6 DSM	222
1.10.5 Future Market Segmentation	222
1.10.6 Future Share of On-Grid/Off-Grid Applications	223
1.10.6.1 Extending the National Grid	223
1.10.6.2 Providing Off-Grid Solutions	223
1.10.6.3 Coupling Mini-Grids with Hybrid Power	223
1.10.7 Future Technological Trends	223
1.10.7.1 The Evolution of PV Module and System Prices	224
1.10.7.2 Cost of Electricity Generation	226
1.10.8 Recommendations	227
1.10.8.1 Policy Recommendations	227
1.10.8.2 Investments in Technology and in PV Projects	227
1.10.8.3 Grid Infrastructures Adaptations	228
1.10.9 Conclusion	228
References	229
Storage Options for Photovoltaics	230
1.11.1 Introduction	230
1.11.2 Grid Flexibility and Reliability	230
1.11.3 Energy Storage and Conventional Power Systems	231
1.11.4 Solar Electricity and Energy Storage	232
1.11.4.1 Impact on the Grid of Solar and Wind Electricity Penetration	232
1.11.4.2 Solar, Wind, and Energy Storage: Integration Applications	234
1.11.5 Energy Storage Technologies	235
1.11.6 Power Quality Storage Technologies	236
1.11.6.1 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage	236
1.11.6.2 Electric Double-Layer Capacitors	236
1.11.6.3 Flywheels	236
1.11.7 Bridging Power Storage Technologies: Batteries	237
1.11.7.1 Lead–Acid Batteries	237
1.11.7.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries	238
1.11.7.3 Flow Batteries	239
1.11.8 Energy Management Storage Technologies	239
1.11.8.1 Pumped Hydro Energy Storage	239
1.11.8.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage	241
1.11.9 Conclusions	242
References	242
Solar Radiation Resource Assessment for Renewable Energy Conversion	244
1.12.1 Introduction	245
1.12.1.1 The Sun as Star	245
1.12.1.2 The Earth and the Sun	246
1.12.2 Fundamentals of Solar Radiation	246
1.12.2.1 Solar Geometry	246
1.12.2.2 The Atmospheric Filter	247
1.12.2.3 Spectral Considerations	247
1.12.3 Fuel for Solar Energy Collectors	248
1.12.3.1 Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal Flat Panels	249
1.12.3.2 Solar Thermal Systems	250
1.12.3.3 Sustainable Applications	250
1.12.4 Measuring Solar Radiation	250
1.12.4.1 Solar Radiometers and Detectors	250
1.12.4.2 Radiometer Calibration	252
1.12.4.3 World Radiometric Reference: the Calibration Reference	252
1.12.4.4 Traceability	253
1.12.4.5 Pyrheliometer Calibrations	254
1.12.4.6 Pyranometer Calibrations	254
1.12.4.7 Radiometric Uncertainty and Performance	255
1.12.5 Modeling Solar Radiation	256
1.12.5.1 Physics-Based Models	256
1.12.5.2 Empirical Models	256
1.12.5.3 Satellite-Based Models	256
1.12.5.4 Geographical Information System Models	257
1.12.6 Converting Solar Radiation Data to Application-Specific Data	257
1.12.6.1 Estimating Hemispherical Radiation on a Tilt	257
1.12.6.2 Estimating Direct Beam (DNI) from Global Horizontal Radiation	257
1.12.6.3 Estimating Diffuse Hemispherical Radiation from Global or DNI	258
1.12.7 Measured and Model Data Set Properties	258
1.12.7.1 Period of Record	258
1.12.7.2 Temporal Resolution	259
1.12.7.3 Spatial Coverage	259
1.12.7.4 Modeled Data Sets	259
1.12.8 Model Estimate Uncertainties	260
1.12.9 Developing Solar Radiation Resource Databases	260
1.12.9.1 Developing the NSRDB	260
1.12.9.2 Sources of Solar Radiation and Meteorological Data	261
1.12.10 Applications: Calculating Solar Radiation for Flat-Plate and Concentrating Collectors	263
1.12.11 Future Directions	265
References	267
7.03.3.2 Gas Fluxes	2872
7.03.4.5 Multiple Mineral Equilibria Approach	92
7.03.4.6 Example of Application	61
7.03.5 Geophysical Methods	93
7.03.5.1 Resistivity Methods	93
7.03.5.2 Resistivity of Rocks	128
7.03.5.3 Seismic Methods	134
7.03.5.4 Thermal Methods	229
References	312
7.04.3 Characterization of Solids	2761
7.05.7.3 Greenhouse Heating in Hungary	154
7.06.3.2 Further Types: Energy Piles, Geothermal Baskets	516
7.06.5 Site Investigations for Dimensioning	591
7.07.2 Scope of the Section	3289
