Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science

Donald McLusky; Eric Wolanski

BOOK

Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science

Donald McLusky | Eric Wolanski

(2012)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-0-08-087885-0
Edition
Language: English
Pages: 4590
Subjects: Surgical orthopaedics & fractures
Marine biology
Oceanography (seas)
The environment
Applied ecology
Computer programming / software engineering

Abstract

The study of estuaries and coasts has seen enormous growth in recent years, since changes in these areas have a large effect on the food chain, as well as on the physics and chemistry of the ocean. As the coasts and river banks around the world become more densely populated, the pressure on these ecosystems intensifies, putting a new focus on environmental, socio-economic and policy issues.

Written by a team of international expert scientists, under the guidance of Chief Editors Eric Wolanski and Donald McClusky, the Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science examines topics in depth, and aims to provide a comprehensive scientific resource for all professionals and students in the area of estuarine and coastal science

Most up-to-date reference for system-based coastal and estuarine science and management, from the inland watershed to the ocean shelf
Chief editors have assembled a world-class team of volume editors and contributing authors
Approach focuses on the physical, biological, chemistry, ecosystem, human, ecological and economics processes, to show how to best use multidisciplinary science to ensure earth's sustainability
Provides a comprehensive scientific resource for all professionals and students in the area of estuarine and coastal science
Features up-to-date chapters covering a full range of topics

