BOOK
Principles and Applications of Radiological Physics E-Book
Martin Vosper | Donald Graham | Paul Cloke
(2011)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Principles and Application of Radiological Physics 6E provides comprehensive and easy-to-follow coverage of the principles and application of physics for both diagnostic and therapeutic radiography students. Regardless of changes in technology and clinical grading, the most important role of the radiographer remains unchanged - ensuring the production of high quality images and optimal treatment. These should be performed with the minimum of radiation hazard to patients, staff and others. An understanding of physics and the basics of radiographic technology is essential to do this effectively. The book covers all the physics and mathematics required by undergraduate diagnostic and therapeutic radiography students, catering for those who do not have a mathematics qualification as well as for those who do.
NEW TO THIS EDITION:
A focus upon application of physics to reflect current teaching approaches
Completely revised structure, leading from science principles to applications
New chapters on CT, MRI, ultrasound, PET, RNI, mammography and digital imaging
Electronic learning resources for students, hosted on EVOLVE
*Strong links between theory and practice throughout *Clear and concise text
Focus on application of physics, as well as principles
New, updated 2-colour design
New Sections - Equipment for X-ray production, The Radiographic Image and Diagnostic Imaging Technologies
Electronic learning resources for students support the text
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | Cover | ||
| Principles and applications of radiological physics | iii | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| Preface | vii | ||
| 1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1 Principles of radiography | 3 | ||
| 1.1 Aim | 3 | ||
| 1.2 Diagnostic and Therapeutic Radiography | 3 | ||
| 1.3 Methods of Radiation Treatment | 5 | ||
| 1.4 Radiation Protection | 6 | ||
| Further Reading | 7 | ||
| 2 Basic physics | 9 | ||
| 2 Power sources for radiation production | 11 | ||
| 2.1 Aim | 11 | ||
| 2.2 Obtaining Energy for Radiation Production | 11 | ||
| 2.3 A Special Case – Radioactive Sources | 12 | ||
| 2.4 X-ray Generators | 13 | ||
| 2.5 The Linear Accelerator | 14 | ||
| 2.6 Ultrasound Generation | 15 | ||
| 2.7 Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 15 | ||
| 3 Laws of classical physics | 17 | ||
| 3.1 Aim | 17 | ||
| 3.2 Law of Conservation of Matter (Mass) | 17 | ||
| 3.3 Law of Conservation of Energy | 17 | ||
| 3.4 Law of Conservation of Momentum | 18 | ||
| 3.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion | 18 | ||
| 3.6 Avogadro’s Hypothesis, the Mole and Avogadro’s Number | 19 | ||
| Further Reading | 20 | ||
| 4 Units of measurement | 21 | ||
| 4.1 Aim | 21 | ||
| 4.2 Units of Measurement | 21 | ||
| 4.3 SI Base Units | 21 | ||
| 4.4 Units Used in Radiography | 25 | ||
| Further Reading | 26 | ||
| 5 Heat | 27 | ||
| 5.1 Aim | 27 | ||
| 5.2 Introduction | 27 | ||
| 5.3 Heat Energy and Temperature | 27 | ||
| 5.4 Transfer of Heat | 29 | ||
| 5.5 Thermal Expansion | 31 | ||
| 5.6 Evaporation and Vaporization | 32 | ||
| Further Reading | 32 | ||
| 6 Electrostatics | 33 | ||
| 6.1 Aim | 33 | ||
| 6.2 Introduction | 33 | ||
| 6.3 Properties of Electrical Charges | 33 | ||
| 6.4 Force Between Two Electrical Charges in a Vacuum | 34 | ||
| 6.5 Permittivity and Relative Permittivity (Dielectric Constant) | 35 | ||