7.07.4 Binary Plants	2538
7.08.3.1 Uniform Corrosion	621
7.08.3.7 Hydrogen Embrittlement	968
7.08.4 Variables and Corrosive Species That Affect Corrosion Rates	629
7.08.4.12 Other Factors	1392
7.08.6 Scaling in Geothermal Environments	206
7.09.1 Introduction	2888
7.10.6.3 Toward SED?	3342
7.10.7.4 Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality Rate	312
7.10.7.5 Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health	312
7.10.7.6 Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDs, Malaria, and Other Diseases	314
7.10.7.7 Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability	315
7.10.7.8 Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development	316
7.10.7.9 Summary	316
7.10.8 Climate Change, CDM, and Geothermal Energy	317
7.10.8.1 The Potential of Geothermal Power to Mitigate GHG Emissions	317
7.10.8.2 CDM and Geothermal Energy	317
7.10.9 Toward SED Using Geothermal Power	318
7.10.10 Conclusion	319
References	320
Principles of Solar Energy Conversion	324
1.14.1 Introduction	325
1.14.2 The PV Effect	325
1.14.3 Solar Cells in Circuits	325
1.14.4 Solar Resource	326
1.14.4.1 Blackbody Radiation	326
1.14.5 Absorption Profile of a Solar Cell	327
1.14.6 Semiconductors	328
1.14.6.1 Energy Band Structure	328
1.14.6.2 Carrier Populations in Semiconductor Materials	329
1.14.6.3 Doping	331
1.14.6.4 Pn Junction	332
1.14.7 Generation and Recombination	332
1.14.7.1 Thermal Generation and Recombination	333
1.14.7.2 Radiative Generation and Recombination	333
1.14.7.3 Carrier–Carrier Generation and Recombination	334
1.14.7.4 Impurity and Surface Generation and Recombination	334
1.14.8 Thermal Energy into Chemical Energy	335
1.14.8.1 Current Extraction	336
1.14.9 Generalized Planck	336
1.14.9.1 Density of Photon States	337
1.14.9.2 Geometrical Factor	337
1.14.9.3 Occupation of Photon States	338
1.14.10 Detailed Balance	339
1.14.10.1 Shockley–Queisser Limiting Efficiency	339
1.14.10.2 Real-World Devices	340
1.14.11 Intrinsic Loss Mechanisms in Solar Cells	340
1.14.11.1 Below Eg Loss	341
1.14.11.2 Emission Loss	342
1.14.11.3 Thermalization	342
1.14.11.4 Carnot Loss	342
1.14.11.5 Boltzmann Loss	342
1.14.12 Exceeding the Shockley–Queisser Limiting Efficiency	343
1.14.13 Summary	343
References	344
Thermodynamics of Photovoltaics	346
1.15.1 Introduction	347
1.15.2 Thermodynamics of Thermal Radiation	347
1.15.2.1 Photon Gas	347
1.15.2.2 The Continuous Spectrum Approximation	348
1.15.2.3 Fluxes of Photon Properties	349
1.15.2.4 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Bandgap Materials	349
1.15.2.5 Geometrical Factor of Radiation Sources	350
1.15.2.6 Diluted Thermal Radiation	353
1.15.3 Concentration of Solar Radiation	356
1.15.3.1 The Étendue of Beam Radiation	356
1.15.3.2 Upper Bounds on Beam Solar Radiation Concentration	357
1.15.3.3 Upper Bounds on Scattered Solar Radiation Concentration	358
1.15.4 Upper Bounds for Thermal Radiation Energy Conversion	359
1.15.4.1 Available Work of Enclosed Thermal Radiation	359
1.15.4.2 Available Work of Free Thermal Radiation	361
1.15.4.3 Available Work of Blackbody Radiation as a Particular Case	363
1.15.4.4 Discussion	364
1.15.5 Models of Monogap Solar PV Converters	365
1.15.5.1 Modeling Absorption and Recombination Processes	365
1.15.5.2 Modeling Multiple Impact Ionization	370
1.15.6 Models of Omnicolor Solar Converters	376
1.15.6.1 Omnicolor PT Converters	376
1.15.6.2 Omnicolor PV Converters	378
1.15.6.3 Unified Model of Omnicolor Converters	380
1.15.6.4 Discussion	380
1.15.7 Conclusions	381
References	381
Further Reading	382
Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells: State-of-the-Art and Future Developments	384
1.16.1 General Introduction	384
1.16.1.1 Photovoltaic Market	384
1.16.1.2 Historical Development of Cell Efficiency	385
1.16.1.3 Maximum Achievable Efficiency	385