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
e9780123747112v1	1
Cover\r	1
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	2
Copyright	5
Contents Of Volume 1	6
Volume Editors	8
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	10
Volume Editors: Biographies	12
Contributors Of All Volumes	22
Contents Of All Volumes	32
Preface	38
Introduction to Classification of Estuarine and Nearshore Coastal Ecosystems	42
1.01.1 Purpose and Scope of Volume	42
1.01.2 Concept and Definition of Classification	43
1.01.2.1 Emergence of Scientific Classification	43
1.01.2.2 Rationale and Need for Classification	43
1.01.2.3 Approaches and Criteria	44
1.01.3 Contents of Volume 1: Diverse Approaches toEstuary and Nearshore Coast Classification	44
1.01.3.1 Introduction to Classification of Estuarine andNearshore Coastal Ecosystems – Charles Simenstad andTetsuo Yanagi	44
1.01.3.2 Global Variability in Estuaries and Coastal Settings \r– Gerardo M.E. Perillo and M. Cintia Piccolo (see also Chapter•1.02)	44
1.01.3.3 Tectonic and Geomorphic Evolution of Estuaries andCoasts – David Kennedy (see also Chapter 1.03)	44
1.01.3.4 Classes of Nearshore Coasts – Megan Dethier and \rJohn Harper (see also Chapter 1.04)	45
1.01.3.5 Classification of Estuarine Circulation – Arnoldo Valle-Levinson (see also Chapter 1.05)	45
1.01.3.6 Variation among Estuarine Geochemistry and Productivity – Wally Fulweiler and M. Bartoli (see also Chapter \r1.06)	45
1.01.3.7 Ecosystem and Biotic Classifications of Estuaries andCoasts – Alan Whitfield and Michael Elliott (see also Chapter 1.07)	45
1.01.3.8 Classifying Ecological Quality and Integrity of Estuaries – Angel Borja, Alberto Basset, Suzanne Bricker, Jean-Claude Dauvin, Mike Elliott, Trevor Harrison, Joao-Carlos Marques, Stephen B. Weisberg, and Ron West (see also Chapter 1.08)	45
1.01.3.9 Application of Estuarine and Coastal Classifications in Marine Spatial Management – Simon Pittman, David Connor, Lynda Radke, and Dawn Wright (see also Chapter 1.09)	46
1.01.3.10 Resource Base: Global Distribution and Characteristics of Estuaries and Associated Coastal Shores– Keita Furukawa (see also Chapter 1.10)	46
1.01.4 Issues	46
1.01.4.1 Objectives of Classification	46
1.01.4.2 Limiting Factors	46
1.01.4.3 Challenges	47
1.01.5 Need to Integrate Physical, Geochemical, Ecological, Management, and Social Information	47
1.01.6 Summary	47
e9780123747112v2	270
Cover\r	270
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	271
Copyright	274
Contents Of Volume 2\r	275
Volume Editors	277
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	279
Volume Editors: Biographies	281
Contributors Of All Volumes	291
Contents Of All Volumes	301
Preface\r	307
Water and Fine-Sediment Circulation	311
2.01.1 Introduction	311
2.01.2 Buoyancy and Its Consequences	312
2.01.3 Barotropic and Wind-Driven Motions	313
2.01.4 Coastal and Estuarine Interactions	315
2.01.5 Biological Interactions and Sediments	316
2.01.6 Measurements and Modeling	316
2.01.7 Final Remarks	317
Acknowledgments	317
References	317
Turbulence and Stratification in Estuaries and Coastal Seas	319
2.02.1 Introduction	320
2.02.2 Turbulence, Shear, and Stratification	320
2.02.3 Turbulence in Estuaries	326
2.02.4 Turbulence in River Plumes	333
2.02.5 Turbulence in Coastal Seas	337
References	343
The Dynamics of Strongly Stratified Estuaries	347
2.03.1 Introduction	347
2.03.2 Parameters Controlling Estuarine Stratification	349
2.03.3 The Two-Layer Equations	351
2.03.4 Salt Wedge Dynamics	352
2.03.5 Fjord Dynamics	356
2.03.6 Unresolved Questions and Prospects for FutureResearch	359
References	361
Small-Scale Surface Fronts in Estuaries	363
2.04.1 Introduction	363
2.04.2 Plume Fronts	365
2.04.3 Axial Convergence Fronts	368
2.04.4 Tidal Intrusion Fronts	371
2.04.5 Shear Fronts	377
2.04.6 Summary and Discussion	381
2.04.7 Final Remarks	382
Acknowledgments	383
References	383
Residual Circulation, Mixing, and Dispersion	385
2.05.1 Introduction	385
2.05.2 Salt Balance	385
2.05.3 Physics of the Gravitational Circulation	390
2.05.4 Physics of Tidal Salt Flux and Dispersion	395
2.05.5 Summary and Conclusions	397
Acknowledgments	398
References	398
Free Surface Motions: Tides, Seiches, and Subtidal Variations	401
2.06.1 The Governing Equations for Estuaries and Coastal Regions	401
2.06.2 Some More Simplifications for Barotropic Motions	403
2.06.3 Tidal Oscillations or Seiche within One-dimensional Channels with Constant Width andDepth	404
2.06.4 Importance of Rotation	406
2.06.5 Tidal Oscillations or Seiche within Two-Dimensional Channels with Constant Width andVariable Depth	408
2.06.6 Tidal Oscillations or Seiche within Three-Dimensional Channels with Constant Width and Variable Depth	413
2.06.7 Sub-Tidal Flows – Idealized Models	415
2.06.8 Sub-Tidal Flows – Observations	420
2.06.9 Sub-Tidal Flows – Separation of Tidally-Driven and Density-Driven Flows from Observations	423
2.06.10 Effect of Channel Curvature	426
References	431
Dynamics of Hypersaline Estuaries: Laguna San Ignacio, Mexico	451
2.08.1 Introduction	451
2.08.2 Background	451
2.08.3 The Fluctuating Tide	454
2.08.4 Residual Tidal Circulation	455
2.08.5 Wind-Driven Circulation	456
2.08.6 Density-Driven Circulation	457
2.08.7 Synthesis	458
References	458
Large Estuaries (Effects of Rotation)	433
2.07.1 Introduction	433
2.07.2 Tidal Residual Flow	433
2.07.3 Wind-Driven Flow	438
2.07.4 Density-Driven Flows	441
2.07.5 Density-Driven Flows Interacting with Tidal Flows	444
2.07.6 Density-Driven Flows Interacting with Tides andWind	445
2.07.7 Conclusions	448
References	449
Wind Stresses on Estuaries	461
2.09.1 Introduction	461
2.09.2 The Logarithmic Layer	462
2.09.3 Local Wind Stress in an Estuary	465
2.09.4 Remote Wind Forcing	470
2.09.5 Modeling Wind Stresses in Stratified, Tidal Systems	472
2.09.6 Discussion	475
References	476
Waves in Coastal and Estuarine Waters	481
2.10.1 Introduction	481
2.10.2 Waves in Shallow Water	482
2.10.3 Observing Waves in Shallow Water	487
2.10.4 Wave Climate	488
2.10.5 Wave Modeling	490
2.10.6 Wave–Current Interaction	503
2.10.7 Coastal Engineering	512
2.10.8 Summary	517
Acknowledgments	518
References	518
Further Reading	522
Relevant Websites	522
Interactions between Estuaries and Coasts: River Plumes - Their Formation, Transport, and Dispersal	523
2.11.1 Introduction	523
2.11.2 Scaling of River Plumes	524
2.11.3 The Near Field	525
2.11.4 Plume Structure	527
2.11.5 Upwelling Winds	530
2.11.6 Downwelling Winds	536
2.11.7 Bulge Formation	536
References	544
Coastal Circulation	547
2.12.1 Introduction	548
2.12.2 Tidally Driven Circulation	551
2.12.3 Density-Driven Circulation	557
2.12.4 Wind-Driven Circulation	564
2.12.5 Topographically Driven Circulation	565
2.12.6 Case Study: Liverpool Bay	565
2.12.7 Ways Forward	570
References	575
Relevant Websites	576
Flow Over and Through Biota	577
2.13.1 Introduction: Scales of Morphology and Flow	577
2.13.2 Flow at the Scale of Individual Blades and Branches	577
2.13.3 Community-Scale: Meadows, Forests, and Reefs	580
2.13.4 Conclusions	596
Acknowledgments	596
References	596
Biological Influences on Sediment Behavior and Transport	599
2.14.1 Introduction	599
2.14.2 Effect of Microphytobenthos and Macrofauna on Sediment Erodibility	599
2.14.3 Biological Influence on Sediment Aggregation and Settling Velocity	607
2.14.4 Vegetation and Sediment Transport	611
2.14.5 Modeling of Biological Impact on Sediment Accumulation	614
2.14.6 Conclusion	617
References	617
The Physical Analyses of Muddy Sedimentation Processes	621
2.15.1 Introduction	621
2.15.2 Classification of Transport Modes	623
2.15.3 Settling and Deposition from Suspension	626
2.15.4 Hindered Settling and Consolidation	637
2.15.5 Bed Properties	642
2.15.6 Erosion	650
2.15.7 Fluid Mud Behavior	658
References	669
Measurement Technologies: Measure What, Where, Why, and How?	671
2.16.1 Introduction	672
2.16.2 In Situ Measurements	675
2.16.3 Remote Sensing	692
2.16.4 Real-Time Monitoring	699
2.16.5 Developing a Monitoring Strategy	701
Acknowledgments	702
References	702
Relevant Websites	704
Modeling of Estuarine and Coastal Waters	705
2.17.1 Introduction	706
2.17.2 The Governing Equations	706
2.17.3 Data Assimilation	709
2.17.4 Examples of Current 3D Models and Their Applications	711
2.17.5 Depth-Averaged 2D Models and Their Applications	721
2.17.6 Long Timescale Models	727
2.17.7 Final Remarks	733
Acknowledgments	734
References	734
Relevant Websites	737
e9780123747112v3	739
Cover\r	739
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	740
Copyright	743
Contents Of Volume 1	744
Volume Editors	746
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	748
Volume Editors: Biographies	750
Contributors Of All Volumes	760
Contents Of All Volumes	770
Preface\r	776
Estuarine and Coastal Geology and Geomorphology -\r A Synthesis	780
3.01.1 Rationale	780
3.01.2 Scope	780
References	784
Geology, Morphology, and Sedimentology of Estuaries and Coasts	786
3.02.1 Introduction	786
3.02.2 Geological Constraints on Sediment Production	787
3.02.2.1 The Igneous Heritage of Sedimentary Rocks	787
3.02.2.2 Tectonic and Climatic Controls on Sediment Production	790
3.02.2.3 Modern Terrestrial Sediment Supply	790
3.02.2.4 Modern Marine Sediment Supply	792
3.02.3 Coasts	795
3.02.3.1 Coastal Classification	795
3.02.3.2 Relationships between Beach Morphodynamics, Wave Climate, and Grain Size	796
3.02.3.3 Beach Placer Deposits	798
3.02.4 Estuaries	799
3.02.4.1 Definition of an Estuary	799
3.02.4.2 Classification of Estuaries	801
3.02.4.3 Estuarine Sedimentology	803
3.02.5 Sediment Classification	805
3.02.5.1 Grain-Size Classification	805
3.02.5.2 Sedimentary Facies Descriptions	806
3.02.6 Geotechnical Sediment Properties	806
3.02.6.1 Definition of Basic Mass Physical Sediment Parameters	806
3.02.6.2 Applications of Mass Physical Sediment Parameters	810
3.02.7 Sampling Strategies	812
References	813
Sea-Level Change and Coastal Geomorphic Response	818
3.03.1 Context	819
3.03.2 Trends in Sea Level	819
3.03.2.1 Relative Sea-Level Change	819
3.03.2.2 Measuring Sea-Level Change	820
3.03.2.3 Geophysical Models of GIA	822
3.03.2.4 Identifying the Source of Sea-Level Rise (Fingerprinting)	823
3.03.2.5 How Much Has Sea Level Changed?	823
3.03.3 Drivers of Coastal Change	824
3.03.4 Coastal Environments and Their Response to Sea-Level Change	827
3.03.4.1 Tide-Dominated Environments	827
3.03.4.2 Beaches	830
3.03.4.3 Barrier Environments	833
3.03.4.4 Deltas	835
3.03.4.5 Cliffs and Shore Platforms	837
3.03.4.6 Coastal Dunes	840
3.03.4.7 Coral Atolls	841
3.03.5 Managing Coastal Change	843
References	844
Relevant Websites	851
Wave-Dominated Coasts	852
3.04.1 Introduction	853
3.04.1.1 Wave-Dominated Coasts: Definition	853
3.04.1.2 Beach and Barrier System Characteristics	854
3.04.2 Wave Characteristics, Wave Climate, and Wave Dynamics	856
3.04.2.1 Definition of Waves, Form, and Orbital Motion	856
3.04.2.2 Wave Generation and Propagation: Sea and Swell	857
3.04.2.3 Wave Climate and Global Wave Regimes	860
3.04.2.4 Wave Shoaling and Wave Refraction	861
3.04.2.5 Wave Breaking, Surf Zone, and Swash	862
3.04.3 Shelf and Surf Zone Currents and Sediment Transport	864
3.04.3.1 Wave Oscillatory Currents	864
3.04.3.2 Tide- and Wind-Generated Currents	865
3.04.3.3 Surf Zone Currents	866
3.04.3.4 Longshore Currents	869
3.04.4 Sediment Transport	869
3.04.4.1 Boundary Layers and Initiation of Motion	869
3.04.4.2 Onshore–Offshore Sediment Transport	870
3.04.4.3 Longshore Sediment Transport and Littoral Sediment Budget	871
3.04.5 Sand and Coarse Clastic Beach Systems	873
3.04.5.1 Beach and Nearshore Sediments of Sandy Systems	873
3.04.5.2 Profile Form of Sandy Beach Systems	874
3.04.5.3 Morphodynamics of Sandy Beach Systems	876
3.04.5.4 Form and Morphodynamics of Coarse Clastic Beaches	882
3.04.6 Coastal Barriers	882
3.04.6.1 Morphological and Sedimentological Characteristics of Barriers	882
3.04.6.2 Structure and Components of Barrier Systems	884
3.04.6.3 Barrier Dynamics: Overwash, Breaching, and Tidal Inlets	886
3.04.6.4 Sandy Barrier Spits and Barrier Islands	888
3.04.7 Conclusion	890
References	890
River-Dominated Coasts	896
3.05.1 Introduction	896
3.05.2 Definitions	896
3.05.3 Sediment Delivery from Rivers	897
3.05.4 The Historical Development of Delta Studies	898
3.05.5 Classification of River Mouths on the Basis of Process	902
3.05.6 Morphology of Deltas	903
3.05.7 Delta and Estuary Components	904
3.05.8 Asian Mega Deltas	906
3.05.9 River-Dominated Systems in Australia	908
3.05.10 Human Impacts	909
References	911
Tidal Flat Morphodynamics: A Synthesis	916
3.06.1 Introduction	917
3.06.1.1 Occurrence and Definition of Tidal Flats	917
3.06.1.2 Definition of Morphodynamics and Concept ofDynamic Equilibrium	917
3.06.1.3 Tidal Asymmetry: Importance and Basic Types	918
3.06.2 Net Transport due to Spatial (Lagrangian) Asymmetries	919
3.06.2.1 Lagrangian Asymmetry, Concentration Gradients, and Lag-Induced Dispersion	919
3.06.2.2 Nature of Tide- and Wave-Induced Spatial Energy Gradients	920
3.06.2.3 Observations of Net Transport on Tidal Flats due toWaves versus Tides	921
3.06.2.4 Observations of Net Transport on Tidal Flats due toOther Sediment Sources or Sinks	923
3.06.3 Net Transport due to Eulerian Asymmetries	925
3.06.3.1 Definitions and Types of Eulerian Asymmetry	925
3.06.3.2 Eulerian Velocity Asymmetries Induced byContinuity Alone	926
3.06.3.3 Eulerian Asymmetries Induced by Momentum plus Continuity	927
3.06.3.4 Observations of Eulerian Asymmetries andResulting Sediment Transport	928
3.06.4 Theoretical Equilibria in Response to Tides, Waves, and Sediment Supply	929
3.06.4.1 Convex-Up Profile in Response to Uniform Maximum Tidal Velocity	929
3.06.4.2 Equilibrium Shape in Response to Tidal Range andSediment Supply	930
3.06.4.3 Equilibrium in Response to Persistent Tidal Asymmetries	931
3.06.4.4 Concave-Up Equilibrium in Response to Waves	933
3.06.4.5 A Solution to Predict Tidal Flat Width in Response toWaves	933
3.06.4.6 Theoretical Predictions of Equilibrium Slope under Wave Dominance	934
3.06.4.7 Predictions of Equilibria in the Presence of Waves, Tides, and Sediment Supply	934
3.06.5 Observed Morphology in Response to Tides, Waves, and Sediment Supply	935
3.06.5.1 Profile Convexity/Concavity as a Function of Tidal Range and Wave Exposure	935
3.06.5.2 Profile Width and Slope as a Function of Tidal Range and Wave Exposure	936
3.06.5.3 Depositional versus Erosional Flats	938
3.06.5.4 Combined Effects of Tides, Waves and Recent Erosion or Deposition	939
3.06.6 Extreme Timescales of Change: From Sea Level to Grain Size Patterns	941
3.06.6.1 Timescales of Change	941
3.06.6.2 Mean Grain-Size Patterns	942
3.06.6.3 Time-Varying Grain-Size Patterns	943
3.06.7 Summary and Conclusions	944
Acknowledgments	948
References	948
Cliffs and Rock Coasts	950
3.07.1 Introduction	950
3.07.2 Coastal Processes	951
3.07.2.1 Mechanical Wave Erosion	951
3.07.2.2 Weathering	956
3.07.2.3 Biological Activities	958
3.07.2.4 Mass Movement	959
3.07.3 Geology	959
3.07.4 Landforms	961
3.07.4.1 Bays, Headlands, and Related Features	961
3.07.4.2 Cliffs	962
3.07.4.3 Shore Platforms	964
3.07.5 Modeling the Coastal Evolution of Rock Shores	966
3.07.6 Inheritance	966
3.07.7 Rising Sea Level	967
3.07.8 Conclusions	968
References	968
Dune Coasts	972
3.08.1 Introduction	973
3.08.2 Types of Coastal Dunes	973
3.08.3 Why Do Dunes Form?	973
3.08.4 Where Do Sand Dunes Form?	974
3.08.5 Foredunes	975
3.08.5.1 Incipient Foredunes	976
3.08.5.2 Established Foredunes	977
3.08.6 Foredune Plains (and Beach Ridges)	979
3.08.6.1 Location	981
3.08.7 Blowouts	981
3.08.7.1 Morphologies and Types	981
3.08.7.2 Initiation	982
3.08.7.3 Flow Dynamics	982
3.08.7.4 Blowout Evolution	983
3.08.8 Parabolic Dunes	983
3.08.8.1 Location	983
3.08.8.2 Terminology and Form	984
3.08.8.3 Initiation	984
3.08.8.4 Morphology	986
3.08.8.5 Flow Dynamics	987
3.08.8.6 Evolution	987
3.08.8.7 Revegetation/Natural Stabilization	987
3.08.8.8 Rates of Advance or Migration	987
3.08.9 Transgressive Dunefields	987
3.08.9.1 Location	988
3.08.9.2 Transgressive Dunefield Types	989
3.08.9.3 Initiation and Development	989
3.08.9.4 Transgressive Dunefield Landforms	989
3.08.9.5 Development of Dune Phases	991
3.08.10 Models of Beach–Dune Interactions	991
3.08.10.1 Surfzone-Beach State	991
3.08.10.2 Beach–Backshore Width and Morphology, Fetch, and Potential Aeolian Transport	991
3.08.10.3 Aeolian Sediment Transport and Foredune Morphology	992
3.08.10.4 Foredune Ecology	992
3.08.10.5 Foredune Stability and Type, Erosion Processes, and Dunefield Development	992
3.08.10.6 The Role of Sediment Supply, Sea Level, Wind Energy and Other Factors	993
3.08.11 Conclusion	993
Acknowledgments	993
References	993
Glaciated Coasts	1002
3.09.1 Introduction	1002
3.09.1.1 Glaciated, Glacial, and Paraglacial Coasts	1003
3.09.1.2 Timescales of Paraglacial Coastal Evolution	1004
3.09.1.3 Coastal Systems in the Postglacial Context	1005
3.09.1.4 Classification of Glacial, Proglacial, andParaglacial Coasts	1005
3.09.2 Glacial Erosion, Sedimentation, andParaglacial Legacy	1006
3.09.2.1 Glacial Erosion	1006
3.09.2.2 Glacial Sedimentation	1006
3.09.2.3 Paraglacial Legacy and Sediment Cascade	1007
3.09.3 Glacial and Proglacial Coasts	1008
3.09.3.1 Ice Walls, Ice Shelves, and Tidewater Glaciers	1008
3.09.3.2 Proglacial Sediment Sources and Coastal Deposits	1009
3.09.3.3 The Proglacial–Paraglacial Continuum	1010
3.09.4 Paraglacial Coasts	1011
3.09.4.1 Fjord-Head and Other Paraglacial Deltas	1011
3.09.4.2 Paraglacial Coasts with Abundant Glacigenic Sediment Supply	1013
3.09.4.3 Embayed Coasts with Limited Glacigenic Sediment Supply	1014
3.09.4.4 Transgressive Coasts with Discrete Glacigenic Sources – Drumlin Coasts	1015
3.09.4.5 Evolutionary Sequences and Classification ofParaglacial Barriers	1016
3.09.5 Resource and Management Considerations	1018
3.09.5.1 Ecology of Glacial Coasts	1018
3.09.5.2 Salt Marshes and Tidal Flats on Paraglacial Coasts	1018
3.09.5.3 Management Considerations for Paraglacial GravelBarriers	1018
3.09.6 Conclusions	1019
Acknowledgments	1019
References	1019
Polar Coasts	1024
3.10.1 Introduction	1024
3.10.1.1 Cold Coasts (Polar and Subpolar)	1024
3.10.1.2 Ice as the Distinguishing Feature of Polar andSubpolar Coasts	1024
3.10.1.3 Relative Sea-Level Trends on Polar Coasts	1027
3.10.2 Arctic and Antarctic Coastal Geomorphology	1028
3.10.2.1 Arctic Coastal Geomorphology	1030
3.10.2.2 Antarctic Coastal Geomorphology	1035
3.10.3 Polar Shore Processes	1039
3.10.3.1 Polar Glacial Processes: Ice Sheets, Tidewater Glaciers, and Ice Shelves	1039
3.10.3.2 Polar Marine Processes: Sea Ice and Shore Ice	1039
3.10.3.3 Erosion and Sedimentation Processes onPolarCoasts	1046
3.10.3.4 Coastal Permafrost and Erosion of Ice-Rich Shores	1047
3.10.4 Morpho-Sedimentary Features of Polar Coasts	1049
3.10.4.1 Ice-Bound Shores	1050
3.10.4.2 Transgressive Coastal Plain Shores	1051
3.10.4.3 Polar Deltas	1051
3.10.4.4 Polar Coastal Marshes	1053
3.10.5 Summary and Conclusions	1054
Acknowledgments	1054
References	1055
Coastal Erosion Processes and Impacts: The Consequences of \rEarth' s Changing Climate and Human Modifications of the Environment	1064
3.11.1 Introduction	1064
3.11.2 Earth’s Changing Climate and Enhanced Erosion Processes	1066
3.11.2.1 Global Warming	1066
3.11.2.2 Rising Sea Levels	1067
3.11.2.3 Increasing Storm Intensities and Wave Heights	1068
3.11.3 Environmental Modifications and Coastal Impacts	1070