| 6.6 Electrical Field Strength | 35 | ||
| 6.7 Electrostatic Induction of Charge | 35 | ||
| 6.8 Electrical Potential | 36 | ||
| 6.9 Distribution of Electrical Charge on an Irregulary Shaped Conductor | 38 | ||
| Further Reading | 38 | ||
| 7 Electricity (DC) | 39 | ||
| 7.1 Aim | 39 | ||
| 7.2 Introduction | 39 | ||
| 7.3 Simple Electron Theory of Conduction | 39 | ||
| 7.4 Electric Current | 41 | ||
| 7.5 mA, mAs and Millicoulombs | 42 | ||
| 7.6 Potential Difference and Electromotive Force | 42 | ||
| 7.7 Resistance | 43 | ||
| 7.8 Ohm’s Law | 44 | ||
| 7.9 Electrical Energy and Power | 45 | ||
| 7.10 Power Loss in Cables | 46 | ||
| Further Reading | 47 | ||
| 8 Magnetism | 49 | ||
| 8.1 Aim | 49 | ||
| 8.2 Magnetic Fields | 49 | ||
| 8.3 Bulk Magnetic Properties and Permanent Magnets | 51 | ||
| Further Reading | 52 | ||
| 9 Electromagnetism | 53 | ||
| 9.1 Aim | 53 | ||
| 9.2 Introduction | 53 | ||
| 9.3 Electron Flow and ‘Conventional’ Current | 53 | ||
| 9.4 Magnetic Field Due to a Straight Wire | 53 | ||
| 9.5 Magnetic Field Due to a Circular Coil of Wire | 54 | ||
| 9.6 Magnetic Field Due to a Solenoid | 54 | ||
| Further Reading | 56 | ||
| 10 Electromagnetic induction | 57 | ||
| 10.1 Aim | 57 | ||
| 10.2 Introduction | 57 | ||
| 10.3 Conditions Necessary for Electromagnetic Induction | 57 | ||
| 10.4 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction | 58 | ||
| 10.5 Lenz’s Law | 58 | ||
| 10.6 Sign Convention for the Induced Current | 59 | ||
| 10.7 Mutual Induction | 59 | ||
| 10.8 Self-induction | 60 | ||
| 10.9 The AC Generator | 61 | ||
| Further Reading | 62 | ||
| 11 Alternating current (AC) flow | 63 | ||
| 11.1 Aim | 63 | ||
| 11.2 Introduction | 63 | ||
| 11.3 Types of DC and AC | 63 | ||
| 11.4 Sinusoidal AC | 64 | ||
| 11.5 AC and the X-ray Tube | 66 | ||
| 11.6 Basics of AC Circuits | 67 | ||
| 11.7 Simple AC Circuits | 67 | ||
| 11.8 Three-phase AC | 68 | ||
| Further Reading | 70 | ||
| 12 The motor principle | 71 | ||
| 12.1 Aim | 71 | ||
| 12.2 Introduction and Definition of the Motor Principle | 71 | ||
| 12.3 Direction and Magnitude of the Force on the Conductor | 72 | ||
| 12.4 Convention for the Direction of the Force | 72 | ||
| 12.5 Interaction of Two Electromagnetic Fields | 73 | ||
| 12.6 The DC Electric Motor | 74 | ||
| 12.7 The AC Induction Motor | 74 | ||
| 12.8 Magnetic Deflection of an Electron Beam | 75 | ||
| 12.9 The Motor Principle in Radiography | 76 | ||
| Further Reading | 76 | ||
| 13 Capacitors | 77 | ||
| 13.1 Aim | 77 | ||
| 13.2 Introduction | 77 | ||
| 13.3 Electrical Capacity (Capacitance) | 77 | ||
| 13.4 Capacitance of a Parallel-Plate Capacitor | 78 | ||
| 13.5 Charging a Capacitor Through a Resistor from a DC Supply | 80 | ||
| 13.6 Discharging a Capacitor Through a Resistor | 80 | ||
| 13.7 The Time-Constant for a Capacitor Resistor Circuit | 80 | ||
| 13.8 Capacitors and Alternating Current | 81 | ||
| 13.9 Capacitors in Radiography | 81 | ||
| Further Reading | 82 | ||
| 14 The AC transformer | 83 | ||
| 14.1 Aim | 83 | ||
| 14.2 Introduction | 83 | ||
| 14.3 The Ideal Transformer | 83 | ||
| 14.4 Faraday’s Laws and Lenz’s Law Applied to Transformers | 85 | ||
| 14.5 Transformers in Practice | 86 | ||
| 14.6 Transformer Losses | 86 | ||
| 14.7 The Autotransformer | 90 | ||
| 14.8 The Constant Voltage Transformer | 91 | ||
| 14.9 Transformer Rating | 91 | ||
| Further Reading | 92 | ||
| 15 Semiconductor materials | 93 | ||
| 15.1 Aim | 93 | ||
| 15.2 Introduction | 93 | ||
| 15.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors | 94 | ||