1.16.2 Current Status of Silicon Solar Cell Technology	386
1.16.2.1 Basic Structure of a Silicon Solar Cell	386
1.16.2.2 Physical Structure of an Industrial Silicon Solar Cell	386
1.16.2.3 Process Sequence	389
1.16.3 Influence of Basic Parameters	394
1.16.4 Strategies for Improvement	395
1.16.4.1 Dielectric Surface Passivation	395
1.16.4.2 Metallization	397
1.16.4.3 Bulk Properties	399
1.16.5 High-Efficiency Cell Structures on p-type Silicon	402
1.16.5.1 Main Approaches for High Efficiencies in p-type Devices	402
1.16.5.2 Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell	402
1.16.5.3 Metal Wrap-Through Solar Cells	403
1.16.5.4 MWT-PERC	404
1.16.5.5 Emitter Wrap-Through Solar Cells	405
1.16.6 High-Efficiency Structures on n-type Silicon	406
1.16.6.1 Aluminum-Alloyed Back Junction	406
1.16.6.2 n-Type Cells with Boron-Diffused Front Emitter	407
1.16.6.3 Back-Contact Solar Cells with Boron-Diffused Back Junction	408
1.16.6.4 Heterojunction Solar Cells	410
1.16.6.5 Alternative Emitters	411
1.16.7 Conclusion	412
References	412
Thin-Film Silicon PV Technology	420
1.17.1 Introduction	420
1.17.2 Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cell Structures	420
1.17.2.1 Amorphous Silicon	420
1.17.2.2 Microcrystalline Silicon	422
1.17.2.3 Multijunction Solar Cell	423
1.17.2.4 Light Trapping	424
1.17.2.5 Heterojunction a-Si/c-Si Solar Cells	424
1.17.3 Challenges of Thin-Film Si PV Technology	425
1.17.4 Fabrication of Thin-Film Si Modules	426
1.17.5 Applications	427
1.17.6 Conclusions	428
References	428
Chalcopyrite Thin-Film Materials and Solar Cells	430
1.18.1 Introduction	430
1.18.2 Material Properties	431
1.18.2.1 Structure	431
1.18.2.2 Optical Properties	432
1.18.2.3 Electrical Properties	434
1.18.3 Deposition Methods	437
1.18.3.1 Single-Step Deposition	438
1.18.3.2 Sequential Deposition	439
1.18.3.3 General Considerations	441
1.18.4 Device Structure	441
1.18.4.1 Substrate	441
1.18.4.2 Barrier Layers	443
1.18.4.3 Back Contact	443
1.18.4.4 Buffer Layer	443
1.18.4.5 Front Contact	445
1.18.5 Device Properties	445
1.18.6 Outlook	448
References	449
Cadmium Telluride Photovoltaic Thin Film: CdTe	454
1.19.1 Introduction	454
1.19.2 Brief History of CdTe PV Devices	454
1.19.3 Attempts Toward Initial Commercial Modules	455
1.19.4 Review of Present Commercial Industry/Device Designs	455
1.19.5 General CdTe Material Properties	457
1.19.6 Layer-Specific Process Description for Superstrate CdTe Devices	458
1.19.6.1 Superstrate Materials	458
1.19.6.2 TCO Layer	459
1.19.6.3 Buffer Layer	459
1.19.6.4 CdS Layer	460
1.19.6.5 CdTe Layer	461
1.19.6.6 CdCl2 Activation	462
1.19.6.7 Back Contact	463
1.19.7 Where Is the Junction?	465
1.19.8 Considerations for Large-Scale Deployment	465
1.19.8.1 Reliability	466
1.19.8.2 Mineral Availability	467
1.19.8.3 Environmental	467
1.19.8.4 Energy-Payback Time	467
1.19.9 Conclusion	468
Acknowledgments	468
References	468
Plastic Solar Cells	470
1.20.1 Introduction	471
1.20.1.1 Why Solar Cells?	471
1.20.1.2 Why OSCs?	472
1.20.2 Fundamentals	473
1.20.2.1 Comparison of Inorganic Solar Cells and OSCs	473
1.20.2.2 Solar Cell Device Architectures	479
1.20.2.3 Characteristic Values of a Solar Cell	480
1.20.3 Materials for OSCs	481
1.20.3.1 Active Materials for OSCs	481
1.20.3.2 Interfacial Materials	484
1.20.3.3 Electrode Materials	487
1.20.4 Driving Efficiency	488
1.20.4.1 Preferable Properties of the Donor Molecule	488
1.20.4.2 Impact of Morphology	488
1.20.4.3 Improved Material Properties for Efficiency Increase	492
1.20.4.4 Effect of Interference in the Device	494
1.20.4.5 Solar Cell Architectures for Enhanced Device Performance	494
1.20.5 Stability of OSCs	496
1.20.5.1 Encapsulation	496
1.20.5.2 Electrodes	497
1.20.5.3 Interfacial Layers	498
1.20.5.4 Active Materials	499
1.20.5.5 Testing the Lifetime	500
1.20.6 Production Methods	501
1.20.6.1 Layer Deposition for Single Devices	501