3.11.4 Processes-Based Models and Erosion Assessments	1078
3.11.4.1 Rising Sea Levels and Eroding Beaches	1078
3.11.4.2 Process-Based Erosion Models: Extreme Waves and Water Levels	1080
3.11.5 Responses to Erosion in a Century of Climate Change	1082
3.11.6 Summary and Discussion	1085
References	1086
e9780123747112v4	1088
Cover	1088
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	1089
Copyright	1092
Contents Of Volume 4\r	1093
Volume Editors	1095
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	1097
Volume Editors: Biographies	1099
Contributors Of All Volumes	1109
Contents Of All Volumes	1119
Preface\r	1125
Introduction to the Geochemistry of Estuaries and Coasts	1129
4.01.1 Introduction	42
4.01.2 Sediment Record and Storage of Organic Carbon and the Nutrient Elements (N, \rP, and Si) in•Estuaries and Near-Coastal Seas (Chapter 4.02)	43
4.01.3 Tracer Studies of Benthic Communities and Biogeochemical Processes in Coastal and Estuarine Marine Environments (Chapter 4.03)	43
4.01.4 The Role of Suspended Particles in Estuarine and Coastal Biogeochemistry (Chapter 4.04)	43
4.01.5 Redox Metal Processes and Controls inEstuaries (Chapter 4.05)	44
4.01.6 Aggregation of Colloids in Estuaries (Chapter 4.06)	44
4.01.7 Modeling Organic Compounds in the Estuarine and Coastal Environment (Chapter 4.07)	44
4.01.8 Submarine Groundwater Discharge: A Source of Nutrients, Metals, and Pollutants to the Coastal Ocean (Chapter 4.08)	44
4.01.9 Indicators of Anthropogenic Change and Biological Risk in Coastal Aquatic Environments (Chapter4.09)	44
4.01.10 The Production of Trace Gases in the Estuarine and Coastal Environment (Chapter 4.10)	45
4.01.11 Integrated Risk Assessments for the Management of Contaminated Sediments in Estuariesand Coastal Systems (Chapter 4.11)	45
4.01.12 The Use of Biomarkers as Simple, Rapid Cost-Effective Techniques to Aid in an Integrated Approach to Environmental Management and Risk Assessment with Particular Emphasis on Radionuclides (Chapter 4.12)	45
4.01.13 Biogeochemistry	45
References	45
Sediment Record and Storage of Organic Carbon and the Nutrient Elements (N, P, and Si) in Estuaries and Near-Coastal Seas	1137
4.02.1 Introduction	1137
4.02.2 Sources and Stable Isotopic Compositions of C,N, P, and Si	1140
4.02.2.1 River and Groundwater Inputs	1142
4.02.2.2 Atmospheric Inputs	1144
4.02.2.3 Exchange with the Open Ocean	1144
4.02.3 C, N, P, and Si in Estuarine and Coastal Sediments	1144
4.02.3.1 Organic Carbon in Sediments	1145
4.02.3.2 Nitrogen in Sediments	1148
4.02.3.3 Phosphorus in Sediments	1149
4.02.3.4 Silicon in Sediments	1151
4.02.4 Changes in Storage: Biodiagenesis and Its Signature in the Sediment	1151
4.02.4.1 Mechanisms of Biodiagenesis	1151
4.02.4.2 Stable Isotope Signatures of Biodiagenesis	1153
4.02.4.3 Humber Estuary Case Study: Differentiating Biodiagenetic Signatures from Source Effects in Sediment Stores?	1153
4.02.5 Carbon Sequestration in Coastal Sediments	46
4.02.5.1 Carbon Burial and Greenhouse Gases	46
4.02.5.2 Storage on Centennial Scales and the Potential of Managed Realignment Sites	46
4.02.6 Other Paleorecords	46
4.02.7 Impacts by Humans: Recent Past and Future Trends	46
Acknowledgements	47
References	47
Relevant Websites	47
Global Variability in Estuaries and Coastal Settings	48
1.02.1 Introduction	48
1.02.2 Variability of Coastal Environments	50
1.02.2.1 Variability versus Change	50
1.02.3 Main Driving Factors	52
1.02.3.1 Geological Factors	52
1.02.3.2 Fluvial and Groundwater Factors	54
1.02.3.3 Wave Factors	55
1.02.3.4 Sea-Level Factors	57
1.02.3.5 Atmospheric Factors	59
1.02.3.6 Biological Factors	60
1.02.3.7 Human Factors	63
1.02.4 Coastal Settings: Typical Characteristics and \rMain Features	64
1.02.4.1 Variability and the Evolution of Coastal Classifications	64
1.02.4.2 Coastal Settings Based on the Wave–River–Tide Relationship	68
1.02.5 Climate Change and Human Impacts	73
1.02.6 Summary and Conclusions	75
Acknowledgments	75
References	75
Relevant Websites	77
Tectonic and Geomorphic Evolution of Estuaries and Coasts	78
1.03.1 Introduction	78
1.03.2 Estuaries and Sea Level	79
1.03.3 Geomorphic and Stratigraphic Definitions	79
1.03.4 Wave and Tidal Dominance of Estuaries	80
1.03.5 Models of Estuarine Infill	82
1.03.5.1 Barrier Estuaries	84
1.03.5.2 Saline Coastal Lakes	86
1.03.5.3 Fluvially Dominated Estuaries	87
1.03.5.4 Ria-Type Estuaries	88
1.03.5.5 Fjord Valley Infill	89
1.03.5.6 Macrotidal Infill	90
1.03.5.7 Complex Incised-Valley Infill	92
1.03.6 Collision Margin Coasts	92
1.03.6.1 Sediment Supply	92
1.03.6.2 Coastal Terraces	94
1.03.6.3 Estuarine Response to Vertical Land Movement	94
1.03.7 Future Change in Estuaries	96
1.03.8 Summary	97
References	97
Classes of Nearshore Coasts	102
1.04.1 Introduction	102
1.04.2 Key Parameters Differentiating Nearshore Coasts	103
1.04.2.1 Climate Zone/Biogeographic Region	103
1.04.2.2 Coastal Geomorphology	103
1.04.2.3 Water Properties	105
1.04.2.4 Coastal Processes	105
1.04.2.5 Substrate	106
1.04.2.6 Biota	107
1.04.2.7 Local-Scale Modifiers	107
1.04.3 Examples of Classification Systems	107
1.04.3.1 Cowardin etal. Classification	108
1.04.3.2 Dethier Classification	108
1.04.3.3 Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification System	108
1.04.3.4 EUNIS/Joint Nature Conservation Committee Classification System	108
1.04.3.5 ShoreZone Classification	109
1.04.3.6 Greene Classification	111
1.04.3.7 Shipman Classification	111
1.04.4 Inventory Techniques	112
1.04.4.1 Mapping Scales	112
1.04.4.2 Data Acquisition Techniques	112
References	114
Relevant Websites	115
Classification of Estuarine Circulation	116
1.05.1 Introduction	116
1.05.2 Classification of Gravitational Circulation According to Estuarine Origin/Geomorphology	119
1.05.2.1 Coastal Plain/Drowned River Valley Estuaries	119
1.05.2.2 Tectonic Estuaries	119
1.05.2.3 Fjords	121
1.05.2.4 Bar-Built Estuaries	122
1.05.3 Classification of Gravitational Circulation According to Water Balance	122
1.05.4 Classification of Gravitational Circulation According to the Competition between Tidal Flow and River Discharge	123
1.05.5 Estuarine Circulation	124
References	127
Variation among Estuarine Geochemistry and Productivity	128
1.06.1 Introduction	128
1.06.2 Estuarine Classification by Nutrient Status	129
1.06.2.1 Limiting Nutrients in Estuaries	129
1.06.2.2 Nutrients and Primary Production	130
1.06.3 Estuarine Classification by Benthic Characteristics	131
1.06.3.1 Benthic Respiration	131
1.06.3.2 Benthic Macrofauna	133
1.06.3.3 OM Mineralization, Phosphorus and Nitrogen Cycling under Reducing Conditions	134
1.06.4 Estuarine Classification by Ecosystem Metabolism	135
1.06.5 Conclusions	136
References	136
Ecosystem and Biotic Classifications of Estuaries and Coasts	140
1.07.1 Introduction	140
1.07.2 Origins of Present-Day Estuaries and Coasts	143
1.07.3 Existing Classifications of Estuaries and Coasts	145
1.07.3.1 Definitions of Estuaries and Coasts	145
1.07.3.2 Estuarine Classifications	149
1.07.3.3 Coastal Classifications	151
1.07.4 Major Macrophyte Habitats within Coastal Ecosystems	155
1.07.4.1 Seaweeds	155
1.07.4.2 Seagrass Beds	155
1.07.4.3 Salt Marshes	156
1.07.4.4 Mangals	156
1.07.5 A Global Approach to Classifying Coastal Ecosystems	157
1.07.5.1 A Primary Coastal Classification	157
1.07.5.2 A Primary Estuarine Classification	159
1.07.5.3 Secondary Classifications of Estuaries and Coasts	160
1.07.6 Coastal Classifications and Climate Change	162
References	163
Classifying Ecological Quality and Integrity of Estuaries	166
1.08.1 Introduction	166
1.08.1.1 Estuarine Management and the Need for Classifying Ecological Quality	166
1.08.1.2 The Estuarine Quality Paradox and Environmental Homeostasis	167
1.08.2 Classifying Biological Quality Elements	170
1.08.2.1 Plankton	170
1.08.2.2 Macroalgae	174
1.08.2.3 Angiosperms	175
1.08.2.4 Macroinvertebrates	176
1.08.2.5 Fishes	180
1.08.3 Integrating Multiple Compartments of the Ecosystem in Assessing Ecological Quality	183
1.08.3.1 North America	183
1.08.3.2 Europe	186
1.08.3.3 South Africa	188
1.08.3.4 Australia	190
1.08.3.5 International Methodologies and Comparison across Geographies	192
1.08.4 Discussion	196
Acknowledgments	197
References	197
Application of Estuarine and Coastal Classifications in Marine Spatial \rManagement	204
1.09.1 Introduction	205
1.09.1.1 Importance of Spatial, Temporal, and Thematic Resolution	206
1.09.1.2 Utility of Hierarchical Classification Schemes	207
1.09.1.3 Examples of Hierarchical Classifications	207
1.09.2 Spatial Characterization Using Marine and \rCoastal Classifications	208
1.09.2.1 Classifying and Mapping Seascapes of the Scotian Shelf, Northwest Atlantic	209
1.09.2.2 Seascapes of the Baltic Sea	210
1.09.2.3 Australian Coastal Classifications	210
1.09.2.4 Marine Characterization of American Samoa	213
1.09.3 Spatial Conservation Prioritization and Evaluation	215
1.09.3.1 Identifying Priority Conservation Areas in \rthe Northwest Atlantic	216
1.09.3.2 Ecological Valuation Index for the Massachusetts Ocean Plan, USA	218
1.09.4 Ocean Zoning and MSP	219
1.09.4.1 MSP in the Baltic	219
1.09.4.2 Multiple-Use Zoning in the Irish Sea, UK	219
1.09.4.3 Massachusetts Ocean Plan	220
1.09.5 Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management	222
1.09.5.1 Mapping EFH	222
1.09.5.2 Mapping and Classifying Fishing Effort in the UK	222
1.09.5.3 Examining Conflicts between Fishing and Conservation in the German North Sea	223
1.09.6 Optimizing Environmental Monitoring	224
1.09.7 Spatial Change Analysis	225
1.09.7.1 NOAA CoastWatch Change Analysis Program Change Detection	225
1.09.7.2 Tracking Coastal Habitat Change in New Jersey, USA	226
1.09.7.3 Tracking Coastal Habitat Change in Louisiana, USA	226
1.09.7.4 Mangrove Change Detection in Southeast Asia	227
1.09.8 Environmental Risk Assessment and Human Impacts	228
1.09.8.1 Environmental Sensitivity Index Mapping	229
1.09.8.2 Marine Sensitivity Mapping in the UK	230
1.09.8.3 USGS Coastal Hazards Maps	230
1.09.8.4 Classifying and Mapping Human Impacts in Hawaii	231
1.09.8.5 Classifying and Mapping Coastal Vulnerability to Climate Change in Australia	232
1.09.9 Classifying Water Quality	232
1.09.9.1 Australian Environmental Condition Assessment Framework	232
1.09.9.2 European Community Marine Strategy Framework Directive	234
1.09.10 Design of Restoration Strategies	234
1.09.10.1 Targeting Wetlands for Restoration in North Carolina, USA	235
1.09.10.2 Identifying and Prioritizing Restoration Sites in Puget Sound, Oregon, USA	236
1.09.11 Classifying and Mapping Socioeconomic Patterns	237
1.09.11.1 Classifying and Mapping Ecosystem Services	237
1.09.12 Future Directions and Priority Management Needs	239
1.09.12.1 Linking Patterns and Processes in Ecological Classifications	240
1.09.12.2 Understanding and Communicating Errors and Uncertainty	242
Acknowledgments	242
References	242
Relevant Websites	246
Resource Base: Global Distribution and Characteristics of Estuaries and Associated Coastal Shores	248
1.10.1 Geospatial Data Acquisition Tools	248
1.10.1.1 Topographic Maps and Bathymetry	249
1.10.1.2 Attribute Map Based on Remote Sensing	250
1.10.2 Data Management Tools	251
1.10.2.1 Database Management Systems	253
1.10.2.2 Geographical Information Systems	253
1.10.3 Example of Regional Application/Dissemination Tools	253
1.10.3.1 National Coastal Assessment and Data Synthesis	253
1.10.3.2 National Wetland Inventory	255
1.10.3.3 Research and Observation	256
1.10.3.4 Wetland Delineation Tool	257
1.10.3.5 Metadata Standards	258
1.10.3.6 Integrated Information Management System and \rCoastal Planning	258
1.10.4 Worldwide Application/Dissemination Tools	259
1.10.4.1 Worldwide GIS-Based Dissemination	259
1.10.4.2 Worldwide Thematic Dissemination	259
1.10.4.3 Worldwide Knowledge Base	263
References	268
Relevant Websites	269
Tracer Studies of Benthic Communities and Biogeochemical Processes in Coastal and Estuarine Marine Environments	1167
4.03.1 Overview	1167
4.03.2 Benthic Biogeochemical Processes in Estuarine and Coastal Environments	1167
4.03.2.1 Biogeochemical Significance of Estuaries and the Coastal Ocean	1167
4.03.2.2 Benthic Processes and Benthic–Pelagic Coupling	1168
4.03.3 Benthic Faunal Communities and Their Roles in Estuarine and Coastal Biogeochemistry	1169
4.03.3.1 Controls on Faunal Communities	1169
4.03.3.2 Faunal Roles in Sediment Biogeochemistry and Benthic–Pelagic Coupling	1173
4.03.4 Tracer Applications in the Study of Benthic Faunal Processes	1174
4.03.4.1 Tracer Studies of Faunal Feeding and Metabolic Processes	1174
4.03.4.2 The Use of Tracers in Studies of Bioturbation and Bioirrigation	190
e9780123747112v5	1483
Cover	1483
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	1484
Copyright	1487
Contents Of Volume 5\r	1488
Volume Editors	1490
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	1492
Volume Editors: Biographies	1494
Contributors Of All Volumes	1504
Contents Of All Volumes	1514
Preface\r	1520
Biogeochemistry, An Introduction	1524
5.01.1 Introduction	1524
5.01.2 Biogeochemistry	1524
5.01.3 Early Development	1525
5.01.4 Definitions	1525
5.01.5 Biogeochemical Cycles	1526
5.01.6 Attention	1527
5.01.7 Overview of This Volume	1528
References	1528
Relevant Websites	1528
Dissolved Organic Carbon Cycling and Transformation	1530
5.02.1 Introduction	1531
5.02.2 Methods of DOC Sample Collection, Preparation, and Isolation	1532
5.02.2.1 DOC Sampling and Sample Preparation	1532
5.02.2.2 Techniques for Concentrating DOC and Removal of Interfering Salts	1534
5.02.3 DOC Quantification and Characterization	1535
5.02.3.1 Bulk Concentration Analysis	1535
5.02.3.2 DOC Characterization	1535
5.02.4 Sources and Mechanisms of DOC Input to \rEstuaries	1540
5.02.4.1 Terrestrial DOC Sources to Rivers and Estuaries	1541
5.02.4.2 The River Input Term	1543
5.02.4.3 Estuarine Sources	1544
5.02.4.4 Marine Sources to Estuaries	1546
5.02.4.5 Other Sources and Mechanisms of DOC Input	1546
5.02.5 Bulk DOC Distributions in Estuarine Waters	1548
5.02.5.1 Potential Behavior of Organic Solutes in Estuaries	1548
5.02.5.2 Conservative versus Nonconservative DOC Distributions in Different Estuaries	1548
5.02.6 Isotopic Distributions of DOC in Estuaries	1551
5.02.6.1 δ13C Signatures of Estuarine DOC	1551
5.02.6.2 Δ14C Signatures of Estuarine DOC	1552
5.02.6.3 Multiple Isotope Mass Balances for Constraining Estuarine DOC Sources and Sinks	1554
5.02.7 DOC Compound and Compound Class Distributions	1554
5.02.7.1 Carbohydrates	1555
5.02.7.2 Proteins and Amino Acids	1558
5.02.7.3 Lipids	1558
5.02.7.4 Lignin	1560
5.02.7.5 Black Carbon	1561
5.02.7.6 Chromophoric DOC	1561
5.02.7.7 Compound-Class and Compound-Specific Isotopic Analyses	1562
5.02.8 Transformation and Remineralization of DOC in Estuaries and Coastal Waters	1563
5.02.8.1 Microbial Degradation and Respiration	1564
5.02.8.2 Photochemical Degradation and Mineralization	1568
5.02.8.3 Abiotic Sorption and Desorption Processes	1569
5.02.9 Implications of DOC Transformations in Rivers and Estuaries	1570
5.02.9.1 Land–Ocean DOC Budgets	1570
5.02.9.2 Accounting for Terrestrial, Riverine, and Estuarine DOC Inputs in Coastal Ocean Carbon Models	1571
5.02.10 Summary and Future Directions in Estuarine and Coastal DOC Studies	1573
References	1577
Particulate Organic Carbon Cycling and Transformation	1592
5.03.1 Introduction	1593
5.03.2 POC Quantification and Characterization	1593
5.03.2.1 Methods for Bulk and Fraction Analyses of POC	1593
5.03.3 Sources of POC to Estuaries and Ocean Margins	1598
5.03.3.1 Terrestrially Derived Particulates and POC	1598
5.03.3.2 Estuarine Algal Production	1600
5.03.3.3 SAV and EAV	1601
5.03.4 Mechanisms and Sources of POC Input toEstuaries and Ocean Margins	1603
5.03.4.1 River Inputs: Sediment and Suspended Load Transport	1603
5.03.4.2 Inputs and Fate of POC via Estuarine Mixing, Resuspension, and Trapping	1604
5.03.4.3 Atmospheric Inputs of POC	1605
5.03.5 Bulk POC Distributions in Estuarine and \rOcean Margin Waters	1605
5.03.5.1 Conservative versus Nonconservative Distributions in Estuaries\r	1605
5.03.6 Isotopic Distributions of POC in Estuaries and \rOcean Margins	1606
5.03.6.1 Δ14C-POC	1606
5.03.6.2 δ13C-POC	1607
5.03.7 Biochemical Composition and Chemical Biomarkers of POC	1610
5.03.7.1 Lipids	1610
5.03.7.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons	1610
5.03.7.3 Fatty Acids	1611
5.03.7.4 Sterols	1613
5.03.7.5 Cutins and Suberins	1613
5.03.7.6 Carbohydrates	1614
5.03.7.7 Proteins	1615
5.03.7.8 Photosynthetic Pigments	1615
5.03.7.9 Lignin	1617
5.03.7.10 Compound-Specific Isotopic Analyses	1617
5.03.8 Transformation and Mineralization of POC in \rEstuaries and coastal Waters	1621
5.03.8.1 Microbial Degradation and Respiration	1621
5.03.8.2 Decay Models	1623
5.03.9 Implications of POC Transformation	1624
5.03.9.1 Land–Ocean POC Transport	1624
5.03.9.2 Estuarine and Coastal POC Budgets	1625
5.03.10 Summary and Future Directions in Estuarine and Coastal POC Studies	1627
5.03.10.1 Summary	1627
5.03.10.2 Future Studies	1628
References	1629
Relevant Websites	1640
Carbon Dioxide and Methane Dynamics in Estuaries	1642
5.04.1 Introduction	1642
5.04.2 Estuarine Definitions and Classifications from the Perspective of CO2 and CH4 Dynamics	1642
5.04.3 Dynamics of CO2 and Atmospheric CO2 Fluxes in Estuarine Environments	1643
5.04.3.1 Spatial and Temporal Variability of CO2 in Estuaries	1643
5.04.3.2 Drivers of the Emission of CO2 to the Atmosphere from Estuaries	1645
5.04.4 Dynamics of CH4 and Atmospheric CH4 Fluxes in Estuarine Environments	1659
5.04.4.1 Occurrence of High CH4 Concentrations in Estuarine Sediments: Combined Controls of Methanogenesis byOrganic Matter Supply and Salinity	1659
5.04.4.2 Pathways and Fluxes of CH4 from Sediment to Water and to the Atmosphere	1663
5.04.4.3 Distribution and Fate of CH4 in Estuarine Waters: Oxidation versus Degassing	1667
5.04.5 Gas Transfer Velocities of CO2 and CH4 in Estuarine Environments: Multiple Drivers and a Large Source ofUncertainty in Flux Evaluations	1672
5.04.6 Significance of CO2 and CH4 Emission from Estuaries in the Global Carbon Cycle	1674
5.04.7 Summary and Perspectives	1678
Acknowledgments	1679
References	1679
Oxygen -\rDynamics and Biogeochemical Consequences	1686
5.05.1 Introduction	1687
5.05.2 Spatial O2 Distributions	1688
5.05.3 Temporal O2 Distributions	1690
5.05.4 Processes Controlling O2 Distributions	1692
5.05.4.1 Physical Controls on O2 Variation	1692
5.05.4.2 Biogeochemical Controls on O2 Variation	1694
5.05.4.3 Integrated O2 Budgets	1696
5.05.4.4 Modeling O2 and Biogeochemistry	1696
5.05.5 Formation of O2-Depleted Coastal Waters	1699
5.05.5.1 Time and Space Scales of O2 Depletion	1699
5.05.5.2 Eutrophication and Hypoxia	1699
5.05.5.3 Metabolic Balance and Hypoxia	1700
5.05.5.4 Ecological Consequences of Hypoxia	1701
5.05.6 O2 Effects on Coastal Biogeochemistry	1702
5.05.6.1 O2 Effects on Organic Matter Decomposition	1703
5.05.6.2 O2 Effects on Manganese and Iron Cycling	1704
5.05.6.3 O2 Effects on Sulfur Cycling	1705
5.05.6.4 O2 Effects on Phosphorus Cycling	1705
5.05.6.5 O2 Effects on Nitrogen Cycling	1707
5.05.6.6 Benthic Macrofauna Effects on Biogeochemistry	1710
5.05.6.7 Summaries of Sediment–Water Fluxes andWater-Column Distributions	1710
5.05.7 Synthesis, Extensions, and Implications	1711
5.05.7.1 Feedbacks between O2 and Biogeochemical Processes	1711
5.05.7.2 Remediation of Eutrophication and Hypoxia	1713