| 15.4 Extrinsic Semiconductors | 95 | ||
| 15.5 The PN Junction | 98 | ||
| 15.6 Integrated Circuits | 100 | ||
| 15.7 Semiconductor Devices in Radiography | 102 | ||
| Further Reading | 103 | ||
| 3 Atomic physics | 105 | ||
| 16 The laws of modern physics | 107 | ||
| 16.1 Aim | 107 | ||
| 16.2 Introduction | 107 | ||
| 16.3 Classical Versus Modern Laws | 107 | ||
| 16.4 Law of Conservation of Energy | 108 | ||
| 16.5 Law of Conservation of Momentum | 108 | ||
| 16.6 Wave–Particle Duality | 109 | ||
| 16.7 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle | 109 | ||
| Further Reading | 110 | ||
| 17 Electromagnetic radiation | 111 | ||
| 17.1 Aim | 111 | ||
| 17.2 Introduction | 111 | ||
| 17.3 Properties of Electromagnetic Radiations | 111 | ||
| 17.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum | 115 | ||
| 17.5 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser) | 115 | ||
| 17.6 Electromagnetic Radiations and Radiography | 116 | ||
| Further Reading | 117 | ||
| 18 The elementary structure of the atom | 119 | ||
| 18.1 Aim | 119 | ||
| 18.2 Introduction | 119 | ||
| 18.3 The Atomic Nucleus | 121 | ||
| 18.4 Electron Orbitals | 122 | ||
| 18.5 The Periodic Table of Elements | 124 | ||
| 18.6 Electron Orbital Changes | 125 | ||
| 18.7 Binding Energy of the Electron Shells | 125 | ||
| Further Reading | 126 | ||
| 19 Radioactivity | 127 | ||
| 19.1 Aim | 127 | ||
| 19.2 Introduction | 127 | ||
| 19.3 Nuclide Chart | 128 | ||
| 19.4 Alpha Decay or Alpha-Particle Emission | 129 | ||
| 19.5 Beta Decay or Beta-Particle Emission | 129 | ||
| 19.6 Gamma Decay or Gamma-Ray Emission | 132 | ||
| 19.7 Electron Capture | 134 | ||
| 19.8 Branching Decay Programmes | 135 | ||
| 19.9 Fission | 135 | ||
| 19.10 Summary of Radioactive Nuclear Transformations | 137 | ||
| Further Reading | 137 | ||
| 20 The exponential law | 139 | ||
| 20.1 Aim | 139 | ||
| 20.2 Description of the Exponential Law | 139 | ||
| 20.3 Radioactive Decay and the Exponential Law | 140 | ||
| 20.4 Measures of Radioactivity | 141 | ||
| 20.5 Half-Life and Decay Constant | 142 | ||
| 20.6 Physical Half-Life, Biological Half-Life and Effective Half-Life | 143 | ||
| 20.7 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation by Matter | 144 | ||
| 20.8 Half-value Thickness | 145 | ||
| 20.9 Tenth-value Thickness | 146 | ||
| 20.10 Use of Logarithmic Form of the Exponential Law | 146 | ||
| Further Reading | 147 | ||
| 4 X-rays and matter | 149 | ||
| 21 Production of X-rays | 151 | ||
| 21.1 Aim | 151 | ||
| 21.2 Interactions of Electrons with Matter | 151 | ||
| 21.3 Interactions Between Electrons from the Filament and the Outer Electrons of the Target Atoms in the X-ray Tube | 151 | ||
| 21.4 Interactions Between Electrons from the Filament and the Nuclei of the Target Atoms in the X-ray Tube | 152 | ||
| 21.5 Inelastic Collisions with the Electrons of the Target Atoms – Production of Characteristic Radiation | 154 | ||
| 21.6 The X-ray Spectrum | 155 | ||
| Further Reading | 157 | ||
| 22 Factors affecting X-ray beam quality and quantity | 159 | ||
| 22.1 Aim | 159 | ||
| 22.2 Introduction | 159 | ||
| 22.3 The Effect of mA on the X-ray Beam | 160 | ||
| 22.4 The Effect of kVp on the X-ray Beam | 160 | ||
| 22.5 The Effect of the Target Material on the X-ray Beam | 161 | ||
| 22.6 The Effect of Rectification on the X-ray Beam | 161 | ||
| 22.7 The Effect of Filtration on the X-ray Beam | 161 | ||
| 22.8 Summary of the Factors Affecting the Quantity, Quality and Intensity of the X-ray Beam | 163 | ||