1.20.6.2 Large-Scale Production Methods	503
1.20.7 Summary and Outlook	504
References	505
Further Reading	511
Mesoporous Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells	512
1.21.1 Introduction	512
1.21.2 Mesoporous Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells	513
1.21.2.1 Overview of Current Status and Operational Principles	513
1.21.2.2 The Kinetic Model – Electron-Transfer Processes	515
1.21.2.3 Basic Characterization of DSC Devices	518
1.21.2.4 Development of Material Components and Devices	521
1.21.3 Future Outlook	525
References	525
Multiple Junction Solar Cells	528
1.22.1 Introduction	528
1.22.2 Key Issues for Realizing High-Efficiency MJ Solar Cells	529
1.22.2.1 Selection of Cell Materials and Improving Quality	529
1.22.2.2 Lattice Matching Between Cell Materials and Substrates	531
1.22.2.3 Effectiveness of Wide Bandgap Back-Surface-Field Layer	532
1.22.2.4 Low-Loss Tunnel Junction for Intercell Connection and Preventing Impurity Diffusion from Tunnel Junction	533
1.22.3 High-Efficiency InGaP/GaAs/Ge 3-Junction Solar Cells and their Space Applications	534
1.22.3.1 Development of High-Efficiency InGaP/GaAs/Ge 3-Junction Solar Cells	534
1.22.3.2 Radiation Resistance of InGaP-Based MJ Solar Cells	536
1.22.3.3 Space Applications of InGaP/GaAs/Ge 3-Junction Solar Cells	537
1.22.4 Low-Cost Potential of Concentrator MJ Solar Cell Modules and High-Efficiency Concentrator InGaP/GaAs/Ge3-Junction Solar Cell Modules and Terrestrial Applications	537
1.22.5 Most Recent Results of MJ Cells	540
1.22.6 Future Directions	540
Acknowledgments	544
References	545
Application of Micro- and Nanotechnology in Photovoltaics	546
1.23.1 Introduction	546
1.23.2 Application of Micro and Nanotechnologies to Conventional PV	548
1.23.2.1 Improved Performance	549
1.23.2.2 Process Improvements	552
1.23.3 Nanoarchitectures	554
1.23.3.1 Nanocomposites	554
1.23.3.2 Nano/Microwires	555
1.23.4 Quantum Structures	556
1.23.4.1 Multi-Exciton Generation	556
1.23.4.2 Hot Carriers	557
1.23.4.3 Intermediate Bands	558
1.23.4.4 Plasmonics	558
1.23.5 Outlook	559
1.23.6 Conclusions	560
References	560
Upconversion	564
1.24.1 Introduction	564
1.24.2 Single Threshold Solar Cells	565
1.24.3 Upconversion-Assisted Solar Cells: Equivalent Circuits	566
1.24.4 Solar Concentration	569
1.24.5 Definition of Upconversion Efficiency	569
1.24.5.1 Monochromatic Optical Efficiency	570
1.24.5.2 Photoelectrical Efficiency	571
1.24.6 Practical Implementation	571
1.24.6.1 Rare Earths	571
1.24.6.2 Upconversion with Organic Molecules	572
1.24.6.3 Comparison between Organics and Rare Earths	577
1.24.7 Prospects	577
References	578
Further Reading	579
Downconversion	580
1.25.1 Introduction	580
1.25.2 Equivalent Circuits	581
1.25.3 Practical Applications	585
1.25.3.1 QC in Rare-Earth Materials	586
1.25.3.2 MEG in Semiconductor Nanostructures	588
1.25.3.3 SF in Organic Materials	590
1.25.4 Prospects	591
References	591
Down-Shifting of the Incident Light for Photovoltaic Applications	594
1.26.1 Introduction	594
1.26.2 The Down-Shifting Concept	596
1.26.3 Luminescent Down-Shifters Applied for Solar Cells	598
1.26.3.1 Silicon-Based Solar Cells	598
1.26.3.2 Gallium Arsenide-Based Devices	599
1.26.3.3 Cadmium-Based Solar Cells	599
1.26.3.4 Organic-Based Solar Cells	600
1.26.3.5 Critical Parameters	600
1.26.4 Simulation Approach – Modeling of the Spectral Response	602
1.26.4.1 Limit for the Efficiency	602
1.26.4.2 Modeling of the Spectral Response	603
1.26.5 Rare Earth-Based Down-Shifting Layers	604
1.26.5.1 Radiative and Nonradiative Transitions	605
1.26.5.2 Energy Transfer	605
1.26.5.3 Efficiency of Rare Earth Ions in Down-Shifting Layers	605
1.26.6 Quantum Dots-Based Down-Shifting Layers	606
1.26.6.1 Quantum Size Effects	607
1.26.6.2 Efficiency of Quantum Dots in Down-Shifting Layers	607
1.26.7 Organic Dyes-Based Down-Shifting Layers	609
1.26.7.1 Optical Properties	609