5.05.7.3 Climate Change and Hypoxia	1713
5.05.8 Concluding Comments	1715
Acknowledgments	1715
References	1716
Relevant Websites	1722
Phosphorus Cycling in the Estuarine and Coastal Zones: Sources, Sinks, and Transformations	1724
5.06.1 Introduction	1724
5.06.2 Sources of Phosphorus to Estuaries and the \rNear Coastal Zone	1726
5.06.2.1 Sources of P to Rivers	1726
5.06.2.2 Processing of P in Rivers	1727
5.06.2.3 Modeling of Riverine P Processing and Export to the \rCoastal Zone	1728
5.06.2.4 Groundwater	1730
5.06.2.5 Ocean	1732
5.06.2.6 Atmosphere	1732
5.06.2.7 Direct Inputs into the Coastal Zone due to Human Activity	1733
5.06.3 Removal of Phosphorus from Estuaries and the \rCoastal Ocean	1734
5.06.3.1 Burial in Sediments: Forms of P, Methods ofDetection, and Total P Burial Flux	1734
5.06.3.2 Harvest	1735
5.06.4 Transformation and Cycling of Phosphorus	1736
5.06.4.1 Water-Column Processes	1736
5.06.4.2 Early Diagenetic Transformations	1739
5.06.4.3 Benthic–Pelagic Coupling	1741
5.06.4.4 Exchange with Vegetated Systems	1744
5.06.5 Summary and Outlook	1745
Acknowledgments	1747
References	1747
Internal Cycling of Nitrogen and Nitrogen Transformations	1754
5.07.1 Introduction	1755
5.07.2 Forms and Concentrations of Inorganic Nitrogen	1755
5.07.2.1 Assimilation	1755
5.07.2.2 Nitrification	1756
5.07.2.3 Estuarine N Cycling	1761
5.07.2.4 Co-Limitation with Nitrogen	1763
5.07.3 DON Assimilation	1763
5.07.3.1 DON Cycling	1763
5.07.3.2 Composition of DON	1763
5.07.3.3 Sources of DON	1763
5.07.3.4 DON Bioavailability	1765
5.07.4 Nitrogen Fixation in Coastal Habitats andEstuaries	1766
5.07.4.1 General Aspects and Regulating Factors	1766
5.07.4.2 Control on Nitrogen Fixation in Estuaries Bottom Up versus Top down	1767
5.07.4.3 Benthic Nitrogen Fixation	1767
5.07.4.4 Epiphytic Nitrogen Fixation	1767
5.07.4.5 Nitrogen Fixation in Coastal Upwelling Zones and Tropical Estuaries	1768
5.07.5 Microbial Loop and Links to the Mesozooplankton	1768
5.07.5.1 Food Sources and Food Webs	1768
5.07.5.2 Groups of Organisms Sustained in the Microbial Loop	1769
5.07.5.3 Significance of Microbial Food Webs in Estuaries: The Microbial Hub Approach	1772
5.07.6 Tropical Mangrove-Dominated Coasts	1773
5.07.6.1 Nitrogen Fixation	1774
5.07.6.2 Denitrification in Mangrove Systems	1774
5.07.6.3 N2O Production in Mangroves	1775
5.07.6.4 Nitrogen Burial in Mangroves	1775
5.07.6.5 Outwelling from Mangrove Systems	1775
5.07.6.6 Role of Riverine Inputs and Eolian Deposits andRain on Mangroves	1775
5.07.6.7 Internal Recycling of Nitrogen	1775
5.07.6.8 Ammonification in Mangroves	1775
5.07.6.9 Nitrification	1775
5.07.6.10 Mangrove’s Nitrogen Assimilation	1776
5.07.6.11 Anthropogenic Impacts	1776
References	1776
Nitrogen Cycle -\rExternal Cycling: Losses and Gains	1784
5.08.1 Introduction	1784
5.08.2 Nitrogen Inputs	1785
5.08.2.1 Freshwater	1785
5.08.2.2 Atmospheric	1789
5.08.2.3 Exchange between Shelf Seas and the Ocean	1790
5.08.2.4 Nitrogen Fixation	1791
5.08.3 Nitrogen Loss	1791
5.08.3.1 Denitrification	1792
5.08.3.2 Anammox and Oxygen-Limited Autotrophic Nitrification–Denitrification	1793
5.08.3.3 Chemo-Denitrification	1794
5.08.3.4 Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium	1794
5.08.3.5 Fisheries and Trawling	1794
5.08.4 Role of Sediments	1794
5.08.4.1 Influence of Sedimentary Type	1794
5.08.4.2 Mangroves and Salt Marshes	1795
5.08.4.3 Illustrative Budgets for Some Coastal Regions	1796
5.08.5 Environmental Linkages beyond the Nitrogen Cycle	1797
5.08.6 Conclusions	1797
References	1797
Estuarine and Coastal Sediments -\r Coupled Biogeochemical Cycling	1802
5.09.1 Introduction	1802
5.09.2 Introduction to Biogeochemical Processes inSediments	1803
5.09.2.1 Organic Matter Remineralization Processes	1803
5.09.2.2 Chemolithotrophic Reactions	1804
5.09.2.3 Linkages between Chemolithotrophic and Organic Matter Remineralization Processes	1806
5.09.2.4 Seasonality and Non-Steady-State Processes inEstuarine and Coastal Sediments	1807
5.09.3 Linkages of Biogeochemical Processes andTransport Processes and the Occurrence of Mixed Redox Conditions in Sediments	1808
5.09.4 The Classification of Estuarine and Coastal Sediments	1808
5.09.4.1 Steadily Accumulating Sediments	1810
5.09.4.2 Sediments Subject to Extensive Physical Reworking	1812
5.09.4.3 High Permeability, Sandy Sediments	1812
5.09.4.4 Bypass Zone Sediments	1814
5.09.4.5 Macrophyte-Dominated Sediments	1814
5.09.4.6 Intertidal Mudflats and Sandflats	1815
5.09.5 Sediment Oxygen Consumption	1816
5.09.6 Organotrophic Denitrification, Anammox andAnoxic Nitrification	1816
5.09.6.1 Anammox	1818
5.09.6.2 Anoxic Nitrification	1818
5.09.6.3 Nitrogen Loss from Sediments: Closing Thoughts	1819
5.09.7 Iron and Manganese Reduction	1819
5.09.8 Sulfate Reduction and Sulfide Mineral Formation	1823
5.09.8.1 Pyrite Formation in Sediments	1824
5.09.8.2 Pyrite Burial and Sulfur Burial Efficiency	1825
5.09.9 Methanogenesis, Methane Oxidation, andMethane Fluxes to the Atmosphere	1826
5.09.10 Trace Metal Cycling	1827
5.09.11 Concluding Remarks	1830
References	1831
Coupled C, N, P, and O Biogeochemical Cycling at the Land-\rOcean Interface	1840
5.10.1 Introduction	1840
5.10.2 General Description of the Land–Coastal Ocean Interface	1841
5.10.3 Some Physical and Biogeochemical Processes in the Receiving System of the Land–Ocean Interface	1843
5.10.3.1 Role of Nutrient Limitation in C, N, and P Cycling	1845
5.10.3.2 Coupling of Physical and Biological Processes	1846
5.10.3.3 Sources of C, N, and P	1847
5.10.4 The Coastal Ocean and the Land–Ocean Interface in a Global Context	1849
5.10.4.1 Past and Future of Riverine Transport of C, N, and P	1849
5.10.4.2 Historical Patterns of Loss of C, N, and P from Land	1850
5.10.4.3 Effects of Increasing Riverine Fluxes on C, N, P, and O in the Coastal Ocean	1852
5.10.4.4 Air–Sea Exchange of Atmospheric CO2 and Acidification of Coastal Ocean Waters	1855
5.10.5 Lessons from a Regional Estuarine System	1858
5.10.5.1 General Description of Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii, US Estuarine System	1858
5.10.5.2 Storms, Nutrients, and the CO2–Carbonic Acid System	1861
5.10.6 Conclusions	1862
References	1864
Biogeochemical Budgeting in Estuaries	1866
5.11.1 Introduction: The Budget Approach in Coastal and Estuarine Systems	1866
5.11.2 Mass-Balance Fundamentals	1868
5.11.2.1 System Boundaries	1869
5.11.2.2 Loads, Fluxes, and Concentrations	1869
5.11.3 Methods for Estimating Budget Components	1870
5.11.3.1 Global and Regional Online Databases	1870
5.11.3.2 Riverine Nutrient Fluxes	1870
5.11.3.3 Atmospheric Deposition	1871
5.11.3.4 Groundwater Sources	1871
5.11.3.5 Flux of Nutrients to and from the Sea	1871
5.11.4 Budget Methodology	1872
5.11.4.1 A Mass Balance for a Single Well-Mixed Compartment	1872
5.11.4.2 A Mass Balance for a Two-Layer System: Estuarine Circulation	1873
5.11.4.3 A Mass Balance for a Multicompartment System	1873
5.11.4.4 Some Typical Examples of Budget Calculations	1874
5.11.5 Examples of Budgets of Well-Studied Systems	1875
5.11.5.1 The Baltic Sea	1875
5.11.5.2 The Chesapeake Bay	1876
5.11.5.3 Large Chinese Estuaries	1876
5.11.6 Methods for Dealing with Data Quality, Variability, and Uncertainty Issues	1876
5.11.6.1 Uncertainty Analysis of Biogeochemical Budgets	1876
5.11.6.2 Metadata and Data Quality	1880
5.11.7 Strengths and Weaknesses of Nutrient Budgets in Coastal Research and Management	1881
5.11.8 Future Uses of Budgets in Coastal Research and Management	1882
5.11.9 Conclusion	1882
References	1882
Relevant Websites	1885
e9780123747112v6	1886
Cover\r	1886
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	1887
Copyright	1890
Contents Of Volume\r 6	1891
Volume Editors	1893
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	1895
Volume Editors: Biographies	1897
Contributors Of All Volumes	1907
Contents Of All Volumes	1917
Preface\r	1923
Introduction to Food Webs in Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystems	1927
6.01.1 Introduction	1927
6.01.2 Food Webs in Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystems	1928
6.01.3 Conclusions	1929
References	1930
Relevant Websites	1930
Particulate Organic Detritus and Detritus Feeders in Coastal FoodWebs	1931
6.02.1 Introduction	1931
6.02.2 Phytoplankton Detritus	1932
6.02.3 Temperature Effects on Fate of Phytoplankton Detritus	1932
6.02.4 Benthic Macroalgal Detritus	1933
6.02.5 Salt Marsh, Grass, and Seagrass Detritus	1934
6.02.6 Terrestrial Organic Matter	1935
6.02.7 Mangroves	1936
6.02.8 A New Paradigm?	1936
6.02.9 Deposit Feeders at Several Scales	1937
6.02.9.1 Gut and Digestion	1937
6.02.9.2 Collection, Rejection, and Defecation of Particles	1937
6.02.9.3 Sediment Surface Micro Zone	1937
6.02.9.4 Population Level	1937
6.02.9.5 Ecosystem Level	1938
6.02.10 What Is a Deposit Feeder?	1938
6.02.11 Food of Deposit Feeders	1938
6.02.12 Ingestion Selectivity	1939
6.02.13 Microbial Digestion and Gardening	1940
6.02.13.1 Within the Gut	1940
6.02.13.2 Outside of the Gut in the Sediment	1941
6.02.14 Effects of Deposit Feeders on Sediment Structure and on Fluxes Between the Sediment and Sediment–WaterInterface	1941
6.02.15 Food Input, Limitation, and Deposit-Feeder Population Dynamics	1942
References	1943
Primary Producers: Phytoplankton Ecology and Trophic Dynamics inCoastal Waters	1949
6.03.1 Introduction	1949
6.03.2 The Players: Phytoplankton Community Composition and Function	1950
6.03.3 Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Phytoplankton Biomass and Productivity	1953
6.03.4 Factors Controlling Phytoplankton Productivity and Community Composition	1954
6.03.4.1 Light	1954
6.03.4.2 Nutrients	1955
6.03.4.3 Temperature	1958
6.03.4.4 ‘Top Down’ Control: Herbivory	1958
6.03.5 Human and Climatic Impacts on Coastal Phytoplankton Dynamics	1959
6.03.5.1 Effects of Nutrient Overenrichment on Estuarine Phytoplankton	1959
6.03.5.2 The Roles of Climatic Variability in Eutrophication Dynamics	1959
6.03.6 Harmful Algal Blooms	1961
6.03.7 Nutrient Management of Phytoplankton Production and Composition	1962
Acknowledgments	1965
References	1965
Trophic Interactions in Coastal and Estuarine Mangrove Forest Ecosystems	1969
6.04.1 Introduction	1970
6.04.2 What Are Mangrove Forests?	1970
6.04.3 Net Primary Productivity of Mangrove Forests	1973
6.04.4 The Fate of Mangrove and Algal Organic Matter	1974
6.04.4.1 Herbivory on Mangroves	1976
6.04.4.2 Detritivory and Decomposition in Mangroves	1984
6.04.5 Predation	1994
6.04.5.1 Invertebrate Predators	1994
6.04.5.2 Vertebrate Predators	1996
6.04.6 Parasitism	2002
6.04.6.1 Mosquitoes	2002
6.04.6.2 Trematodes	2002
6.04.6.3 Pathogenic Fungi	2003
6.04.7 Provision of Substrate and 3D Structure	2003
6.04.7.1 Substrate for Fouling Communities	2003
6.04.7.2 Nursery Grounds, Refuge from Predation, or Both?	2004
6.04.8 Concluding Remarks	2007
Acknowledgements	2008
References	2008
Plankton Consumer Groups: Copepods	2021
6.05.1 Introduction	2021
6.05.2 Copepod Diversity, Species Composition, Abundance, Biomass, and Distribution	2021
6.05.3 Copepod Feeding	2026
6.05.3.1 Introduction	2026
6.05.3.2 Diet Composition	2026
6.05.3.3 Nutrition: Macronutrients	2030
6.05.3.4 Nutrition: Fatty Acids	2031
6.05.3.5 Feeding on Toxic or Unpalatable Food	2032
6.05.3.6 Cannibalism	2034
6.05.3.7 Impact of Diet on Copepod Growth and Reproduction	2034
6.05.3.8 Secondary Production	2036
6.05.4 Predation on Mesozooplankton	2037
6.05.4.1 Introduction	2037
6.05.4.2 Zooplanktivorous Fish and Fish Larvae	2038
6.05.4.3 Gelatinous Zooplankton	2040
6.05.4.4 Other Invertebrates	2043
6.05.5 Summary and Future Research Directions	2043
Acknowledgments	2046
References	2046
Gelatinous Zooplankton and Their Trophic Roles	2053
6.06.1 Introduction	2053
6.06.2 Growth	2058
6.06.3 Abundance	2063
6.06.4 Prey	2066
6.06.5 Grazing and Predation Rates	2070
6.06.6 Grazing and Predation Impact	2078
6.06.7 Competitors	2080
6.06.8 Predators	2083
6.06.9 Biological Associates	2087
6.06.10 Conclusion	2090
Acknowledgements	2090
References	2090
Meiofauna as Consumers in Coastal Food Webs	2099
6.07.1 Meiofauna: Taxonomic Composition, Density, and Biomass Heterogeneity across Coastal Ecosystems	2099
6.07.2 Trophic Interactions	2106
6.07.2.1 Food Selection and Feeding Strategies	2106
6.07.2.2 Trophic Guilds	2110
6.07.2.3 Predation on Meiofauna	2112
6.07.3 Food Webs	2113
6.07.3.1 The Role of Meiofauna in Energy Transfer	2114
6.07.3.2 Meiofaunal Trophodynamics: Ecosystem Approach	2121
6.07.4 Conclusions	2121
References	2124
High-Trophic-Level Consumers: Elasmobranchs	2129
6.08.1 Introduction	2129
6.08.2 Elasmobranchs as Prey	2130
6.08.3 Elasmobranchs as Predators	2132
6.08.3.1 Trophic Level	2132
6.08.3.2 Feeding Guilds	2132
6.08.4 Competition and Resource Partitioning	2134
6.08.5 Metabolism, Digestion, and Feeding Periodicity	2135
6.08.6 Elasmobranch Impacts on Prey andCommunity Structure	2137
6.08.7 Elasmobranch Impacts on Nutrient Dynamics	2138
6.08.8 Elasmobranchs as Facilitators of Trophic Interactions	2139
6.08.9 Trophic Interactions of Elasmobranchs inCoastal Ecosystems	2139
6.08.9.1 Coral Reefs	2139
6.08.9.2 Rocky Reefs	2140
6.08.9.3 Seagrass Beds and Mangroves	2141
6.08.9.4 Unvegetated Soft Bottom	2142
6.08.9.5 Estuaries	2143
6.08.9.6 Open Coastal Waters	2143
6.08.10 Conclusions	2144
References	2145
High-Trophic-Level Consumers: Trophic Relationships of Reptiles andAmphibians of Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystems	2153
6.09.1 Introduction/Paleoecology	2153
6.09.2 Amphibia	2155
6.09.3 Reptiles	2156
6.09.3.1 Lizards	2156
6.09.3.2 Snakes	2159
6.09.3.3 Crocodilians	2162
6.09.3.4 Turtles	2163
6.09.4 General Conclusions	2172
Reference	2172
Ecosystem Studies: Sandy Coastal Ecosystems	2177
6.10.1 Introduction	2177
6.10.2 Primary Production and Inputs	2178
6.10.3 Secondary Production within the Ecosystem	2179
6.10.4 Predators and Export	2179
6.10.5 Effects of Predation	2181
6.10.6 Ecological Network Analysis of Sandy Shore Ecosystems	2182
6.10.7 Conclusion	2184
References	2184
Relevant Website	2185
Trophic Relationships in Salt Marshes of Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystems	2187
6.11.1 Introduction	2187
6.11.2 Primary Production	2187
6.11.2.1 Emergent Vegetation	2187
6.11.2.2 Algae	2188
6.11.3 Consumers	2188
6.11.3.1 Invertebrates	2188
6.11.3.2 Nekton	2188
6.11.4 Salt-Marsh Food Webs	2188
6.11.4.1 Interactions	2188
6.11.4.2 Cascade Studies	2189
6.11.4.3 Stable Isotopes	2189
6.11.5 Loop Model	2190
6.11.6 Abiotic Events	2193
6.11.6.1 Tides	2193
6.11.6.2 Anthropogenic Influences	2193
References	2194
Relevant Websites	2195
Whole Food-Web Studies: Mangroves	2197
6.12.1 Introduction	2197
6.12.2 Food Web	2198
6.12.2.1 Primary Food Sources	2198
6.12.2.2 Who Eats Who? – Main Energy Sources and Consumers	2200
6.12.2.3 Connections to Adjacent Ecosystems (Imports/Exports)	2204
6.12.3 Ecosystem Functioning (Whole Food-Web Studies)	2205
6.12.4 Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Turnover ofMangrove Systems	2209
6.12.5 Concluding Remarks	2209
References	2210
Relevant Websites	2212
Food Web of Intertidal Mussel and Oyster Beds	2213
6.13.1 Introduction	2214
6.13.1.1 General Aspects of Suspension-Feeder Communities	2214
6.13.1.2 Types of Suspension-Feeding Communities	2214
6.13.1.3 Soft-Bottom versus Hard-Bottom Suspension-Feeding Communities	2214
6.13.1.4 A Biogeographical Overview of Suspension-Feeder Food Webs	2215
6.13.2 Food-Web Components of Suspension-Feeder Assemblages	2219
6.13.2.1 Primary Producers	2219
6.13.2.2 Bacteria	2219
6.13.2.3 Herbivores	2219
6.13.2.4 Detritivores	2220
6.13.2.5 Invertebrate Predators	2220
6.13.2.6 Fishes	2221
6.13.2.7 Reptiles	2221
6.13.2.8 Birds	2221
6.13.2.9 Mammals	2221
6.13.3 Food-Web Case Studies of Mussel Beds intheNorth Sea and the Wadden Sea	2221
6.13.3.1 Ecological Carbon Transfer of Wadden Sea MusselBeds	2221
6.13.3.2 Trophic Analysis of Mussel Beds	2223
6.13.3.3 Structure and Magnitude of Cycling	2224
6.13.3.4 System Level Properties and System Organization	2225
6.13.4 Food-Web Case Studies of Oyster Beds attheFrench Atlantic Coast	2226
6.13.5 Food-Web Case Studies of Oyster Beds attheAmerican Atlantic Coast	2226
6.13.6 Role of Suspension-Feeder Assemblages inCoastal Food Web	2227
References	2227
e9780123747112v7	2231
Cover	2231
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	2232
Copyright	2235
Contents Of Volume 7\r	2236
Volume Editors	2238
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	2240
Volume Editors: Biographies	2242
Contributors Of All Volumes	2252
Contents Of All Volumes	2262
Preface\r	2268
Functioning of Ecosystems at the Land-Ocean Interface	2272
7.01.1 Introduction	2272
7.01.2 Functioning of Ecosystems at the Land–Ocean Interface	2273
7.01.3 Conclusion	2274
Trends in Estuarine Phytoplankton Ecology	2276
7.02.1 Introduction	2276
7.02.2 Multi-Stressors behind Phytoplankton Development in Estuaries	2277
7.02.2.1 Hydrodynamics	2277
7.02.2.2 Hydro-Sedimentary Processes as Drivers of Light Availability	2278
7.02.2.3 Nutrients	2279
7.02.2.4 Salinity Gradient	2280
7.02.2.5 Top-Down Control	2280
7.02.3 Trends	2281
7.02.4 Conclusions and Perspectives	2282
References	2283
Functional Consequences of Invasive Species in Coastal andEstuarine Systems	2288
7.03.1 Introduction	2289
7.03.2 Functional Roles of Invaders in Ecosystems	2289
7.03.3 Invader Impacts on Nutrient and Biogeochemical Cycling	2290
7.03.3.1 Biodeposition, Nutrient Transfer, and Benthic–Pelagic Coupling	2291
7.03.3.2 Nitrogen Fixation	2292
7.03.3.3 Bioturbation	2292
7.03.4 Invader Alteration of Trophic Interactions andEnergy Flow through Ecosystems	2293
7.03.4.1 Food-Web Effects of Invasive Vascular Plants	2293
7.03.4.2 Food-Web Effects of Invasive Macroalgae	2294
7.03.4.3 Impacts of Invasive Benthic Grazers and Filter Feeders	2295
7.03.4.4 Impacts of Invasive Higher Consumers	2295
7.03.5 Ecosystem Engineering by Invaders	2296
7.03.5.1 Abiotic Ecosystem Characteristics	2296
7.03.5.2 Engineering Processes	2296
7.03.5.3 Ecosystem Engineering by Invasive Plants andAlgae	2298
7.03.5.4 Ecosystem Engineering by Introduced Animals	2301
7.03.6 Evolutionary Impacts of Marine Invaders	2304
7.03.7 Emergent Properties of Invaded Ecosystems	2305
7.03.7.1 Productivity	2305
7.03.7.2 Habitat Structure	2306
7.03.7.3 Connectivity	2307
7.03.7.4 Succession	2307
7.03.7.5 Stability and Resilience	2307
7.03.7.6 Biodiversity	2307
7.03.8 Invaders and Ecosystem Services	2308
7.03.8.1 Aquaculture and Fisheries	2308
7.03.8.2 Maritime Devices, Facilities, and Structures	2309
7.03.8.3 Ecosystem Management	2309
7.03.8.4 Aesthetic, Cultural, and Health Impacts	2310
7.03.9 Predicting Functional Consequences ofInvasion	2310
Acknowledgments	2311
References	2316
Physical Ecosystem Engineers and the Functioning of Estuaries andCoasts	2324
7.04.1 Introduction	2325
7.04.2 Making Sense of the Diversity: A Framework for Physical Ecosystem Engineering of Estuaries andCoasts	2327
7.04.2.1 Framework	2327
7.04.2.2 Framework Application	2328
7.04.3 Major Ecosystem Engineers: Exemplification ofthe Framework	2329
7.04.3.1 Dune Plants	2329
7.04.3.2 Tidal Marsh Plants	2331
7.04.3.3 Mangroves	2332
7.04.3.4 Seagrasses	2333
7.04.3.5 Kelp and Other Macrophytic Seaweeds	2335
7.04.3.6 Coral Reefs	2336
7.04.3.7 Reef-Forming Bivalves	2337
7.04.3.8 Burrowing Crustaceans	2339
7.04.3.9 Infauna	2340
7.04.4 Major Ecosystem Engineers in Estuaries andCoasts: Human Impacts and Management	2342
7.04.4.1 Human Estuarine and Coastal Engineering	2342