1.26.7.2 Efficiency of Organic Dyes in Down-Shifting Layers	610
1.26.8 Commercial Applications and Patents	611
1.26.8.1 Patents and Down-Shifting Technology	611
1.26.8.2 Commercial Applications	612
1.26.9 Conclusions	613
Acknowledgment	614
References	614
Luminescent Solar Concentrator	618
1.27.1 Introduction	618
1.27.2 Theory of Luminescent Solar Concentrators	619
1.27.2.1 The Factors that Determine the Efficiency of Luminescent Concentrator Systems	619
1.27.2.2 Thermodynamic Efficiency Limits	620
1.27.2.3 Thermodynamic Models of the Luminescent Concentrator	621
1.27.2.4 Ray Tracing Simulations of Luminescent Concentrators	623
1.27.3 Materials for Luminescent Solar Concentrators	624
1.27.3.1 Organic Dyes	624
1.27.3.2 Inorganic Luminescent Materials	625
1.27.4 Luminescent Solar Concentrator System Designs and Achieved Results	625
1.27.4.1 System Designs	625
1.27.4.2 Achieved System Efficiencies	626
1.27.5 The Future Development of Luminescent Solar Concentrators	627
1.27.5.1 Extending the Used Spectral Range into the IR	627
1.27.5.2 Controlling Escape Cone Losses	627
1.27.6 Conclusion	630
Acknowledgments	630
References	630
Thermophotovoltaics	634
1.28.1 Introduction	634
1.28.2 Thermophotovoltaic System	635
1.28.2.1 Heat Source	636
1.28.2.2 Selective Emitter	636
1.28.2.3 Filter	638
1.28.2.4 Thermophotovoltaic Cells	639
1.28.3 TPV Cells	639
1.28.3.1 Introduction	639
1.28.3.2 Possible Materials	639
1.28.3.3 TPV Cells Based on GaSb	639
1.28.3.4 TPV Cells Based on InGaAs/InP	641
1.28.3.5 TPV Cells on InGaSb Substrates	641
1.28.3.6 Low-Band Gap TPV Cells Based on InAsSbP	642
1.28.3.7 Germanium-Based Cells	642
1.28.4 TPV Concepts	643
1.28.4.1 Solar Thermophotovoltaic	643
1.28.4.2 Micron-Gap ThermoPhotoVoltaics	644
1.28.4.3 Radioisotope Thermophotovoltaics	644
1.28.5 TPV Systems	645
1.28.5.1 Introduction	645
1.28.5.2 Midnight Sun	645
1.28.5.3 TPV Prototype System Built by PSI	646
1.28.6 TPV Market Potential	647
1.28.7 Summary and Outlook	647
References	648
Intermediate Band Solar Cells	650
1.29.1 Introduction	650
1.29.2 Theoretical Model of the Intermediate Band Solar Cell	650
1.29.3 The Impurity-Based Approach or ‘Bulk IBSC’	655
1.29.4 The QD-IBSC	659
1.29.4.1 The Use of QDs for Implementing an IBSC	659
1.29.4.2 QD-IBSC Prototypes	661
1.29.4.3 Proof of the Concept	662
1.29.4.4 Strategies to Boost the Efficiency of the QD-IBSC	663
1.29.5 Summary	666
Acknowledgments	668
References	668
Plasmonics for Photovoltaics	672
1.30.1 Introduction	672
1.30.2 Background	673
1.30.3 Surface Plasmons	673
1.30.3.1 General	673
1.30.3.2 Scattering Mechanism	675
1.30.3.3 Effect of Size	675
1.30.3.4 Effect of Shape	676
1.30.3.5 Effect of Material Properties	677
1.30.3.6 Effect of Dielectric Medium	677
1.30.3.7 Effect of Surface Coverage	678
1.30.3.8 Nanoparticle Location	679
1.30.4 Nanoparticle Fabrication	682
1.30.5 Applications of Plasmonics in PV	683
1.30.6 Potential of Plasmonics for Third-Generation Solar Cells	684
1.30.7 Future Outlook	685
1.30.8 Conclusion	686
Acknowledgments	686
References	686
Artificial Leaves: Towards Bio-Inspired Solar Energy Converters	688
1.31.1 The Design of Natural Photosynthesis	688
1.31.1.1 Photosynthetic Light-Harvesting Antennae	689
1.31.1.2 Photosynthetic RCs	690
1.31.1.3 Supramolecular Organization	691
1.31.2 Design Principles of Natural Photosynthesis	694
1.31.2.1 Photon Absorption, Excitation Energy Transfer, and Electron Transfer	694
1.31.2.2 Photochemical Thermodynamics of Energy Storage	695
1.31.3 The Design of an Artificial Leaf	697
1.31.3.1 Interfacing Proteins onto Solid-State Surfaces	697
1.31.3.2 Protein Maquettes for Artificial Photosynthesis	698
1.31.3.3 Bio-Inspired Self-assembled Artificial Antennae	700
1.31.3.4 Bio-Inspired DA Constructs	701
1.31.4 Outlook: The Construction of a Fuel-Producing Solar Cell	705
References	706
Further reading	708
Design and Components of Photovoltaic Systems	710
1.32.1 Introduction	710
1.32.2 PV Cells and Modules	711
1.32.2.1 Solar Cells	711
1.32.3 Balance of System	716
1.32.3.1 Inverters	716
1.32.3.2 Mounting Structures	717
1.32.3.3 Batteries	718
1.32.3.4 Charge Regulators	718
1.32.4 PV System Design	718
1.32.4.1 Hybrid Solar–Diesel System for Mandhoo Island	718
1.32.4.2 100MW PV Plant in Abu Dhabi Desert Area	721
1.32.5 Conclusions	725
References	726
BIPV in Architecture and Urban Planning	728
1.33.1 Introduction	728
1.33.1.1 Building Integration of Photovoltaics Will Be the Future	728
1.33.1.2 Definition of Building Integration	729
1.33.2 Photovoltaics in the Urban Planning Process	730
1.33.2.1 Planning for Renewables	730
1.33.2.2 Site Layout and Solar Access	730
1.33.2.3 Successful Implementation	730
1.33.2.4 Long-Term Operation	730
1.33.3 Steps in the Design Process with BIPV	731
1.33.3.1 Urban Planning – Related Design Aspects	731
1.33.3.2 Practical Rules for Integration	732
1.33.3.3 Step-by-Step Design	733
1.33.3.4 Design Process: Strategic Planning	733
1.33.4 BIPV in Architecture	734
1.33.4.1 Architectural Functions of PV Modules	734
1.33.4.2 PV Integrated as Roofing Louvres, Façades, and Shading Devices	736
1.33.4.3 Architectural Criteria for Well-Integrated Systems	736
1.33.4.4 Integration of PV Modules in Architecture	737
1.33.5 Concluding Remarks	737
References	738
Further Reading	738
Product-Integrated Photovoltaics	740
1.34.1 Introduction	740
1.34.1.1 What Is PIPV?	740
1.34.1.2 The Structure of This Chapter	742
1.34.2 Overview of Existing PIPV	742
1.34.2.1 The Early Days of PIPV	742
1.34.2.2 Lighting Products with Integrated PV	743
1.34.2.3 Business-to-Business Applications with Integrated PV	743
1.34.2.4 Recreational Products with Integrated PV	744
1.34.2.5 Vehicles and Transportation	745
1.34.2.6 Arts	745
1.34.3 Designing Products with Integrated PV	747
1.34.3.1 Area Constraints in Design	747
1.34.3.2 Design Processes and PIPV	747
1.34.4 Technical Aspects of PIPV	748
1.34.4.1 PV Cells	748
1.34.4.2 Irradiance and Solar Cell Performance	751
1.34.4.3 Rechargeable Batteries	753
1.34.5 System Design and Energy Balance	754
1.34.5.1 Irradiance	755
1.34.5.2 PV Power Conversion	755
1.34.5.3 Electronic Conversions	755
1.34.5.4 Efficiency of the Storage Device	755
1.34.5.5 Power Consumption	755
1.34.6 Costs of PIPV	756
1.34.7 Environmental Aspects of PIPV	756
1.34.8 Human Factors of PIPV	758
1.34.9 Design and Manufacturing of PIPV	759
1.34.10 Outlook on PIPV and Conclusions	761
References	761
Further Reading	763
Very Large-Scale Photovoltaic Systems	764
1.35.1 What is Very Large-Scale Photovoltaic System?	764
1.35.1.1 Definition of Very Large-Scale Photovoltaic	764
1.35.1.2 Multibenefit Approach	764
1.35.1.3 Deployment Strategies	765
1.35.2 Evaluation of the VLS-PV from Various Aspects	765
1.35.2.1 Energy Potential	765
1.35.2.2 Economics of VLS-PV	767
1.35.2.3 Technologies for VLS-PV	768
1.35.2.4 Environmental Aspects	768
1.35.3 Progress in VLS-PV	770
1.35.3.1 VLS-PV as a Dream	770
1.35.3.2 Dream to Reality	770
1.35.3.3 Emerging New Initiatives in MENA Regions	770
1.35.4 Future for the VLS-PV	772
1.35.4.1 Sustainability Issues	772
1.35.4.2 VLS-PV Visions and Roadmap	774
1.35.5 Conclusion	774
References	775
Concentration Photovoltaics	776
1.36.1 Introduction	776
1.36.1.1 Cells	777
1.36.1.2 Thermal Management	778
1.36.1.3 Optics	778
1.36.1.4 Modules	779
1.36.1.5 Tracking Systems	779
1.36.2 Historical Review	780
1.36.3 Standardization of CPV Systems and Components	780
1.36.4 ISFOC CPV Demonstration Power Plants	781
1.36.4.1 Puertollano – La Nava	781
1.36.4.2 Concentrix – El Villar	782
1.36.4.3 SolFocus – Almoguera	782
1.36.4.4 Regulatory Framework	782
1.36.4.5 Engineering, Construction, and Commissioning of CPV Plants	784
1.36.5 CPV Characterization and Rating	785
1.36.5.1 Procedure	786
1.36.5.2 Standard Test Conditions	786