7.04.4.2 How does Human Engineering Compare to Nature’s Engineers?	2342
7.04.4.3 Ecosystem Engineers and Ecosystem-Based Management	2344
7.04.4.4 Lessons from Nature’s Engineers: Improving Human Environmental Engineering	2344
7.04.5 Prospectus	2345
Acknowledgments	2346
References	2346
Metabolic Balance between Ecosystem Production and Consumption	2354
7.05.1 Introduction	2355
7.05.2 Concepts and Definitions	2356
7.05.3 Approaches for Estimating Ecosystem Metabolism	2357
7.05.3.1 Temporal Changes in Concentrations	2357
7.05.3.2 Budgets and Models	2361
7.05.3.3 Direct Air–Water Gas Exchange	2362
7.05.4 Factors Regulating Ecosystem Metabolism	2363
7.05.4.1 Effects of Light and Water Clarity	2363
7.05.4.2 Effects of Temperature	2364
7.05.4.3 Effects of Nutrient and Organic Matter Loading	2365
7.05.4.4 Effects of Water Residence Time	2367
7.05.4.5 Effects of Water Depth	2367
7.05.5 Spatial/Temporal Patterns and Gradients	2368
7.05.5.1 Temporal Variations in Metabolic Rates	2368
7.05.5.2 Spatial Variations in Metabolic Rates	2371
7.05.6 Applications of Ecosystem Metabolism Studies	2373
7.05.6.1 Trophic Status	2373
7.05.6.2 Metabolic Balance and Net Import/Export	2374
7.05.6.3 Partitioning Metabolism among Habitats	2374
7.05.6.4 Global Carbon Balance	2376
7.05.6.5 Metabolic Balance and Hypoxia	2377
7.05.6.6 Metabolic Balance and Food-Web Support	2378
7.05.6.7 Metabolic Response to Perturbation	2378
7.05.7 Synthesis and Future Directions	2381
7.05.7.1 Broad Patterns in Metabolic Balance	2381
7.05.7.2 Error Propagation in Upscaling and Downscaling: Reassessing Methods	2382
7.05.7.3 Responses to Human Perturbation	2382
7.05.7.4 Metabolic Responses to Climate Change and Variability	2383
Acknowledgments	2384
References	2384
Connectivity of Estuaries	2390
7.06.1 Introduction	2390
7.06.2 How Are Estuaries Connected?	2392
7.06.2.1 Models of Connectivity	2393
7.06.2.2 Genetic Connectivity	2393
7.06.2.3 Demographic Connectivity	2394
7.06.2.4 Spatial and Temporal Extent of Connectivity	2395
7.06.2.5 Ecological Consequences of Connectivity	2396
7.06.3 What Determines the Strength of These Connections?	2397
7.06.3.1 Physical Forcing Mechanisms	2397
7.06.3.2 Estuarine Circulation	2397
7.06.3.3 Estuarine Flushing/Retention Timescales	2397
7.06.3.4 Lagrangian Particle Transport – Advection and Diffusion	2398
7.06.3.5 Connectivity within Estuaries	2398
7.06.3.6 Coastal Connectivity: Circulation between Estuaries	2398
7.06.3.7 Modeling Estuarine Connectivity	2398
7.06.3.8 Connectivity between Estuaries along the Coast ofSE Australia Aided by the EAC	2399
7.06.3.9 Individual-Based Models	2400
7.06.3.10 Morphology-Driven Connectivity	2400
7.06.3.11 Distance between Estuaries	2401
7.06.4 Techniques for Assessing Connectivity	2402
7.06.4.1 Physical Tags	2402
7.06.4.2 Natural Marks	2404
7.06.4.3 Genetic Identification	2405
7.06.4.4 Chemical Marks	2405
7.06.5 Connectivity and Management Perspectives	2408
7.06.6 Conclusion	2409
References	2409
Use of Stable Isotopes to Understand Food Webs and Ecosystem Functioning in Estuaries	2414
7.07.1 Introduction	2415
7.07.2 Identification of Carbon and Nitrogen Sources in Estuaries	2415
7.07.2.1 Isotope Signatures of Potential Organic Matter Sources in Estuaries	2415
7.07.2.2 Conservative Mixing in Estuaries: Mass-Balance and Stable Isotope Considerations	2417
7.07.2.3 Organic Matter Sources in Estuarine Sediments and Suspended Matter	2418
7.07.2.4 Origin of Estuarine Dissolved Organic Matter	2419
7.07.2.5 Inorganic Carbon Cycling in Estuaries	2420
7.07.2.6 Inorganic Nitrogen Cycling in Estuaries	2422
7.07.2.7 Identifying Microbial Carbon Sources Using Stable Isotopes	2422
7.07.3 Stable Isotopes as Tracers of Food-Web Structure	2423
7.07.3.1 Introduction	2423
7.07.3.2 Food Webs in Temperate Estuaries	2423
7.07.3.3 Food Webs in Tropical Estuaries	2424
7.07.3.4 Tracking Sewage Nitrogen into Food Webs	2425
7.07.3.5 Models and Statistics	2425
7.07.3.6 Dealing with Fractionation Issues in Food Web Studies	2426
7.07.4 Stable Isotope Enrichment Experiments	2426
7.07.5 Stable Isotopes as Tracers of Animal Movement	2427
7.07.5.1 Introduction	2427
7.07.5.2 Movements in and out of Estuaries	2427
7.07.5.3 Movements among Habitats within Estuaries	2428
7.07.5.4 Demonstration of Site Fidelity	2428
7.07.5.5 Advantages of Stable Isotopes for Studying Animal Movements	2428
7.07.6 High-Resolution Stable Isotope Records: Biological Archives of Past Environmental Conditions	2429
7.07.6.1 Controls on Shell δ18O	2430
7.07.6.2 Biogenic Carbonates as Paleo-Thermometers	2431
7.07.6.3 Biogenic Carbonates as Paleo-Discharge or Salinity Indicators	2432
7.07.6.4 Using δ18Oshell Cycles to Determine Bivalve Growth	2433
7.07.6.5 Carbonate δ13C:DIC or Bivalve Metabolism?	2434
7.07.6.6 Shell Organic Matrix Stable Isotopes	2435
7.07.6.7 Nontraditional Stable Isotopes: New Potentials forEnvironmental Proxies	2435
7.07.6.8 Multiproxy Approaches	2436
References	2436
Coastal Monitoring Programs	2446
7.08.1 Introduction	2447
7.08.2 Information Needs and Use of Monitoring Data	2447
7.08.3 Water-Quality Monitoring	2449
7.08.4 Phytoplankton Monitoring	2450
7.08.4.1 Hypotheses of Pressure Responses	2450
7.08.4.2 State of the Art	2451
7.08.4.3 Indicators	2451
7.08.4.4 Upcoming New Technologies	2452
7.08.4.5 Discussion	2453
7.08.5 Benthic Vegetation Monitoring	2454
7.08.5.1 Hypotheses on Pressure Responses	2455
7.08.5.2 Monitoring of Benthic Vegetation – State of the Art	2456
7.08.5.3 Indicators	2457
7.08.6 Benthic Macrofauna Monitoring	2460
7.08.6.1 Hypotheses of Pressure Responses	2460
7.08.6.2 State of the Art in Benthic Fauna Monitoring	2462
7.08.6.3 Responses	2462
7.08.6.4 Indicators	2463
7.08.6.5 Setting Boundaries for Quality Status Assessment	2463
7.08.6.6 Discussion	2464
7.08.7 Hazardous Substances Monitoring	2464
7.08.7.1 Principles in Hazardous Substances Monitoring	2465
7.08.7.2 State of the Art in Hazardous Substance Monitoring	2465
7.08.7.3 Indicators	2466
7.08.7.4 Monitoring Problems	2467
7.08.7.5 Upcoming Technology	2469
7.08.8 Planning and Design of Monitoring Programs	2470
7.08.8.1 Identification of Monitoring Objectives	2470
7.08.8.2 Statistical Design of Monitoring Programs	2471
7.08.9 Conclusion	2472
Acknowledgments	2473
References	2473
Relevant Websites	2477
e9780123747112v8	2478
Cover	2478
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	2479
Copyright	2482
Contents Of Volume 8\r	2483
Volume Editors	2485
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	2487
Volume Editors: Biographies	2489
Contributors Of All Volumes	2499
Contents Of All Volumes	2509
Preface\r	2515
Introduction -\r Overview	2519
8.01.1 Introduction	2519
8.01.2 Driver–Pressure–State–Impact–Response Approach	2520
8.01.3 Environmental Impact Assessment	2520
8.01.4 Adverse Changes at Levels of Biological Organization	2522
8.01.4.1 The Ecosystem Approach	2522
8.01.4.2 Ecosystem Management and Indicators of Health	2523
8.01.5 Endogenic Managed Pressures and Exogenic Unmanaged Pressures	2526
8.01.5.1 Endogenic Managed Pressures: Introductions totheSystem	2526
8.01.5.2 Physical Introductions to the Systems: Large Physical Structures	2528
8.01.5.3 Physical Introductions to the Systems: Small-Sized Physical materials (Physical Particulate Pollution)	2528
8.01.5.4 Chemical Introductions to the Systems: PointSource	2528
8.01.5.5 Chemical Introductions to the Systems: Diffuse andNonpoint Source Pollution from Chemicals	2528
8.01.5.6 Endogenic Managed Pressures: Removals fromtheSystem	2529
8.01.5.7 Exogenic Unmanaged pressures	2529
8.01.6 Discussion and Conclusions	2529
8.01.6.1 Monitoring to Management	2529
8.01.6.2 Adequacy of the Science and Significance ofChange	2529
8.01.6.3 Monitoring for Management	2530
References	2532
Estuarine and Coastal Structures: Environmental Effects, A Focus on Shore and Nearshore Structures	2535
8.02.1 Introduction	2535
8.02.2 History and Use of Shore Structures	2536
8.02.3 Types of Structures	2537
8.02.3.1 Shoreline Structures	2537
8.02.3.2 Offshore or Detached Structures	2539
8.02.3.3 Scope of Coastal Armoring	2539
8.02.4 Current State of Knowledge on Environmental Effects	2541
8.02.4.1 Alteration of Coastal Processes	2541
8.02.4.2 Ecological Impacts of Structures	2542
8.02.5 Coastal Infrastructure and Armoring as Novel Substrata for Biota	2550
8.02.6 Large-Scale Effects	2551
8.02.6.1 Effects on Adjacent Habitats	2552
8.02.7 Potential for Recovery/Resilience	2553
8.02.8 Future of Shore Structures – Climate Change and Coastal Squeeze	2554
8.02.9 A Way Forward	2554
Acknowledgments	2555
References	2555
Chemical Introductions to Estuarine and Coastal Systems: Biodegradable Organic Chemicals	2561
8.03.1 Introduction	2561
8.03.2 Biodegradable Organic Chemicals	2563
8.03.2.1 Petroleum and Derived Products	2563
8.03.2.2 PAHSs, PCBs, and Other Industrial Organic Compounds	2564
8.03.2.3 Pesticides	2565
8.03.2.4 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products	2566
8.03.3 Sources	2567
8.03.3.1 Discharges from Point Sources	2567
8.03.3.2 Storm Water Runoff and Riverine Inputs	2567
8.03.3.3 Ballast Water and Other Marine Operational Discharges	2570
8.03.3.4 Accidental Spills	2570
8.03.4 Fate and Transport within Estuaries and Coastal Regions	2570
8.03.4.1 Advective and Dispersive Transport	2570
8.03.4.2 Sorption onto Particulate Matter	2571
8.03.4.3 Dissolution and Volatilization	2571
8.03.4.4 Deposition and Resuspension	2572
8.03.4.5 Bioaccumulation, Bioconcentration, and Biomagnification	2572
8.03.4.6 Abiotic Degradation	2572
8.03.4.7 Biodegradation	2573
8.03.4.8 Presence of Biodegradable Organic Compounds in the Environment	2573
8.03.5 Biotic and Habitat Impacts	2574
8.03.5.1 Biomarkers	2574
8.03.5.2 Examples of Toxicant Effects	2575
8.03.5.3 Case Study: The Golden Horn Estuary	2578
8.03.5.4 Case Study: The Chesapeake Bay	2579
8.03.6 Summary	2580
References	2580
Chemical Introductions to the Systems: Point Source Pollution(Persistent Chemicals)	2589
8.04.1 Historical and Disciplinary Context	2590
8.04.2 Point-Source Pollution and Magnitude of the Problem	2591
8.04.3 What Are Persistent Pollutants?	2591
8.04.3.1 Mineral Persistent Pollutants	2592
8.04.3.2 Persistent Organic Compounds and Halogenated Hydrocarbons	2598
8.04.3.3 Detergents, Surfactants, and Plastifiers	2602
8.04.3.4 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products	2603
8.04.3.5 Engineered Nanoparticles	2606
8.04.3.6 Radionuclides	2608
8.04.4 Indicators of Biological and Ecological Effects	2610
8.04.4.1 Manifestations of Effects at Individual Level	2610
8.04.4.2 Manifestation of Effects at Ecosystem Level	2612
8.04.5 Consequence for the Management of Coasts and Estuaries	2616
8.04.5.1 Loss of Ecosystem Services	2616
8.04.5.2 Cost of Reducing Pollution	2617
8.04.5.3 Resistance and Resilience	2617
8.04.5.4 The Seine Estuary (France) Case Study	2618
8.04.6 Hazard Ranking, Water Quality Guidelines, Monitoring, and Conservation Goals	2620
8.04.6.1 Mechanisms	2620
8.04.6.2 Monitoring and Influence on Conservation Goals	2621
8.04.7 Gaps in the Understanding and Need for Future Research	2622
References	2624
Relevant Websites	2629
Chemical Introductions to the Systems: Diffuse and Nonpoint Source Pollution from Chemicals (Nutrients: Eutrophication)	2631
8.05.1 Introduction	2631
8.05.2 Nutrient Enrichment	2634
8.05.2.1 Nutrient Forms and Concentrations	2634
8.05.2.2 Nutrient Sources	2639
8.05.2.3 Nutrient Forcing	2640
8.05.3 Biotic Responses	2642
8.05.3.1 Phytoplankton and Microphytobenthos	2642
8.05.3.2 Macroalgae	2643
8.05.3.3 Seagrasses	2645
8.05.4 Organic Carbon Enrichment	2645
8.05.4.1 Organic Carbon Sources	2645
8.05.4.2 Hypoxia/Anoxia	2647
8.05.5 Eutrophic Indicators	2648
8.05.6 Nutrient Management and Impact Remediation	2650
8.05.7 Case Studies	2652
8.05.7.1 Mid-Atlantic Coastal Lagoons	2652
8.05.7.2 Barnegat Bay–Little Egg Harbor Estuary (US)	2652
8.05.7.3 Northern Gulf of Mexico (US)	2653
8.05.7.4 Danish Coastal Waters (Denmark)	2655
8.05.7.5 The Wadden Sea and Ems Estuary (The Netherlands and Denmark)	2657
8.05.7.6 Shenzhen Bay, South China Sea (China)	2659
8.05.7.7 Peel-Harvey Estuary (Australia)	2659
8.05.7.8 Ghana Coastal Lagoons (Africa)	2660
8.05.8 Summary and Conclusions	2660
References	2661
Relevant Websites	2666
Biological Introductions to the Systems: Macroorganisms	2667
8.06.1 Introduction	2667
8.06.2 Biogeography of Nonnative Estuarine andCoastal Biota	2669
8.06.3 Distribution Patterns of Estuarine and Coastal Nonnative Biota	2670
8.06.3.1 Salinity Gradient and NIS Distributions	2670
8.06.3.2 Vulnerability of Estuarine Habitats to Biological Introductions	2672
8.06.3.3 Seasonal Variability in Estuaries and Biological Introductions	2674
8.06.3.4 Climate and Changes to NIS Distributions	2675
8.06.4 Main Pathways and Vectors of NIS Introductions to Estuarine and Coastal Environments	2678
8.06.4.1 General Overview of Biological Introductions intoEstuarine Environments	2678
8.06.4.2 Ships and Floating Structures	2678
8.06.4.3 Marine and Inland Canals and Waterways	2682
8.06.4.4 Wild Fisheries	2683
8.06.4.5 Culture Activities	2684
8.06.4.6 Aquarium and Live Food Trade	2687
8.06.4.7 Leisure Activities	2688
8.06.4.8 Research and Education (Including Pilot Projects)	2688
8.06.4.9 Biological Control	2688
8.06.4.10 Other Pathways	2688
8.06.5 Level of Certainty in Relation to Biological Introductions	2688
8.06.6 Life-History Stages of Nonnative Biota and Opportunities for Spread via Different Pathways	2689
8.06.7 Invasive Species and Environmental Quality of Estuarine and Coastal Environments	2689
8.06.7.1 Bioinvasion Impacts at Different Levels ofBiologicalOrganization	2689
8.06.7.2 The Concept of Biological Pollution and Environmental Quality of Estuaries	2693
8.06.7.3 Bioinvasion Impact Assessment	2693
8.06.7.4 Temporal and Spatial Scales for Bioinvasion Impact Assessments	2694
8.06.7.5 Other Indicators of Biological Introductions	2695
8.06.8 Monitoring of Nonnative Estuarine and Coastal Biota	2695
8.06.9 Concluding Remarks	2696
Acknowledgments	2696
References	2697
Removal of Physical Materials from Systems: Loss of Space, Area, and Habitats	2703
8.07.1 Introduction	2704
8.07.1.1 Current Wetland Global Extent and Loss	2705
8.07.1.2 Human Impacts on Wetland Area	2706
8.07.2 Restoration and Rehabilitation: Why Semantics Matter When Addressing Loss of Area and Habitat inWetlandEcosystems	2708
8.07.3 Case Studies	2710
8.07.3.1 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, USA	2710
8.07.3.2 GMU Delta Region, Tabasco–Campeche, Mexico	2715
8.07.3.3 The Netherlands	2718
8.07.3.4 Puerto Rico Island	2721
8.07.3.5 Everglades, South Florida, USA	2724
8.07.4 Summary and Final Comments	2727
References	2730
Removals of the Physical Resources from the Systems: HarvestingEnergy	2735
8.08.1 Introduction	2736
8.08.2 Renewable Energy Resources	2737
8.08.3 Lessons from Our Past	2739
8.08.4 What Is Renewable Energy in the Coast and Estuaries?	2740
8.08.4.1 Tidal Barrages	2741
8.08.4.2 Tidal Lagoons	2741
8.08.4.3 Tidal Fences	2741
8.08.4.4 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion	2741
8.08.4.5 Saline Osmosis	2741
8.08.4.6 Algal Biofuel	2741
8.08.5 How Is the Renewable Energy Harvested?	2741
8.08.6 Environmental Footprint	2741
8.08.7 What Environmental Considerations Are There?	2748
8.08.8 What Are the Causes of the Potential Issues (orthe Opportunity)?	2749
8.08.8.1 Survey and Development	2750
8.08.8.2 Construction	2750
8.08.8.3 Operation	2753
8.08.8.4 Decommissioning	2759
8.08.8.5 Tidal Barrages and the Environment	2760
8.08.8.6 Biological Communities	2761
8.08.8.7 Indirect Ecological Effects	2761
8.08.8.8 Determining Ecological Impacts	2762
8.08.9 Summing Up – Problem or Opportunity	2764
8.08.10 Mitigation of Any Environmental Impact	2765
8.08.11 Gaps in Knowledge	2766
8.08.12 Going Forward	2767
Acknowledgments	2767
References	2767
Relevant Websites	2770
Removals (Wild Harvesting) of the Biological Resources from Systems	2771
8.09.1 Introduction	2772
8.09.2 Fishing Sectors	2773
8.09.3 Types of Fisheries	2774
8.09.3.1 The Diversity of Fishing Gears	2774
8.09.3.2 Estuarine Fisheries	2776
8.09.4 Productivity	2779
8.09.5 Effects of Fishing in Estuaries	2781
8.09.5.1 Target Organisms	2781
8.09.5.2 Nontarget Organisms	2782
8.09.5.3 Nursery Functions	2784
8.09.5.4 Trophic Effects of Fishing	2785
8.09.5.5 Habitat Modification and Destruction by Fishing	2785
8.09.5.6 Reductions in Water Quality	2786
8.09.5.7 Human Environment	2787
8.09.5.8 Extinctions	2788
8.09.6 The Importance of Fishing in Estuaries	2788
8.09.6.1 Fishing and Conservation	2788
8.09.6.2 Economic Issues	2789
8.09.6.3 Management	2789
References	2790
The Culture of Aquatic Species: Approaches, Effects, and Future Developments	2795
8.10.1 Introduction	2796
8.10.1.1 The Growing Importance of Aquaculture	2796
8.10.1.2 Levels of Intervention in Aquaculture	2797
8.10.2 Approaches to the Culture of Aquatic Species	2797
8.10.2.1 Marine Finfish Farming	2797
8.10.2.2 Crustacean Farming	2799
8.10.2.3 Bivalve Farming	2799
8.10.2.4 Seaweed Farming	2800
8.10.3 Effects of Aquaculture	2800
8.10.3.1 System Inputs from Aquaculture	2801
8.10.3.2 Changes in the Balance of Species	2806
8.10.3.3 Farm-Scale Effects	2806
8.10.3.4 Water Body-Scale Effects	2807
8.10.4 Sustainability of Future Aquaculture	2809
8.10.4.1 Management of Aquaculture	2809
8.10.4.2 Future Developments	2812
8.10.5 Conclusion	2816
References	2817
Climate Change: Effects, Causes, Consequences: Physical, Hydromorphological, Ecophysiological, and Biogeographical Changes	2821
8.11.1 Introduction	2821
8.11.2 Global Climate Change: Past Trends, Future Predictions, and System Impacts	2822
8.11.2.1 Temperature	2822
8.11.2.2 The Effects of Increased Temperature on Coastal Vegetation	2822
8.11.2.3 Sea-Level Rise	2822
8.11.2.4 The Response of Coastal Wetlands to Accelerated Sea-level Rise	2824
8.11.2.5 Measuring Processes That Affect Wetland Elevation	2826
8.11.2.6 Types of Models	2826
8.11.3 The Impacts of Changes in Freshwater Input on Coastal Ecosystems	2828
8.11.4 Changes in Tropical Storm Intensity and \rFrequency	2829
8.11.5 Human Activity and Coastal Management	2830
References	2830
e9780123747112v9	2835
Cover\r	2835
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	2836
Copyright	2839
Contents Of Volume 9\r	2840
Volume Editors	2842
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	2844
Volume Editors: Biographies	2846
Contributors Of All Volumes	2856
Contents Of All Volumes	2866
Preface\r	2872
Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystem Modeling: A Synthesis	2876
9.01.1 General Synthesis	2876
References	2878
Contemporary Concepts and Models of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function: Systems-Based Approaches for Exploring Landscape-Scale Relationships	2880
9.02.1 The Ecosystem Approach and Ecosystem Services	2880
9.02.2 Exploring Biodiversity–Ecosystem Function Relationships	2881
9.02.3 Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services	2885
9.02.4 The Stocks-and-Flows Approach	2887
9.02.4.1 The Ythan Estuary	2888
9.02.4.2 The Data Sets	2890
9.02.4.3 Biomasses in the Two Periods	2892
9.02.4.4 How Did Changes in Biodiversity Affect Network Characteristics and System Indices?	2893
9.02.5 Implications for Understanding Biodiversity and Ecological Functioning	2894
References	2895
Relevant Websites	2896
Ecological Modeling in Environmental Management: History andApplications	2898
9.03.1 Ecological Modeling History to Present	2898
9.03.1.1 Ecological Modelling Journal	2900
9.03.1.2 International Society of Ecological Modelling	2900
9.03.2 Model Building	2901
9.03.2.1 Why Models?	2901
9.03.2.2 Procedure, Process, and Parts	2901
9.03.2.3 Defining the System	2902
9.03.2.4 Modeling Tradeoffs	2902
9.03.3 Ecological Models and Environmental Management	2903
9.03.3.1 Water-Quality Models	2903
9.03.3.2 Fisheries and Aquaculture	2904
9.03.3.3 Forest Models	2905
9.03.3.4 Integrated Models	2905
9.03.4 Conclusions and Next Steps	2906
Acknowledgment	2906
References	2906
Quantitative Methods for Ecological Network Analysis and Its Application to Coastal Ecosystems*\r	2910
9.04.1 An Alternative to Mechanism	2910
9.04.2 Requirements	2911
9.04.3 Issues Needing Attention	2913
9.04.4 Input–Output Analysis	2913
9.04.5 Trophic Analysis	2916
9.04.6 Analysis of Cycling	2918
9.04.7 Whole System Status	2921
9.04.8 Higher Dimensional Considerations	2928
9.04.9 Summary and Conclusions	2929
Acknowledgment	2930
References	2931
Spatial and Temporal Models of Energy and Material Dynamics inFlow Networks of Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystems	2934
9.05.1 Introduction	2934
9.05.2 Material and Methods	2935
9.05.2.1 General Concepts and Methods in Model Construction	2935
9.05.2.2 Ecological Network Analysis	2938
9.05.3 Comparison of Ecosystem Function overSpatial Scales	2940
9.05.3.1 Assessments of Network Models of Whole Systems	2940
9.05.3.2 Assessments of Inter- and Subtidal Subsystems on Spatial Scales	2945
9.05.4 Comparison of Estuaries with Variable Freshwater Inflows	2949
9.05.5 Comparison of Ecosystems over Temporal Scales	2951
9.05.5.1 St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge, FL, USA:Comparison of Ecosystem Function over Months	2951
9.05.5.2 The Neuse River estuary, NC, USA: Comparison ofEcosystem Function during a Season	2951
9.05.5.3 The Mesohaline Chesapeake Bay, USA: Comparison of Ecosystem Function over Seasons	2953
9.05.5.4 The Kromme River estuary, Eastern Cape, South Africa: Comparison of Ecosystem Function over Decades	2954
9.05.6 Predictive Modeling of Ecosystem Flow Networks	2957
9.05.7 Modeling the Dynamics of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus in Selective Coastal Ecosystems	2961
9.05.8 Concluding Remarks	2964
References	2964
Relevant Websites	2966
Ecopath Theory, Modeling, and Application to Coastal Ecosystems	2968
9.06.1 Introduction to Ecosystem Modeling	2968
9.06.2 Methodology	2969
9.06.2.1 NETWRK and EcoNetwrk	2969
9.06.2.2 EwE and Ecospace	2969
9.06.3 Case Studies of EwE Used in Coastal Ecosystems	2970
9.06.3.1 Application and Contribution to ENA	2971
9.06.3.2 Application and Contribution to Management	2976
9.06.4 Meta-Analysis of Ecosystem Indicators	2976
9.06.4.1 General Model Classifications	2977
9.06.4.2 Keystone/MTI Analysis	2977
9.06.4.3 ENA and Exploitation Indicators	2978
9.06.5 Conclusions	2984
References	2986
Relevant Websites	2988
Inverse Modeling in Modern Ecology and Application to Coastal Ecosystems	2990
9.07.1 Introduction	2990
9.07.2 Brief History of LIM	2991
9.07.3 Methodology for LIM: The Four Steps oftheLIM-MN Method	2992
9.07.3.1 Step 1: The A Priori Model	2992
9.07.3.2 Step 2: The Set of Equalities	2994
9.07.3.3 Step 3: The Set of Inequalities	2995
9.07.3.4 Step 4: The Choice of a Single Vector of Flows	2995
9.07.4 Recent Advances in the LIM Methodology	2996
9.07.4.1 New Methods for Step 4: Generating Solutions Using Monte Carlo Techniques	2996
9.07.4.2 Taking into Account Spatial and Temporal Variability	2997
9.07.4.3 Constraining the Flows Using Tracers	2998
9.07.5 Analyzing the Results from LIM	2998
9.07.5.1 Sensitivity Analysis	2999
9.07.5.2 Ecological Network Analysis	2999
9.07.6 Guidelines on Methodological Choices for the Use of LIM in Coastal Ecology	2999
9.07.7 An Example of Application: A Comparison ofPlankton Models in the Bay of Biscay during theLateWinter/SpringSuccession Period	3001
9.07.8 Conclusion	3006
Acknowledgments	3006
References	3006
The LOICZ Biogeochemical Modeling Protocol and its Application toEstuarine Ecosystems	3010
9.08.1 Introduction	3011
9.08.2 Budget Methodology	3011
9.08.2.1 The Problem of Estimating Carbon Metabolism Directly from Carbon Fluxes	3011
9.08.2.2 Biogeochemical and Other Assumptions	3012
9.08.2.2.1 Organic metabolism and NEM	3012
9.08.2.3 The Choice of System Boundaries and Compartmental Divisions	3013
9.08.2.4 The Algebra of Mass Balances for a Single Compartment	3014
9.08.2.5 Mass Balances for a Two-Layer Compartment (Estuarine Flow)	3017
9.08.2.6 Mass Balances for Multiple Compartments: Spatially Extensive Systems over a Series of Reaches	3018
9.08.2.7 Other Derived Variables in LOICZ Budgets	3019
9.08.3 Some Budget Examples	3020
9.08.3.1 Single Compartment, Single-Layer System: The S’Ena Arrubia Lagoon, Sardinia, Italy (39.83°N, 8.57° E)	3020
9.08.3.2 Single Compartment, Layered System: Tien River Estuary, Vietnam (9.81°N, 106.56° E)	3020
9.08.3.3 Multiple Compartment, Single-Layer System: Laguna Larga, Cuba (22.54°N, 78.37° E)	3021
9.08.4 Resources, Outcomes, and Conclusions oftheAnalyses	3024
9.08.4.1 The LOICZ Budget Website	3024
9.08.4.2 Regional and Global Patterns from the LOICZ Budget Data Set	3024
9.08.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach	3026
9.08.5.1 Space, Time, and Box Models	3026
9.08.5.2 Stoichiometry and Ecosystem Metabolism	3028
9.08.5.3 Data Limitations and Budget Quality	3028
9.08.6 Applications and Future Directions (asofThisWriting)	3029
9.08.6.1 Nutrient Budgets and Management of Coastal Waters in New Zealand	3030
9.08.6.2 Hypoxia and Fisheries	3030
9.08.6.3 Whither LOICZ Budgets?	3031
9.08.7 Conclusions	3032
Acknowlegments	3033
References	3033
Relevant Websites	3034
Artificial Neural Network Modeling of Phytoplankton Blooms and its Application to Sampling Sites within the Same Estuary	3036
9.09.1 Introduction	3036
9.09.1.1 What Are ANNs?	3036
9.09.1.2 Training and Testing of an ANN Model	3037
9.09.1.3 ANN Models for Predicting and Understanding Harmful Algal Blooms	3038
9.09.2 Materials and Methods	3038
9.09.2.1 Source Data	3038
9.09.2.2 ANN Modeling	3039
9.09.2.3 Sensitivity Analysis	3039
9.09.3 Results	3039
9.09.3.1 Modeling Chlorophyll Concentration	3039
9.09.3.2 Sensitivity Analysis	3041
9.09.3.3 Applying ANN Models to Other Estuary Sites	3044
9.09.3.4 Comparison of ANN Models with Linear Fitting Models	3044
9.09.4 Discussion	3044
9.09.4.1 Input Data and Prediction Potential	3044
9.09.4.2 Complexity of the ANN Model	3045
9.09.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis	3045
9.09.4.4 Application of Optimized ANN Models to Adjacent Sampling Sites	3046
9.09.4.5 Relevance of This Study to Other Phytoplankton Modeling Studies	3046
9.09.5 Conclusions	3046
Acknowledgment	3046
References	3046
Relevant Websites	3047
Integration of Bayesian Inference Techniques with Mathematical Modeling	3048
9.10.1 Evaluation of the Current State of Aquatic Biogeochemical Modeling: Where Are We?	3048
9.10.2 Why Bayesian Calibration?	3052
9.10.3 A Case Study: Eutrophication Risk Assessment in Hamilton Harbour	3054
9.10.3.1 Model Description	3055
9.10.3.2 Bayesian Framework	3058
9.10.3.3 Model Results and Prediction of the Frequency of Water-Quality Standard Violations	3059
9.10.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives	3064
Acknowledgments	3065
References	3065
Relevant Websites	3067
Hypoxia in Waters of the Coastal Zone: Causes, Effects, and Modeling Approaches&	3068
9.11.1 Introduction	3068
9.11.2 Drivers of Hypoxia	3068
9.11.3 Effects of Hypoxia on Biota	3072
9.11.4 Mitigation of Hypoxia	3073
9.11.5 Assessment of Mitigation	3073
9.11.6 Modeling Approaches	3074
9.11.7 The Edge of Ockham’s Razor: Building aHypoxia Model	3076
9.11.7.1 A Modeling Framework	3079
9.11.7.2 The Surface Mixed Layer	3079
9.11.7.3 The Plankton Community	3080
9.11.7.4 Vertical Flux of Organic Matter	3082
9.11.7.5 Dissolved Organic Matter	3083
9.11.7.6 Geochemical Processes	3083
9.11.7.7 Gas Exchanges and Physical Circulation	3083
9.11.8 Model Validation and Simulation Analysis	3084
9.11.9 Future Hypoxia Models	3086
References	3087
Forecasting and Modeling of Harmful Algal Blooms in the Coastal Zone: A Prospectus	3092
9.12.1 Introduction	3093
9.12.2 Phytoplankton Physiology	3099
9.12.3 Background	3099
9.12.4 Conventional HAB Wisdom	3101
9.12.5 Eutrophication	3101
9.12.5.1 Hong Kong Coastal Waters	3102
9.12.5.2 Northern GOM Coastal Waters	3102
9.12.5.3 Egyptian Coastal Waters	3103
9.12.6 Oligotrophication	3104
9.12.7 Eutrophication, Oligotrophication, andOverfishing	3104
9.12.7.1 Nutrient Loadings	3104
9.12.7.2 Nutrient Relaxations	3104
9.12.7.3 Temperature Constraints	3105
9.12.7.4 Trophic Cascades Down the Food Web	3105
9.12.7.5 HAB Responses	3107
9.12.8 Potential Future Management Plans	3107
9.12.8.1 A Numerical Rosetta Stone	3108
9.12.8.2 The Modern Rosetta Stone Context for Future HAB Auguries	3109
9.12.8.3 Experimental Enigmas	3112
9.12.8.4 Silicon Dynamics	3114
9.12.8.5 Top-Down Grazing Controls	3115
9.12.8.6 Spatial Constraints of Satellite Validation Data	3120
9.12.8.7 Poison Response of HABs to Nutrient Limitation	3125
9.12.9 Poorly Posed Assumptions	3128
9.12.9.1 HAB Domains of N-Limited Ecosystems	3130
9.12.9.2 Confounding Anoxia	3131
9.12.10 Related Economic Costs	3132
9.12.11 Historical Context	3133
9.12.11.1 Early Biological Warfare?	3133
9.12.11.2 Divergent Ecological Consequences	3134
9.12.12 The Poison Gambit	3135
9.12.12.1 Toxic Niche Distinctions	3136
9.12.12.2 Diazotroph Lacunae	3138
9.12.13 Rules of Phytoplankton Engagement	3139
9.12.14 Circulation Submodels	3140
9.12.15 One-Dimensional Simulation Results	3142
9.12.16 HAB Estuarine Influxes to the Northern GOM	3146
9.12.16.1 Tampa Bay	3146
9.12.16.2 Galveston Bay	3149
9.12.16.3 GOM Export	3150
9.12.17 Three-Dimensional Simulation Results	3152
9.12.18 Satellite and In Situ Estimates of Diazotroph Precursors of Karenia Red Tides	3158
9.12.18.1 Western MS	3158
9.12.18.2 Eastern MS	3166
9.12.18.3 GOM Sedimentary Mirror Image of the MS Biomarker Tracers	3171
9.12.18.4 Additional Satellite Validation Imagery of the Red and Arabian Seas	3172
9.12.19 Satellite Data Assimilation	3174
9.12.19.1 In Situ Biological Sensors – a 2009 Case Study	3176
9.12.19.2 HABs in Winter: Another Clupeid Harvest on the WFS?	3179
9.12.20 Paradigm Shift	3182
9.12.21 Prospectus	3183
Acknowledgments	3185
References	3185
Relevant Websites	3205
Ecosystem Modeling in Small Subtropical Estuaries andEmbayments	3207
9.13.1 Introduction	3207
9.13.2 Background	3209
9.13.2.1 Watershed Attributes	3209
9.13.2.2 Hydrodynamics	3210
9.13.2.3 Factors and Responses	3210
9.13.3 Modeling Examples	3211
9.13.3.1 Tidal Creek Ecosystems	3211
9.13.3.2 St. Lucie Estuary and Indian River Lagoon	3213
9.13.3.3 Texas Coastal Bays	3218
9.13.4 Summary and Synthesis	3223
Acknowledgments	3226
References	3226
Material Exchange Processes between Sediment and Water in Coastal Ecosystems and Their Modeling	3230
9.14.1 Introduction	3230
9.14.1.1 Fundamentals of Exchange Processes	3230
9.14.2 Material Fluxes in Coastal Waters	3231
9.14.2.1 Tropical Waters	3231
9.14.2.2 Temperate Waters	3236
9.14.2.3 Arctic Systems	3240
9.14.3 Modeling Approach	3241
9.14.4 Case Study: The Sylt–Rømø Bight	3242
9.14.4.1 Exchange of Carbon of Different Intertidal Communities	3242
9.14.4.2 Exchange of Nitrogen	3245
9.14.4.3 Exchange of Phosphorus	3247
9.14.4.4 Benthic Habitats as Sinks and Sources	3248
9.14.4.5 Physical Factors and Material Exchange	3249
9.14.5 Comparisons between Systems	3250
9.14.5.1 Exchange Processes and Nutrient Fluxes within Communities	3251
9.14.5.2 Exchange Processes and Nutrient Fluxes between Communities	3251
9.14.6 Food Webs and Exchange Processes	3252
9.14.7 Habitat Diversity and Exchange Processes	3252
9.14.8 Biodiversity and Material Exchange	3253
9.14.9 Future Perspectives	3253
References	3254
Understanding the Nitrogen Cycle through Network Models in Coastal Ecosystems	3258
9.15.1 Introduction	3258
9.15.2 Importance of N and N Cycling in Coastal Ecosystems	3259
9.15.3 Physicochemical Factors That Impact Nitrogen Cycling	3260
9.15.3.1 Transport and Residence	3260
9.15.3.2 Oxygen	3260
9.15.3.3 Salinity and Associated Gradients	3261
9.15.4 Network Models of N Cycling	3261
9.15.4.1 Networks and Selected Analyses	3261
9.15.5 Biogeochemical Networks	3263
9.15.5.1 Coastal Wetland Models	3263
9.15.5.2 Models of Coastal Aquatic Ecosystems	3263
9.15.5.2.1 Simple biogeochemical networks	3263
9.15.5.2.2 Time series of biogeochemical networks	3264
9.15.6 Food-Web-Based Models	3266
9.15.7 N Cycle and Its Network Representation	3267
9.15.8 Conclusions from Network Studies and FutureNeeds	3268
Acknowledgments	3269
References	3269
Analytical Characterization of Selective Benthic Flux Components inEstuarine and Coastal Waters	3272
9.16.1 Introduction	3272
9.16.1.1 Brief Review of Selected Benthic Flux Forcing Mechanisms	3273
9.16.1.2 Brief Review of Selected SGD Observational Techniques	3274
9.16.2 Generalized Component-Based Conceptual Model	3275
9.16.3 Surface Gravity Waves over a Plane Bed	3276
9.16.3.1 Boundary-Value Problem	3276
9.16.3.2 Solution to the Boundary-Value Problem	3277
9.16.3.3 Discussion	3277
9.16.3.4 Application to the Indian River Lagoon, Florida	3280
9.16.3.5 Application to the South Atlantic Bight in South Carolina and Portions of North Carolina	3282
9.16.4 Surface Gravity Wave Setup	3284
9.16.4.1 Application to the South Atlantic Bight in South Carolina and Portions of North Carolina	3284
9.16.5 Groundwater Tidal Prism	3284
9.16.5.1 Model for a Tidally Forced, Phreatic Surface	3285
9.16.5.2 Model for the Benthic Flux Component Associated with the Groundwater Tidal Prism	3285
9.16.5.3 Model for the Groundwater Tidal Prism	3287
9.16.5.4 Discussion	3287
9.16.5.5 Application to the South Atlantic Bight in South Carolina and portions of North Carolina	3288
9.16.6 Terrestrial Hydraulic Gradient	3289
9.16.6.1 Bokuniewicz’s Benthic Discharge Model	3289
9.16.6.2 Reformulated Benthic Discharge Model	3290
9.16.6.3 Comparison of Benthic Discharge Models by Bokuniewicz and King	3292
9.16.6.4 Application to Great South Bay, New York	3292
9.16.7 Future Work	3294
9.16.8 Summary and Conclusions	3295
References	3296
Effects of Some Ecohydrological Thresholds on the Stability ofAquatic Fine-Sediment Beds	3300
9.17.1 Introduction	3300
9.17.2 Stability Controlling Factors	3300
9.17.3 Effects of Fluid Chemistry	3303
9.17.4 Effects of Biological Factors	3305
9.17.5 Effects of Flow Field	3307
9.17.5.1 Depth Threshold	3307
9.17.5.2 Instability due to Bed Yield	3307
9.17.5.3 Bed Destabilization and Turbidity Generation	3311
9.17.5.4 Hydrodynamic Transition	3312
9.17.6 Concluding Observations	3312
Acknowledgments	3313
References	3314
Linking Ecology, Modeling, and Management in Coastal Systems	3316
9.18.1 Introduction	3316
9.18.2 Estuarine and Coastal Systems – Threats, Management, and Time Frames	3317
9.18.3 Management Paradigms	3318
9.18.4 The Functions of Models in the Management Paradigm	3319
9.18.5 Model Types and Their Application	3320
9.18.5.1 Ecosystem Models	3320
9.18.5.2 Hydrodynamic and Transport Models	3321
9.18.5.3 Integrated Hydrodynamics, Transport, and Ecosystem Model	3321
9.18.5.4 Data and Calibration: Recognizing Uncertainty	3322
9.18.5.5 Bayesian Network Models – a Framework for Decision Making	3322
9.18.6 The Players – Ecologists, Modelers, Managers, Decision Makers, and Stakeholders	3322
9.18.7 Investigation and Management Process	3323
9.18.7.1 Initial Desktop Study – Describing the Problem	3323
9.18.7.2 A Graphical Model of the System	3323
9.18.7.3 Spatial and Temporal Scales	3324
9.18.7.4 The System Network Model’s Role in the Management Process	3324
9.18.8 Setting and Structuring Management Objectives	3325
9.18.9 Measures of Objectives Success	3326
9.18.10 Multicriteria Decision Making	3326
9.18.11 Determining Possible Strategic Activities to Target Objectives	3327
9.18.12 Modeling for Management	3328
9.18.12.1 Presentation of Predicted Objective Outcomes	3330
9.18.13 Achieving Effective Linkage between Ecologists, Modelers, and Managers	3330
9.18.13.1 Guidelines for Ecologists in Management Investigations of Coastal Systems	3331
9.18.13.2 Guidelines for Modelers in Management Investigations	3331
9.18.13.3 The Manager’s Responsibilities in Coastal System Management	3331
9.18.14 Summary	3331
References	3332
e9780123747112v10	3334
Cover	3334
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	3335
Copyright	3338
Contents Of Volume 10\r	3339
Volume Editors	3341
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies	3343
Volume Editors: Biographies	3345
Contributors Of All Volumes	3355
Contents Of All Volumes	3365
Preface\r	3371
Introduction to Ecohydrology and Restoration of Estuaries andCoastal Ecosystems	3375
10.01.1 Introduction	3375
10.01.2 The Watershed as an Ecosystem	3375
10.01.3 Estuarine and Coastal Water Ecohydrology	3377
References	3379
Hydrology and Biota Interactions as Driving Forces for Ecosystem Functioning	3381
10.02.1 Introduction	3381
10.02.2 Hydrologic Regulation of Microbes inEstuarine and Nearshore Coastal Ecosystems	3383
10.02.2.1 Phytoplankton	3383
10.02.2.2 Heterotrophic Bacterioplankton	3389
10.02.3 Hydrologic Regulation of Metazoans inEstuarine and Nearshore Coastal Ecosystems	3393
10.02.3.1 Metazooplankton	3393
10.02.3.2 Benthos	3400
10.02.3.3 Nekton	3404
10.02.4 Biologic Regulation of Estuarine andNearshore Hydrology	3406
10.02.4.1 Biologic Control of Dissolved Gases	3407
10.02.4.2 Biologic Control of Dissolved Inorganic Nutrients	3407
10.02.4.3 Biologic Control of Dissolved Organic Matter	3408
10.02.4.4 Biologic Control of Biological Contaminants	3409
10.02.4.5 Biologic Control of Bioactive Compounds	3411
10.02.4.6 Biologic Control of Water Flow, Turbidity, andHabitat Structure	3411
10.02.5 Conclusions	3412
Acknowledgments	3413
References	3413
Quantification of Coastal Ecosystem Resilience	3423
10.03.1 Introduction	3424
10.03.2 State of Coastal Ecosystems	3424
10.03.2.1 Definition of Disturbance, Perturbation, Stress, and Stressor	3424
10.03.2.2 From Single to Multiple Affectors	3427
10.03.2.3 A More Complex Scenario	3427
10.03.2.4 Ecosystem Development and the Role of Affectors	3427
10.03.2.5 The Role of Invasive Species	3428
10.03.3 Definition of Resilience in Ecology	3428
10.03.4 An Overview of Some Concepts Connected with Resilience	3429
10.03.5 The Most Notorious Cases of Resilience Loss and Abrupt Shift in Marine Ecosystems	3431
10.03.5.1 Coral Reefs	3432
10.03.5.2 Kelp Forests	3432
10.03.5.3 Seagrass Meadows	3432
10.03.5.3.1 The case of the Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica	3433
10.03.5.4 The Case of the North Sea	3434
10.03.5.5 The Case of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic	3435
10.03.6 Measuring Ecosystem Resilience	3435
10.03.6.1 Resilience Indices	3436
10.03.6.2 Return Time	3436
10.03.6.3 Variance	3437
10.03.6.4 Biodiversity and Functional Diversity	3437
10.03.6.5 Productivity	3438
10.03.6.6 A Landscape Approach	3438
10.03.6.7 Synthetic Ecological Indices	3438
10.03.7 Final Remarks	3440
Acknowledgements	3443
References	3443
Integration of Social and Cultural Aspects in Designing Ecohydrology and Restoration Solutions	3445
10.04.1 Introduction	3445
10.04.2 The Role of the Biophysical Sciences	3447
10.04.3 The Role of the Social Sciences	3447