1.36.5.3 DC Rating Procedure	786
1.36.5.4 AC Rating Procedure	789
1.36.5.5 Status and Results	790
1.36.6 Production Results	791
1.36.6.1 Performance	791
1.36.6.2 Operation and Maintenance	793
1.36.7 Outlook	794
References	795
Further Reading	796
Relevant Websites	796
Solar Power Satellites	798
1.37.1 Background and Historical Development	798
1.37.2 Power-Beaming Fundamentals	799
1.37.2.1 Efficiency of Microwave Transmission	799
1.37.2.2 Spot Diameter	799
1.37.2.3 Minimum Power Level for Microwave Beaming	800
1.37.2.4 Can a Large Aperture Be Synthesized from Many Small Transmitters?	801
1.37.2.5 Power Transmission by Laser Beaming	801
1.37.3 Why Put Solar in Space?	801
1.37.3.1 Continuous Sunlight	802
1.37.3.2 Sun Pointing	802
1.37.3.3 No Atmosphere	802
1.37.3.4 Summation: How Much More Power Do You Get by Putting the Cells in Space?	802
1.37.3.5 Future Evolution	802
1.37.4 Is Geosynchronous the Right Orbit?	803
1.37.5 The Economic Case	803
1.37.5.1 Quick and Dirty Economics	803
1.37.6 Beaming Power to Space: A First Step to SPS?	804
1.37.7 Summary Points to Ponder	805
References	805
Performance Monitoring	806
1.38.1 Introduction	806
1.38.2 Defining Photovoltaic Performance	807
1.38.2.1 System Efficiency	807
1.38.2.2 System Yield	807
1.38.2.3 Performance Ratio	808
1.38.2.4 Performance of Stand-Alone Systems	808
1.38.3 Module Energy Prediction	809
1.38.4 PV Systems – Performance Prediction	812
1.38.5 PV Module Performance Monitoring in Practice	812
1.38.6 PV System Performance Monitoring in Practice	814
1.38.6.1 Measurements and Sensors	814
1.38.6.2 Monitoring in Practice	815
1.38.7 Summary	816
References	816
Standards in Photovoltaic Technology	818
1.39.1 History	818
1.39.1.1 The Early PV Development in the United States	818
1.39.1.2 Establishment of IEC TC82	819
1.39.1.3 The European Commission’s Joint Research Centre	819
1.39.1.4 The Early IEC Standards	819
1.39.1.5 The Working Groups	820
1.39.2 Standards for Performance Determination of PV Devices	820
1.39.2.1 Introduction	820
1.39.2.2 Performance Determination of PV Devices	820
1.39.2.3 Existing IEC Standards	821
1.39.2.4 Discussion and Conclusion	823
1.39.3 Reliability Testing of PV Modules	824
1.39.3.1 Introduction	824
1.39.3.2 The Beginning of an International Standard for Type Approval Testing	824
1.39.3.3 Weathering Test or Dedicated Stress to Identify Failure Mechanisms	824
1.39.3.4 Type Approval Testing	824
1.39.3.5 Pass/Fail Criteria	824
1.39.3.6 Environmental Testing	825
1.39.3.7 Correlation of Reliability Testing with Lifetime	826
1.39.4 Energy Performance and Energy Rating	826
1.39.5 Concentrating PV Standards	828
1.39.5.1 CPV Design Qualification IEC 62108	828
1.39.5.2 Other Standards in Preparation	829
1.39.6 Outlook	830
1.39.6.1 New Technologies	830
1.39.6.2 Major Markets	830
1.39.6.3 TC82 Priorities	830
1.39.7 Conclusion	830
Appendix	831
Past Chairmen of TC82	831
References	833
e9780080878720v8	4029
Cover\r	4029
Comprehensive Renewable Energy	4030
Copyright	4033
Editor-In-Chief	4034
Volume Editors	4036
Contributors For All Volumes	4040
Preface	4048
Contents	4052
Generating Electrical Power from Ocean Resources	4060
8.01.1 Introduction	4060
8.01.2 Wave Energy Conversion	4060
8.01.3 Marine Current Energy Conversion	4061
8.01.4 Technology Development Assessment	4062
8.01.5 Prototype Device Development and Commercial Farms	4063
8.01.6 Future Prospects	4064
Acknowledgments	4065
References	4065
Historical Aspects of Wave Energy Conversion	4066
8.02.1 Introduction	4066
8.02.2 The Wave Energy Resource	4067
8.02.3 Wave Energy Technologies	4067
8.02.4 Conclusion	4068
References	4068
Resource Assessment for Wave Energy	4070
8.03.1 Introduction	4071
8.03.2 Mathematical Description of Ocean Waves	4071
8.03.2.1 Regular Waves	4071
8.03.2.2 Irregular Waves	4072
8.03.3 Estimating WEC Power	4079
8.03.4 Wave Measurements and Modeling	4082