10.04.4 Integration of the Biophysical and Social Sciences	3448
10.04.5 Leadership and Political Will	3448
10.04.6 Engaging Communities in Setting Goals forRestoration	3449
10.04.7 The Value of Peer-to-Peer Exchanges	3450
10.04.8 The Complex Human Management Issues forManaging the Great Barrier Reef	3452
10.04.9 Bridging Science to Policy Development andImplementation	3453
Acknowledgments	3453
References	3453
River-Coast Connectivity, Estuarine Nursery Function and Coastal Fisheries	3455
10.05.1 Introduction	3455
10.05.2 Overview of Estuarine Fish Assemblage Structure	3455
10.05.3 Influence of Freshwater Flow in Estuarine Fish Assemblages	3459
10.05.4 Estuarine Nursery Function and Habitat-Use Patterns	3463
10.05.5 Links between Estuarine Nurseries andCoastal Stocks	3468
10.05.6 Importance of Estuaries for Coastal Fisheries Sustainability: Managing and Preserving Estuarine Function	3472
Reference	3477
Interaction of River Basins and Coastal Waters -\r An Integrated Ecohydrological View	3483
10.06.1 Introduction	3483
10.06.1.1 Motivation	3483
10.06.1.2 Riverine Impacts on Coastal Zones: Past, Present, and Future	3484
10.06.2 The Interaction between Riverine and Coastal Ecosystems	3486
10.06.3 Land-Use Changes in River Basins and Coast Lines	3488
10.06.4 Pressures and Impacts on the Dynamic Equilibrium between Riverine and Coastal Ecosystems	3491
10.06.4.1 Land Use in the River Basin and Its Impact on \rCoastal Zones	3491
10.06.4.2 Impact of Land Use along the Coast	3509
10.06.4.3 Impact of Dams and Hydraulic Constructions	3511
10.06.5 Ecohydrological Management Strategies forthe Interaction between River and Coast	3512
10.06.5.1 Management Strategies within the River Basins	3512
10.06.5.2 Management Strategies within the Coastal Ecosystem Including Reservoirs and Hydraulic Structures	3514
10.06.6 Conclusions	3517
References	3519
Restoration of Seagrass Community to Reverse Eutrophication inEstuaries	3525
10.07.1 Introduction	3525
10.07.2 Case Studies	3529
10.07.2.1 Hysteresis in the Response to a Management Program Implemented to Reduce the Loading of Nutrients and Promote the Restoration of the Seagrass Community in the Mondego Estuary (Portugal)	3529
10.07.2.2 A Pilot Study about the Factors Affecting the Restoration of Seagrass Community in the Shallow Microtidal Roskilde Fjord (Denmark)	3533
10.07.3 Final Remarks	3536
Acknowledgments	3537
References	3537
Restoring Coastal Ecosystems from Fisheries and Aquaculture \rImpacts	3539
10.08.1 Introduction	3539
10.08.2 Main Impacts of Fisheries and Aquaculture onCoastal Ecosystems	3540
10.08.2.1 Fisheries	3540
10.08.2.2 Aquaculture	3543
10.08.3 Mitigation Measures	3545
10.08.3.1 Fisheries	3545
10.08.3.2 Aquaculture	3546
10.08.4 Restoration of Coastal Ecosystems	3548
10.08.4.1 Ecosystem Restoration Initiatives	3548
10.08.4.2 Marine Protected Areas	3552
10.08.5 Major Findings and Conclusions	3553
References	3554
Restoration Strategies for Intertidal Salt Marshes	3563
10.09.1 Introduction	3564
10.09.2 Reasons for Salt Marsh Degradation and Loss	3564
10.09.2.1 Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise	3564
10.09.2.2 Other Natural Events	3566
10.09.2.3 Direct Anthropogenic Impacts	3567
10.09.2.4 Hydrodynamic Aspects of Sea-Level Rise	3567
10.09.3 Consequences of Salt Marsh Degradation andLoss	3568
10.09.3.1 Loss of Salt Marsh Biodiversity	3568
10.09.3.2 Loss of Salt Marsh Biological Productivity	3568
10.09.3.3 Changes to Salt Marsh Fluxes	3569
10.09.3.4 Damage to Adjacent Habitats/Communities	3570
10.09.4 Changes in Groundwater Fluxes	3570
10.09.4.1 Impacts of Pollution	3571
10.09.4.2 Salt Marsh Loss and Coastal Protection	3572
10.09.5 Tackling Salt Marsh Restoration	3572
10.09.5.1 Salt Marsh Regeneration	3572
10.09.5.2 Salt Marsh Creation	3573
10.09.5.3 Benefits of Salt Marsh Creation	3573
10.09.5.4 Site Assessment	3574
10.09.5.5 Ecological Properties	3575
10.09.5.6 Hydrological Properties	3575
10.09.5.7 Elevation Levels	3576
10.09.5.8 Tidal Management	3576
10.09.5.9 Accretion Rates and Available Sediment Supplies	3576
10.09.5.10 Introduction of Fresh Sediment	3577
10.09.5.11 Soil Conditions	3578
10.09.5.12 Sediment Consolidation and Drainage Requirements	3579
10.09.5.13 Sources of Seeds and Other Propagules	3579
10.09.5.14 Seed Germination and Plant Establishment	3579
10.09.5.15 Implications of Marsh Creation	3580
10.09.6 Salt Marsh Creation – The Next Steps	3580
10.09.6.1 The Way Ahead – Making a Start	3580
10.09.6.2 The Importance of Monitoring	3582
10.09.6.3 New Salt Marshes – Criteria for Success	3582
10.09.6.4 The Long-Term Monitoring and Management ofCreated Marshes	3583
10.09.7 Examples and Case Studies of Salt Marsh Creation	3584
10.09.7.1 Introduction	3584
10.09.7.2 Salt Marsh Creation at Tollesbury, Essex, UK	3584
10.09.7.3 Salt Marsh Creation at Freiston, Lincolnshire, UK	3585
10.09.7.4 Salt Marsh Creation at Wallasea Island, Essex, UK	3585
10.09.7.5 Salt Marsh Creation at Paull Holm Strays, Humber,UK	3585
10.09.7.6 Salt Marsh Creation in the Scheldt Estuary, The \rNetherlands	3586
10.09.8 Future Prospects for Salt Marsh Creation	3586
References	3587
The Pressing Challenges of Mangrove Rehabilitation: Pond Reversion and Coastal Protection	3591
10.10.1 Introduction	3591
10.10.2 The Philippine Experience: A Microcosm of the Global Situation?	3592
10.10.3 Rehabilitation at the Seafront	3595
10.10.3.1 Species Selection	3595
10.10.3.2 Planting Materials: Seeds or Propagules, Nursery Seedlings, and Wildings	3597
10.10.3.3 Nursery Protocols	3598
10.10.3.4 Tidal Inundation and Soil Elevation	3602
10.10.3.5 Outplanting	3604
10.10.3.6 Threats	3606
10.10.3.7 Maintenance and Monitoring	3608
10.10.3.8 Community Engagement	3609
10.10.4 Reversion of Abandoned Ponds and Mangrove-Friendly Aquaculture	3609
10.10.4.1 Ecology of Pond–Mangrove Reversion	3610
10.10.4.2 Governance Aspects and the FLA System	3613
10.10.4.3 The Community-Based Mangrove Rehabilitation Project	3614
10.10.5 Conclusions and Recommendations	3614
Acknowledgments	3615
References	3616
Relevant Websites	3618
Restoration of Groundwater Quality to Sustain Coastal Ecosystems Productivity	3619
10.11.1 Groundwater and Coastal Ecosystem Productivity	3619
10.11.2 The Source and Fate of Nutrients in Groundwater	3620
10.11.2.1 Sources	3620
10.11.2.2 Fate of Nitrogen	3621
10.11.2.3 Fate of Phosphorus	3621
10.11.3 Restoration and Preservation of Groundwater Quality Regarding Nutrients	3621
10.11.3.1 General Overview	3621
10.11.3.2 Reducing the Nutrient Load from Agriculture on Groundwater	3621
10.11.4 Final Considerations	3634
References	3634
Aquatic Ecosystems, Human Health, and Ecohydrology	3637
10.12.1 Introduction	3638
10.12.1.1 Integration of Disciplines and of Basin-Based, Transboundary Health Systems	3638
10.12.2 Main Water-Borne Diseases: Links to Water Management	3640
10.12.2.1 Protozoal Infections	3640
10.12.2.2 Parasitic Infections (Kingdom Animalia)	3641
10.12.2.3 Bacterial Infections	3646
10.12.2.4 Diseases of Chemical Origin	3649
10.12.2.5 Diseases Produced by Viral Infections	3652
10.12.3 Effects of Increasing Water and Land Use–and Scarcity – on Human Health: Some Examples fromAquaculture,Megacities, Dams, and Intensive Agriculture	3654
10.12.3.1 Aquaculture: Shrimp, Vibriosis, and Mutations	3654
10.12.3.2 Megacities: Contemporary Trends in Diarrheal Diseases and Lessons from History	3655
10.12.3.3 Dams and Diverse Effects on Water-Borne Diseases	3657
10.12.3.4 Intensive Agriculture: Man-Made Ecotones and Fragmented Aquatic Ecosystems	3660
10.12.4 Surveillance and Control of Water-Borne Diseases: the Need of a New Synthesis of Ecohydrology, BiomedicalSciences, and Resource Management	3661
10.12.4.1 The Need of Ecotone Surveillance	3661
10.12.4.2 Changes in Hydrological Cycles: Global Surveillance Systems and Interdisciplinarity	3662
10.12.4.3 Water Management, Ecohydrology, and Vector Control of Water-Borne Diseases	3663
10.12.5 Conclusions	3667
10.12.5.1 Some Reflections on Dams, Water Scarcity, Ecohydrology, and Health	3667
10.12.5.2 Conflicts and Challenges in Water Management Policies	3667
References	3668
Ecohydrology Modeling: Tools for Management	3675
10.13.1 Introduction	3676
10.13.2 Approaches to EH Modeling	3677
10.13.2.1 Knowledge-Driven Approach (Mechanistic) Models	3677
10.13.2.2 Data-Driven Approach to Modeling	3678
10.13.2.3 Hybrid Modeling Approach	3679
10.13.3 Case Studies	3682
10.13.3.1 An EH Model of the GBR	3682
10.13.3.2 EH Model of the Guadiana Estuary Ecosystem Health	3684
10.13.3.3 Estuarine Phytoplankton Succession Control (Bottom-Up Control)	3686
10.13.3.4 Estuarine Phytoplankton Succession Control (Top-Down Control)	3690
10.13.3.5 Modeling the Phytoplankton Dynamics in North Adriatic with ML Tools	3693
10.13.3.6 Modeling Algal Biomass in the Lagoon of Venice with ML Tools: Decision Trees, Equation Discovery, and Hybrid Approach	3697
10.13.4 Conclusion	3700
References	3701
e9780123747112v11	3703
Cover\r	3703
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	3704
Copyright	3707
Contents Of Volume 11\r	3708
Volume Editors\r	3710
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies\r	3712
Volume Editors: Biographies\r	3714
Contributors Of All Volumes\r	3724
Contents Of All Volumes\r	3734
Preface\r	3740
Integrated Management of Coasts in Times of Global Change - A Social-Ecological System Perspective -\r Introduction and•Volume Synthesis	3744
References	3746
The Social Dimension of Social-\rEcological Management	3748
11.02.1 Background and Aims	3749
11.02.2 “The Social” Dimension of Human–Nature Relations	3750
11.02.2.1 “The Social” and Social Change	3750
11.02.2.2 Shortcomings in Defining ‘the Social’	3750
11.02.2.3 ‘The Social’ in Social–Ecological Relations	3750
11.02.2.4 Quality Criteria for the Social Dimension	3751
11.02.3 Components of the Social Dimension (SD) inSES Management	3753
11.02.3.1 Points of Departure	3753
11.02.3.2 Toward a Conceptual Framework	3757
11.02.4 Operationalizing ‘the Social’ via Indicator Systems	3758
11.02.4.1 Ecocentric Indicator Systems	3758
11.02.4.2 Anthropocentric Indicator Systems	3759
11.02.4.3 Interdisciplinary Indicator Systems	3759
11.02.4.4 System-Based Indicator Systems	3760
11.02.5 Case Study: Mangrove Management inBrazil– The Social Dimension	3761
11.02.5.1 Stakeholder Analysis and Selection	3761
11.02.5.2 Participatory Indicator Development and Selection	3762
11.02.5.3 Implementation	3764
11.02.6 Integrating the Social Side	3765
11.02.6.1 A Critical Evaluation	3765
11.02.6.2 Outlook	3768
References	3769
Relevant Websites	3773
Management Case Study: Tampa Bay, Florida	3774
11.03.1 Introduction	3775
11.03.1.1 Background	3775
11.03.1.2 Tampa Bay Management – History and Approach	3778
11.03.2 Water Quality	3781
11.03.2.1 Background	3781
11.03.2.2 Factors Affecting Bay Trophic State	3783
11.03.2.3 Availability of Long-Term Monitoring Data	3783
11.03.2.4 Temporal Changes in Nutrient Sources and Loads	3784
11.03.2.5 Bay Responses to Fluctuating Rainfall and \rTN Inputs	3786
11.03.3 Living Resources and Habitats	3788
11.03.3.1 Background	3788
11.03.3.2 Initial Seagrass-Based Management Goals	3788
11.03.3.3 Refining the Seagrass Management Approach	3791
11.03.3.4 Goals for Other Key Habitat Types	3793
11.03.3.5 Management Issues in Tidal Tributaries	3795
11.03.4 Sediment Contaminants and Benthic Habitat Quality	3798
11.03.4.1 Background	3798
11.03.4.2 Contaminant Concentrations and Distribution	3800
11.03.4.3 Identification of Contaminants of Concern	3802
11.03.4.4 Risk-Based Assessment of Contaminant Concentrations	3803
11.03.4.5 COC Sources and Estimated Inputs	3804
11.03.4.6 Sediment-Quality Management Strategy	3805
11.03.4.7 Benthic Diversity and Abundance	3806
11.03.4.8 Next Steps and Anticipated Challenges	3808
11.03.5 Other Bay Management Goals	3810
11.03.6 Lessons Learned	3815
Acknowledgments	3816
References	3816
Management Case Study: Mississippi River	3820
11.04.1 Introduction	3820
11.04.2 Eutrophication and Hypoxia	3821
11.04.3 Northern Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia and Linkageswith the Mississippi River	3821
11.04.3.1 Changes in Hypoxia Over Time and in Relationshipwith Nutrient Loads	3821
11.04.3.2 Historical Dissolved Oxygen Data	3825
11.04.3.3 Coherence with Other Hypoxic Areas	3826
11.04.3.4 Nagging Issues	3826
11.04.4 Sources of Nutrients	3827
11.04.4.1 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Sources and Loads	3827
11.04.5 Transition of Research-Generated Information to Management Applications	3827
11.04.5.1 Scientific Evidence	3827
11.04.5.2 Public Interest	3829
11.04.5.3 Assessment and Action	3829
11.04.5.4 2001 Action Plan	3830
11.04.5.5 Nutrient Reduction Strategies	3831
11.04.5.6 Adaptive Management	3831
11.04.6 The Orphan River	3833
11.04.6.1 Initial National Research Committee	3833
11.04.6.2 Second National Research Committee	3834
11.04.6.3 Ongoing National Research Committee Challenges	3834
11.04.7 Complications	3835
11.04.7.1 View from the NRC	3835
11.04.7.2 Biofuels	3836
11.04.7.3 Farm Policies	3836
11.04.7.4 Climate Change	3837
11.04.8 Urgency for Action	3838
11.04.9 Progress on the Horizon?	3839
11.04.9.1 EPA to Set Enforceable Nutrient Limits in Florida	3839
11.04.9.2 Current Developments in Chesapeake Bay	3840
11.04.9.3 Mississippi River Basin Initiative	3840
11.04.9.4 Great Lakes Restoration Initiative	3841
11.04.9.5 Why Not the Mississippi River Watershed?	3841
11.04.10 Summary	3841
Acknowledgments	3842
References	3842
Relevant Websites	3844
Management Case Study: Boston Harbor/Massachusetts Bay, Massachusetts	3846
11.05.1 Overview	3846
11.05.2 Background: Physical Description	3847
11.05.3 Recovery of the Harbor	3849
11.05.3.1 The Court Cases	3849
11.05.3.2 How Sewage Pollution Damages a Coastal Ecosystem	3850
11.05.3.3 Improvements to the System	3851
11.05.3.4 Effluent Monitoring	3854
11.05.3.5 Boston Harbor Monitoring: The Need to Demonstrate Improvement	3854
11.05.4 Boston Harbor Monitoring Results	3856
11.05.4.1 Sediments	3856
11.05.4.2 Beaches	3857
11.05.4.3 Water Quality	3858
11.05.4.4 Winter Flounder	3859
11.05.5 Protection of the Bay	3860
11.05.5.1 Siting an Offshore Outfall	3860
11.05.6 Massachusetts Bay Monitoring: The Need to Demonstrate No Impact	3863
11.05.7 Massachusetts Bay Monitoring Results	3866
11.05.8 Lessons Learned	3868
11.05.9 The Future for Environmental Management of Boston Harbor/Massachusetts Bay	3870
References	3870
Relevant Websites	3872
Practitioner Reflections on Integrated Coastal Management Experience in Europe, South Africa, and Ecuador	3874
11.06.1 Introduction	3875
11.06.2 The Coastal Domain	3875
11.06.2.1 Coastal Systems and Global Change	3876
11.06.2.2 Implications for ICM	3876
11.06.3 Background to the Development oftheConcept of ICM	3877
11.06.4 The Adaptation of US Coastal Management Concepts and Principles by Other Nations	3877
11.06.4.1 The Evaluation of Progress toward Developing aRobust ICM Process	3878
11.06.5 The Adoption of ICM in Europe	3880
11.06.5.1 The Role of the EU in Developing ICM	3881
11.06.5.2 Evaluation of Progress in Developing ICM inEurope	3882
11.06.5.3 Factors That Have Influenced the Success of ICM Initiatives in Europe	3883
11.06.5.3.1 Coordination	3883
11.06.5.4 Elements of Good Practice in the European ICM Demonstration Projects	3884
11.06.5.5 Future Directions for ICM in Europe	3885
11.06.6 ICM in South Africa: An Evolving Journey	3886
11.06.6.1 The South African Coastal Setting	3886
11.06.6.2 Evolution of Coastal Management in South Africa	3887
11.06.7 A Generation of ICM in Ecuador: 1981–2000	3892
11.06.7.1 The Importance of Ecuador’s Coastal Region	3892
11.06.7.2 The Evolution of Ecuador’s ICM Program	3893
11.06.7.3 A Two-Track Strategy for Building the Enabling Conditions	3893
11.06.7.4 An Incremental, Learning-Based Approach	3894
11.06.7.5 The Transition to a New Funder and New Administrative Structure	3895
11.06.7.6 Some Lessons from the First-Generation Program	3896
11.06.7.7 The Second Generation of Ecuador’s Coastal Program	3896
11.06.8 Conclusions	3897
11.06.8.1 Europe	3897
11.06.8.2 South Africa	3897
11.06.8.3 Ecuador	3898
References	3899
ICZM and the Wadden Sea: Management across Boundaries	3902
11.07.1 Introduction	3902
11.07.2 The Wadden Sea	3903
11.07.3 The Trilateral Wadden Sea Cooperation	3903
11.07.3.1 Political Basis and Structure	3903
11.07.3.2 Structure of the TWSC	3905
11.07.3.3 International Agreements	3906
11.07.4 Trilateral Policy and Management	3907
11.07.4.1 Wadden Sea Plan	3907
11.07.4.2 Trilateral Targets	3908
11.07.4.3 Trilateral Monitoring and Assessment	3909
11.07.5 Developments in a Historical Perspective	3912
11.07.5.1 The 1970s: Politics and The Environment	3912
11.07.5.2 The 1980s: Sectoral Approaches	3912
11.07.5.3 The 1990s: Integration of Policies	3912
11.07.5.4 The 2000s: Sustainable Development and Integrated Ecosystem Management	3913
11.07.6 The TWSC and Integrated Ecosystem Management	3913
11.07.6.1 The Ecosystem Approach	3913
11.07.7 The TWSC and EC Directives	3914
11.07.7.1 EC Directives for Nature and Environment Protection	3914
11.07.7.2 EC Directives and the Ecosystem Approach	3916
11.07.7.3 The Trilateral Target Concept	3917
11.07.8 The TWSC and ICZM	3917
11.07.8.1 ICZM Recommendation	3917
11.07.8.2 The Wadden Sea Forum	3918
11.07.8.3 Lessons Learned	3919
11.07.9 Conclusions and Outlook	3920
References	3921
Relevant Websites	3921
Management of the Sustainable Development of Deltas	3922
11.08.1 Introduction	3923
11.08.1.1 Objective and Scope of the Chapter	3923
11.08.1.2 Setup of the Chapter	3924
11.08.2 Functions and Values of Deltas	3924
11.08.2.1 Processes Shaping the Delta	3924
11.08.2.2 Functions and Values for Mankind	3924
11.08.2.3 Functions and Values of Nature and Natural Processes	3925
11.08.2.4 Status and Trends in Values of Delta Ecosystems	3926
11.08.3 Trends and Issues in the Development ofDeltas	3927
11.08.3.1 Deltas: Melting Pot of Drivers and Trends	3927
11.08.3.2 Issues at Stake in Deltas	3927
11.08.3.3 Importance of Issues in Some Deltas Worldwide	3927
11.08.3.4 Delta Management: A Major Challenge	3929
11.08.4 Management and Restoration of Natural Systems	3929
11.08.4.1 Introduction	3929
11.08.4.2 Natural Coastal Protection and Wetland Restoration	3930
11.08.4.3 Integrity of Ecosystems: Environmental Flows	3930
11.08.4.4 Room for Rivers	3932
11.08.4.5 Multiple Use of Wetlands	3933
11.08.5 Extension and Revitalization of Infrastructure	3934
11.08.5.1 Role of Infrastructure in Delta Development	3934
11.08.5.2 Dealing with Pressure on Available Space	3935
11.08.5.3 From Building against Nature to Building with Nature	3936
11.08.5.4 Toward More Robust Infrastructure	3936
11.08.6 Development and Adaptation of Land andWater Use	3937
11.08.6.1 Options in Adaptation of Land and Water Use	3937
11.08.6.2 Spatial Planning and Zoning	3938
11.08.6.3 Urban (Re)development	3938
11.08.6.4 Adaptation to Climate Change	3938
11.08.7 Governance of Delta Development andManagement	3939
11.08.7.1 Role of Governance in Delta Development	3939
11.08.7.2 Cooperation between Levels and Sectors ofGovernment	3940
11.08.7.3 Cooperation between Government and Private Sector	3942
11.08.7.4 Involvement of Stakeholders and Citizens	3942
11.08.7.5 Approaches for Dealing with Risks andUncertainties	3943
11.08.8 Way Forward?	3943
11.08.8.1 Two Conflicting Perspectives on Development ofDeltas	3943
11.08.8.2 Enabling the Sustainable Development of Deltas	3945
Relieving the pressure on available space	3945
Improving resilience of delta areas	3923
Securing freshwater supplies	3923
Upgrading of aging infrastructure	3924
Coastal erosion management	3924
Biodiversity protection	3924
11.08.8.3 Delta Vision: A Shared View on Delta Development	3946
11.08.8.4 Best Practices for Delta Issues	3946
References	3946
Integrated Management in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan	3948
11.09.1 Introduction	3948
11.09.2 Changes in the Environment	3948
11.09.2.1 Population	3948
11.09.2.2 Industry	3949
11.09.2.3 Coastline	3950
11.09.3 Status	3950
11.09.3.1 Water Quality	3950
11.09.3.2 Sediment Quality	3950
11.09.3.3 Red Tide	3955
11.09.3.4 Seagrass Beds and Tidal Flats	3956
11.09.3.5 Fish Catch	3957
11.09.4 Responses	3959
11.09.4.1 Special Law	3959
11.09.4.2 Loads	3959
11.09.4.3 Reclamation	3963
11.09.4.4 New Environmental Policies	3963
11.09.5 Future Tasks	3969
References	3969
Integrated Coastal and Estuarine Management in South andSoutheast Asia	3970
11.10.1 South Asia	3971
11.10.1.1 Bangladesh	3972
11.10.1.2 India	3977
11.10.1.3 Maldives	3982
11.10.1.4 Pakistan	3983
11.10.1.5 Sri Lanka	3984
11.10.1.6 Summary of Coastal Zone Issues in South Asia	3987
11.10.2 Southeast Asia	3987
11.10.2.1 Brunei	3987
11.10.2.2 Cambodia	3989
11.10.2.3 Timor Leste (East Timor)	3991
11.10.2.4 Indonesia	3992
11.10.2.5 Malaysia	3993
11.10.2.6 Myanmar	3994
11.10.2.7 Philippines	3996
11.10.2.8 Singapore	3997
11.10.2.9 Thailand	3998
11.10.2.10 Vietnam	4000
11.10.3 Summary	4001
11.10.3.1 What Does the Future Hold for ICZM in South Asia and South East Asia?	4004
References	4004
Relevant Websites	4006
Integrated Coastal and Estuarine Management in Arctic Coastal Systems	4008
11.11.1 Introduction	4008
11.11.2 Physical and Ecological Changes on Arctic Coasts	4010
11.11.2.1 Changes in the Atmosphere	4010
11.11.2.2 Changes in the Oceans: Sea Ice	4012
11.11.2.3 Changes in Biodiversity	4014
11.11.3 Socioeconomic and Cultural Changes onArctic Coasts	4014
11.11.3.1 Socioeconomic and Industrial Development	4014
11.11.3.2 Hydrocarbon Development	4015
11.11.3.3 Shipping, Navigation, and Tourism	4016
11.11.3.4 Fisheries and Natural Resources	4018
11.11.4 Integrated Management and Governance	4018
11.11.4.1 From Government to Governance: The Rise of Integrated Approaches to Management	4018
11.11.4.2 The Concept of Governance	4019
11.11.5 Case Studies of Arctic Governance	4021
11.11.5.1 A Pan-Arctic View: Recent Changes and Trends inInternational Governance	4021
11.11.5.2 A National View: Integrated Management Policies	4022
11.11.6 What Are the Elements of an Integrated Management Model in the Arctic?	4027
11.11.6.1 Social–Ecological Thinking, Resilience, and Scale	4027
11.11.6.2 Integrating the Sciences, Policy, and Traditional Knowledge	4028
11.11.7 Conclusions	4029
References	4030
Relevant Websites	4031
Assessing Major Environmental Issues in the Caribbean and Pacific Coasts of Colombia, South America: An Overview of Fluvial Fluxes, Coral Reef Degradation, and Mangrove Ecosystems Impacted by River Diversion	4032
11.12.1 Fluvial Fluxes from the Andean Rivers ofColombia	4033
11.12.2 Catchment–Coast Continuum in a Major Caribbean Basin: The Magdalena River	4040
11.12.2.1 Human-Induced Factors in the Magdalena Catchment	4041
11.12.2.2 Water Discharge and Sediment Load intotheCaribbean Sea	4041
11.12.2.3 Impacts of Terrestrial Runoff on the Ecology ofCoral Reef Ecosystems	4042
11.12.2.4 Temporal Variability Coral Reef Health intheRosario Islands	4043
11.12.2.5 Major Anthropogenic Impacts on Coral Reefs in the Rosario Islands with Focus on Continental Nutrient Load	4045
11.12.2.6 Final Remarks on Human-Induced Activities in the Coral Reefs of the Rosario Islands and Suggested Research and Management Activities	4046
11.12.3 Distributary Channel Diversion in the Patía River Delta, Pacific Colombia	4050
11.12.3.1 Discharge Diversion and Its Environmental Impact	4050
11.12.3.2 Deforestation along the Western Andes of Colombia and Its Environmental Implications for Coastal Resources	4052
11.12.4 Final Remarks	4055
References	4055
The Coastal and Marine Environment of Western and Eastern Africa: Challenges to Sustainable Management and Socioeconomic Development	4058
11.13.1 Introduction	4059
11.13.2 Main Features and Broad Ecological Characteristics	4059
11.13.2.1 Western Africa	4059
11.13.2.2 Eastern Africa	4060
11.13.3 Endowments and Opportunities	4060
11.13.3.1 Fisheries Resources	4060
11.13.3.2 Recreational Endowments and Tourism	4064
11.13.3.3 Mineral Resources and Extraction	4065
11.13.3.4 Transportation	4065
11.13.4 Challenges Faced in Realizing Development Opportunities	4065
11.13.4.1 Overexploitation of Fisheries	4066
11.13.4.2 Habitat Destruction through Local Population Pressures	4067
11.13.4.3 Habitat Destruction Associated with Minerals and Oil and Gas Extraction	4068
11.13.4.4 Habitat Degradation through Catchment Land-Use Change	4069
11.13.4.5 Physical Shoreline Change	4070
11.13.4.6 Loss of Biodiversity	4071
11.13.4.7 Climate Change	4071
11.13.5 What Has Been Achieved So Far?	4072
11.13.6 Linking Institutional Responses from the National to the Regional Level	4073
11.13.7 Policy Options for Addressing the Regional Challenges	4074
11.13.7.1 Enhancing Institutional Mechanisms for Regional-Scale Ecosystem-Based (LME-wide) Management	4074
11.13.7.2 The Application of More Integrated Planning Approaches	4074
11.13.7.3 More Focus on Proactive and Cooperative Actions as Opposed to Corrective Measures	4075
11.13.7.4 The Use of Economic Instruments, such as Payment for Ecosystem Services, the Polluter-Pays Principle, and Subsidies and Tax Cuts	4075
11.13.7.5 The Application of Spatial Planning Approaches	4075
11.13.7.6 Enhanced Stakeholder Awareness and Public Awareness	4075
11.13.7.7 Strengthening National Institutional Capacity andPolicy and Regulatory Frameworks	4075
11.13.7.8 The Establishment of Financial Mechanisms	4075
11.13.7.9 The Establishment of Mechanisms for Targeted Research, Monitoring, and Knowledge Management	4075
11.13.8 Conclusion	4075
Acknowledgments	4076
References	4076
e9780123747112v12	4080
Cover\r	4080
Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science	4081
Copyright	4084
Contents Of Volume 12\r	4085
Volume Editors	4087
Editors-In-Chief: Biographies\r	4089
Volume Editors: Biographies\r	4091
Contributors Of All Volumes\r	4101
Contents Of All Volumes\r	4111
Preface\r	4117
Ecological Economics of Estuaries and Coasts	4121
12.01.1 Introduction of Ecological Economics ofEstuaries and Coasts	4121
12.01.2 Ecosystem Services	4124
12.01.3 EE History and Perspective	4126
12.01.3.1 Full World and the Growth Paradigm	4126
12.01.3.2 Transdisciplinarity	4127
12.01.3.3 History and an Evolving EE	4127
12.01.3.4 Vision and Normative Goals	4129
12.01.3.5 Decision Making	4131
12.01.3.6 Integration and Scale	4131
12.01.4 Outlook for EE on Estuaries and Coasts	4133
12.01.4.1 Conclusion	4133
References	4133
Relevant Websites	4134
What Are Ecosystem Services?\r	4135
12.02.1 Introduction	4135
12.02.2 Definition(s) and Characteristics ofEcosystem Services	4136
12.02.2.1 Defining Ecosystem Services	4136
12.02.2.2 The Role of Biodiversity in Ecosystem-Service Provision	4136
12.02.2.3 Ecosystem Condition and Sustainable Use	4137
12.02.2.4 Linking Ecosystem Services to Human Well-Being	4141
12.02.3 Classification of Ecosystem Services	4142
12.02.3.1 Generic Frameworks and Typology of Ecosystem Services	4142
12.02.3.2 Brief Description of the Four Main Service Categories	4142
12.02.3.3 Brief Overview of Coastal Ecosystem Services	4144
12.02.4 Measuring Ecosystem Services: Quantifying the Capacity and Importance of Ecosystems toProvideGoodsandServices	4144
12.02.4.1 Indicators to Measure the Capacity to Provide Ecosystem Services	4146
12.02.4.2 Indicators to Measure the Importance (Value) ofEcosystem Services	4148
12.02.5 Some Remaining Challenges	4150
References	4152
Relevant Websites	4154
Valuation of Coastal Ecosystem Services	4155
12.03.1 Introduction	4155
12.03.2 Valuation and Its Function in a Market System	4156
12.03.2.1 Price versus Value	4156
12.03.2.2 Why ESs Are Not Part of Market System	4157
12.03.3 Valuation Techniques to Use When People Perceive the Value of ESs	4160
12.03.3.1 Theoretical Underpinning for Neoclassical Valuation Approach	4160
12.03.3.2 Neoclassical Methods for Valuing ESs	4162
12.03.3.3 Limitations of Neoclassical ES Valuation Techniques	4165
12.03.4 When People Do Not Perceive the Benefits of ESs	4166
12.03.4.1 Ecological Indicators	4167
12.03.4.2 Participation and Stakeholder Involvement in Policymaking	4167
12.03.4.3 Knowledge Integration	4168
12.03.4.4 Multicriteria Analysis	4169
12.03.4.5 Scenarios	4169
12.03.4.6 Mapping and Modeling	4170
12.03.4.7 Payments for ESs	4170
12.03.5 Conclusion	4171
References	4172
Environmental Benefit Transfers of Ecosystem Service Valuation	4175
12.04.1 Introduction	4176
12.04.2 Concepts and Methods	4176
12.04.2.1 Benefit Transfer Defined	4176
12.04.2.2 Transfer Techniques and Recent Trends	4177
12.04.2.3 Transfer Databases	4179
12.04.2.4 A Literature Survey of Ecosystem Service TransferStudies	4180
12.04.3 Transfer Errors and Validity Test	4181
12.04.3.1 Transfer Errors	4181
12.04.3.2 Validity Tests	4183
12.04.4 Case Studies	4184
12.04.4.1 A GIS-Supported Point Transfer in Valuing the US State of New Jersey’s Ecosystem Services andNaturalCapital	4184
12.04.4.2 A Meta-Analysis of Contingent Valuation Studies inValuing Ecosystem Services of Coastal and Nearshore Marine Ecosystems	4189
12.04.5 Conclusion	4195
References	4195
Relevant Websites	4197
Integrated Modeling of Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystem Services	4199
12.05.1 Introduction	4199
12.05.2 Modeling and Participation in Estuarine andCoastal Management	4200
12.05.2.1 IM for Estuarine and Coastal Management	4200
12.05.2.2 The Emergence of Participation in Environmental Decision Making	4201
12.05.3 Participatory Modeling with System Dynamics	4202
12.05.3.1 The Role of Modeling and Computer Simulation	4202
12.05.3.2 The MM Approach	4205
12.05.4 Multiscale IM Framework for Sustainable Adaptive Systems	4207
12.05.5 MM Experiences to Support Planning and Management in Coastal and Estuarine Systems	4208
12.05.5.1 Scoping River Basin Sustainability Issues in the Baixo Guadiana Estuary	4210
12.05.5.2 Supporting Planning in Coastal Wetlands: The Ria Formosa MM Experiences	4214
12.05.6 IM and Ecosystem Services Valuation: GUMBO and MIMES	4219
12.05.6.1 The GUMBO Model: Global Unified Model of the BiOsphere	4220
12.05.6.2 The MIMES Model: Multiscale Integrated Model onEcosystem Services	4221
12.05.6.3 Economic Evaluations with GUMBO and MIMES	4222
12.05.7 Lessons and Avenues for Future Research inIM of Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystem Services	4223
12.05.7.1 The Role of IM in Supporting Public and Stakeholder Participation in Coastal and Estuarine Decisions	4223
12.05.7.2 Mediated Models and the Underlying Collaborative Processes Give Positive Indications toward Supporting Estuarine and Coastal Planning and Management	4224
12.05.7.3 Developing Integrated Deliberative Decision-Making Processes Supported by a Mix of Participatory Methodsand Tools	4225
12.05.7.4 Multiscale IM Reveals Potential to Support Adaptive Management Programs in Estuaries and \rCoastal Areas	4225
12.05.8 Conclusions	4225
Acknowledgments	4226
References	4226
Relevant Websites	4228
Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystems and Their Services	4229
12.06.1 Introduction	4229
12.06.2 Definitions of Services and Values of ECE	4230
12.06.3 Descriptions of Services and Values of ECEs	4231
12.06.3.1 Nearshore Reefs	4231
12.06.3.2 Seagrass Beds	4234
12.06.3.3 Salt Marshes	4235
12.06.3.4 Mangroves	4237
12.06.3.5 Sand Beaches and Dunes	4239
12.06.4 Nonlinearity of ECE Services and Values	4241
12.06.5 Synergistic Characteristics of ECE Services and Values	4243
12.06.6 Management Implications of Ecosystem Services and Values	4244
References	4244
Ecosystem Services Provided by Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystems: Storm Protection as a Service from Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystems	4249
12.07.1 The Impact of Natural Disasters on Human Societies	4249
12.07.2 The Coast: Where Humans, Natural Ecosystems, and Windstorms Meet	4253
12.07.2.1 Humans	4253
12.07.2.2 Hazard Exposure and Damage	4254
12.07.3 The Need to Thrive: Storm Protection asaService Provided by Natural Ecosystems	4255
12.07.4 The Evidence: Do Natural Ecosystems Protect?	4257
12.07.5 Storm Protection from the Perspective ofEcological Economics	4262
12.07.6 Conclusions	4264
References	4265
The Forgotten Service: Food as an Ecosystem Service from Estuarine and Coastal Zones	4267
12.08.1 Introduction	4268
12.08.1.1 Background	4268
12.08.1.2 Definitions and Concepts	4268
12.08.2 Food from Estuarine and Coastal Areas	4269
12.08.2.1 Food as Part of a Larger Set of Ecosystem Services	4269
12.08.2.2 Contribution of Coastal Ecosystems to Global FoodProduction	4270
12.08.2.3 Indirect Uses for Fish as Food: Support for Livelihood of Coastal Populations	4282
12.08.3 Threats To Coastal Ecosystems’ Food Production Function	4285
12.08.3.1 Negative Effects	4285
12.08.3.2 Positive Effects	4290
12.08.3.3 Ecosystem Services Tradeoffs	4290
12.08.4 Managing Coastal Zones for Food Production	4293
12.08.4.1 Fisheries	4293
12.08.4.2 Ecosystem-Based Management	4294
12.08.4.3 Improving aquaculture management	4294
12.08.5 Future of Food From Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystems	4295
12.08.5.1 Driver of Changes	4296
12.08.5.2 Fish Production	4297
12.08.6 Conclusion	4298
References	4298
Nutrient Recycling and Waste Treatment as a Service fromEstuarine and Coastal Ecosystems	4301
12.09.1 Introduction	4301
12.09.2 A Framework for Assessing Values of NWT	4302
12.09.3 A Brief Survey of Direct and Indirect Valuation Studies of Coastal Zone NWT	4304
12.09.3.1 Direct Valuation Studies of NWT by Wetlands	4304
12.09.3.2 Indirect Valuation Studies of Eutrophication Mitigation	4305
12.09.3.3 Comparison of Results	4306
12.09.4 Valuation of Coastal Zone Nutrient Treatment in the Baltic Sea	4307
12.09.4.1 Brief Presentation of the Optimization Model	4307
12.09.4.2 Estimated Values of NWT by Coastal Zones	4309
12.09.5 Management of NWT by Coastal Zones	4310
12.09.5.1 Measures Improving NWT in Coastal Areas	4310
12.09.5.2 Choice of Policies	4312
12.09.6 Management of Cleaning Services in Practice	4314
12.09.6.1 Water-Quality Management in Europe	4314
12.09.6.2 Nutrient Trading Markets in the United States	4315
12.09.7 Conclusions	4316
Acknowledgments	4316
References	4317
Climate Regulation as a Service from Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystems	4319
12.10.1 Introduction	4320
12.10.1.1 Definition and Global Occurrence	4320
12.10.1.2 Climate Regulation Services	4321
12.10.1.3 Anthropogenic Impacts on Climate Regulation Services from Estuaries and Coasts	4321
12.10.2 Climate Regulation Services of Coastal Habitats	4322
12.10.2.1 Salt Marshes	4323
12.10.2.2 Mangroves	4324
12.10.2.3 Seagrass Meadows	4325
12.10.2.4 Kelp Forests	4326
12.10.2.5 Coral Reefs	4327
12.10.2.6 Estuaries	4327
12.10.2.7 Continental Shelf Seas	4328
12.10.3 Coastal Anthropogenic Impacts and Changes in GHG Dynamics	4329
12.10.3.1 Coastal Modification and Use	4329
12.10.3.2 Impacts of Climate Change	4330
12.10.4 Maintaining ES and Mitigating GHGs inCoastal Zones	4330
12.10.4.1 Adaptation and Mitigation Potential	4330
12.10.5 Conclusions	4332
References	4333
Recreational, Cultural, and Aesthetic Services from Estuarine andCoastal Ecosystems	4337
12.11.1 Introduction	4337
12.11.2 A Framework for the Classification of Recreational, Cultural, and Aesthetic Ecosystem Services	4338
12.11.3 Methods for the Valuation of Ecosystem Services	4338
12.11.4 The Empirical Evidence from an Ecosystem Service Perspective: Recreational, Aesthetic, and Cultural Values	4340
12.11.4.1 Recreational Fishing	4341
12.11.4.2 Nonconsumptive Recreation	4342
12.11.4.3 Cultural and Aesthetic Services	4344
12.11.5 The Empirical Evidence from a Management Perspective: Coral Reefs, MPAs, and SIDS	4346
12.11.5.1 Coral Reefs	4346
12.11.5.2 Marine Protected Areas	4348
12.11.5.3 Small Island Developing States	4349
12.11.6 Scaling Up Coastal Recreation Values	4351
12.11.7 Conclusions	4354
Acknowledgment	4355
References	4355
Relevant Websites	4357
New Sustainable Governance Institutions for Estuaries and Coasts	4359
12.12.1 Introduction	4359
12.12.2 What Is Sustainable Governance for Estuaries and Coastal Ecosystems?	4360
12.12.2.1 Sustainable Governance in General	4360
12.12.2.2 Specific Sustainable Governance Goals for Estuaries and Coastal Zones	4362
12.12.2.3 Sustainable Governance for Estuary and Coastal Ecosystems	4367
12.12.3 The Foundational Principles of Sustainable Governance	4368
12.12.3.1 The Polluter Pays Principle	4368
12.12.3.2 The Use of Best Available Science	4370
12.12.3.3 The Precautionary Principle	4371
12.12.3.4 Intergenerational Sustainability	4372
12.12.3.5 Transnational Sustainability	4373
12.12.3.6 Accounting for Ecosystem Services	4374
12.12.3.7 Integrated Decision Making	4375
12.12.3.8 Adaptive Management	4375
12.12.3.9 Citizen Participation	4376
12.12.4 Institutional Approaches	4377
12.12.4.1 Conventional Models	4377
12.12.4.2 Sustainability Models	4379
12.12.5 Conclusion	4387
References	4387
Enhancing the Resilience of Coastal Communities: Dealing withImmediate and Long-Term Impacts of Natural Hazards	4391
12.13.1 Introduction	4391
12.13.2 Resilience	4393
12.13.3 Hazards, Risks, and Vulnerability	4394
12.13.4 Sustainability and Resilience	4395
12.13.5 Building Sustainable Communities: Mitigation and Adaptation	4396
12.13.6 Coastal Community Resilience: Determined toStay Despite the Risks	4397
12.13.7 Resilient Communities: Linking Natural, Social, and Economic Capital	4399
12.13.8 Strategies for Coastal Community Resilience	4400
12.13.9 Measuring Community Resilience	4402
12.13.10 Community Engagement and Resilience	4404
12.13.11 Conclusions	4406
References	4407
Scenarios for Coastal Vulnerability Assessment	4409
12.14.1 Introduction	4409
12.14.2 Scenarios, Coastal Scenarios, and the SRES Story Lines	4410
12.14.3 Climate and Sea-Level Scenarios	4412
12.14.4 Environment and Socioeconomic Scenarios	4414
12.14.5 Adaptation Considerations	4417
12.14.6 Discussion	4418
12.14.7 Conclusions	4419
Acknowledgments	4419
References	4419
A Scenario Analysis of Climate Change and Ecosystem Services forthe Great Barrier Reef	4425
12.15.1 Introduction	4426
12.15.2 Methods	4427
12.15.2.1 Scenario Planning and Analysis	4427
12.15.2.2 GBR Study Site	4429
12.15.2.3 Development of GBR Scenarios	4430
12.15.2.4 Evaluation of Implications for Marine and Terrestrial Ecosystems	4432
12.15.2.5 Indicator Selection	4433
12.15.3 Results	4435
12.15.3.1 Scenario Narratives	4435
12.15.3.2 Implications for Marine and Terrestrial Ecosystems	4435
12.15.3.3 Implications for four capitals	4435
12.15.4 Discussion	4439
12.15.4.1 Analysis of Scenarios	4439
12.15.4.2 Implications for Management of GBR	4442
12.15.5 Conclusion	4444
Acknowledgments	4444
References	4445
Subject Index	4447
Permission Acknowledgments	4603

Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science

Additional Information

Book Details

Abstract

Table of Contents

Contact Us

Quick Navigation