8.03.4.1 Wave Measurements from Moored Buoys	4082
8.03.4.2 Wave Measurements from Satellite Altimeters	4090
8.03.4.3 Numerical Wave Models	4104
8.03.5 Variability and Predictability of WEC Yield	4109
8.03.5.1 Sampling Variability	4110
8.03.5.2 Synoptic and Seasonal Variability	4110
8.03.5.3 Interannual and Climatic Variability	4110
8.03.6 Estimation of Extremes	4111
8.03.6.1 Introduction	4111
8.03.6.2 Short-Term Distributions of Wave and Crest Heights	4111
8.03.6.3 Long-Term Distributions of Extreme Sea States	4113
8.03.6.4 Combining Long-Term and Short-Term Distributions	4129
References	4132
Development of Wave Devices from Initial Conception to Commercial Demonstration	4138
8.04.1 A Structured Program to Mitigate Risk – The TRL Approach	4139
8.04.2 Funding Opportunities	4141
8.04.2.1 Funding for Device Development	4141
8.04.2.2 Further Support	4142
8.04.3 Physical Model Testing and Similarity	4143
8.04.3.1 Introduction	4143
8.04.3.2 Similarity between Physical Model and Full-Scale Prototype	4144
8.04.3.3 Design and Testing of Physical Scale Models in the Laboratory	4147
8.04.4 Sea Trials of Large-Scale Prototypes	4155
8.04.4.1 Introduction	4155
8.04.4.2 Sea Trials with Scale Models	4156
8.04.4.3 Sea Trials with Full-Scale Prototypes	4156
8.04.4.4 Sea Trials with WECs in an Array	4160
8.04.5 Frequency versus Time Domain	4163
8.04.5.1 Introduction	4163
8.04.5.2 Frequency Domain	4163
8.04.5.3 Time Domain	4167
References	4168
Air Turbines	4170
8.05.1 Introduction	4170
8.05.2 Basic Equations	4171
8.05.3 Two-Dimensional Cascade Flow Analysis of Axial-Flow Turbines	4172
8.05.3.1 Wells Turbine	4173
8.05.3.2 Self-Rectifying Impulse Turbine	4179
8.05.3.3 Wells Turbine versus Impulse Turbine	4181
8.05.4 Three-Dimensional Flow Analysis of Axial-Flow Turbines	4182
8.05.5 Model Testing of Air Turbines	4183
8.05.5.2 Test Rigs	4184
8.05.6 Wells Turbine Performance	4185
8.05.6.1 Advanced Wells Turbine Configurations	4187
8.05.7 Performance of Self-Rectifying Axial-Flow Impulse Turbine	4190
8.05.8 Other Air Turbines for Bidirectional Flows	4191
8.05.8.1 Denniss-Auld Turbine	4191
8.05.8.2 Radial-Flow Self-Rectifying Impulse Turbine	4195
8.05.8.3 Twin Unidirectional Impulse Turbine Topology	4196
8.05.9 Some Air Turbine Prototypes	4198
8.05.10 Turbine Integration into OWC Plant	4200
8.05.10.1 Hydrodynamics of OWC	4200
8.05.10.2 Linear Turbine	4201
8.05.10.3 Nonlinear Turbine	4204
8.05.10.4 Valve-Controlled Air Flow	4205
8.05.10.5 Noise	4205
8.05.11 Conclusions	4205
References	4206
Economics of Ocean Energy	4210
8.06.1 Introduction	4210
8.06.2 Cost Estimates of Wave and Tidal Stream Systems	4211
8.06.3 The Capital Investment Decision	4212
8.06.3.1 Discounting: Present Value	4212
8.06.3.2 Net Present Value	4213
8.06.3.3 Discounted COE	4213
8.06.3.4 Discount Rates	4214
8.06.3.5 Strategy	4214
8.06.4 Capital Costs	4214
8.06.4.1 Preliminary Works	4215
8.06.4.2 Marine Energy Devices	4215
8.06.4.3 Civil Engineering Infrastructure	4215
8.06.4.4 Electrical Infrastructure	4216
8.06.4.5 Site to Grid Transmission	4216
8.06.4.6 Deployment	4217
8.06.4.7 Decommissioning	4217
8.06.5 Operating Costs	4217
8.06.5.1 Periodic Expenditures	4218
8.06.5.2 Planned Maintenance	4218
8.06.5.3 Unplanned Maintenance	4218
8.06.6 Vessels for Offshore Work	4219
8.06.6.1 Vessel Type and Unit Cost	4219
8.06.6.2 Duration of Offshore Vessel Use	4219
8.06.6.3 Vessel Cost Summary	4221
8.06.7 Revenue	4221
8.06.7.1 Energy Production	4221
8.06.7.2 Value of a Unit of Electricity	4222
8.06.8 Future Prospects	4223
8.06.8.1 Evolution of Costs in the Marine Sector	4223
8.06.8.2 Mechanisms for Cost Evolution	4225
8.06.8.3 Summary	4227
References	4227
Further Reading	4228
Index\r	4230
Permission Acknowledgments	4384

Comprehensive Renewable Energy

Additional Information

Book Details

Abstract

Table of Contents

Contact Us

Quick Navigation