| Further Reading | 164 | ||
| 23 Interactions of X-rays with matter | 165 | ||
| 23.1 Aim | 165 | ||
| 23.2 Outline of Possible Interactions | 165 | ||
| 23.3 Attenuation and Absorption | 168 | ||
| 23.4 Elastic (Coherent) Scattering | 168 | ||
| 23.5 Photoelectric Absorption | 169 | ||
| 23.6 Compton Scattering | 171 | ||
| 23.7 Pair Production | 173 | ||
| 23.8 Relative Importance of the Attenuation Processes in Radiography | 174 | ||
| 23.9 Conclusion | 175 | ||
| Further Reading | 176 | ||
| 24 Luminescence and photostimulation | 177 | ||
| 24.1 Aim | 177 | ||
| 24.2 Introduction | 177 | ||
| 24.3 Luminescence, Fluorescence and Phosphorescence | 177 | ||
| 24.4 Photostimulation | 180 | ||
| Further Reading | 181 | ||
| 25 The radiographic image | 183 | ||
| 25.1 Aim | 183 | ||
| 25.2 Introduction | 183 | ||
| 25.3 The X-ray Image Pattern | 183 | ||
| 25.4 The Radioigraphic Image Pattern | 187 | ||
| 25.5 Practical Considerations in Exposure Selection | 188 | ||
| Further Reading | 189 | ||
| 26 The inverse square law | 191 | ||
| 26.1 Aim | 191 | ||
| 26.2 Intensity of Radiation | 191 | ||
| 26.3 Statement of the Inverse Square Law | 191 | ||
| 26.4 Similar-triangles Proof of the Inverse Square Law | 192 | ||
| 26.5 The Inverse Square Law and the X-ray Beam | 192 | ||
| 26.6 mAs and the Inverse Square Law | 192 | ||
| Further Reading | 194 | ||
| 5 Radiation dosimetry | 195 | ||
| 27 Principles of radiation dosimetry | 197 | ||
| 27.1 Aim | 197 | ||
| 27.2 Introduction | 197 | ||
| 27.3 Units of Exposure and Dose | 197 | ||
| 27.4 Quality Factor and Dose Equivalent | 200 | ||
| 27.5 Absolute Measurement of Absorbed Dose | 201 | ||
| 27.6 Types of Detectors and Dosimeters | 204 | ||
| Further Reading | 207 | ||
| 6 Equipment for X-ray production | 209 | ||
| 28 Rectification | 211 | ||
| 28.1 Aim | 211 | ||
| 28.2 Introduction | 211 | ||
| 28.3 Four-diode Full-wave Rectification | 211 | ||
| 28.4 Capacitor Smoothing | 211 | ||
| 28.5 Medium-frequency Generators | 213 | ||
| Further Reading | 214 | ||
| 29 Exposure and timing circuits | 215 | ||
| 29.1 Aim | 215 | ||
| 29.2 Preparation for Exposure | 215 | ||
| 29.3 The Switching Section | 215 | ||
| 29.4 The Timing Section | 217 | ||
| Further Reading | 220 | ||
| 30 The diagnostic X-ray tube | 221 | ||
| 30.1 Aim | 221 | ||
| 30.2 Introduction | 221 | ||
| 30.3 Construction of X-ray Tubes | 221 | ||
| 30.4 Construction of the Tube Shield (Housing) | 222 | ||
| 30.5 Construction of the Rotating Anode Tube Insert | 224 | ||
| 30.6 Construction of the Stationary Anode Tube Insert | 227 | ||
| 30.7 Principles of Operation of the X-ray Tube | 227 | ||
| 30.8 Modern Trends in X-ray Tube Design | 229 | ||
| Further Reading | 230 | ||
| 31 Monitoring and protection of X-ray tubes | 231 | ||
| 31.1 Aim | 231 | ||
| 31.2 Definition of Rating | 231 | ||
| 31.3 Single Exposures | 231 | ||
| 31.4 Multiple Exposures | 234 | ||
| 31.5 Automatic Monitoring of Rating | 235 | ||
| Further Reading | 236 | ||
| 32 Orthovoltage generators and linear accelerators | 237 | ||
| 32.1 Aim | 237 | ||
| 32.2 Introduction | 237 | ||
| 32.3 The Orthovoltage Unit | 237 | ||
| 32.4 The Linear Accelerator | 238 | ||
| Further Reading | 241 | ||
| 33 Radiotherapy simulators | 243 | ||
| 33.1 Aim | 243 | ||
| 33.2 Introduction | 243 | ||
| 33.3 Simulator Specifications | 243 | ||
| 33.4 Gantry Design | 243 | ||
| 33.5 The Treatment Planning Process | 246 | ||
| 33.6 CT Simulator | 247 | ||
| Further Reading | 247 | ||
| 7 The radiographic image | 249 | ||
| 34 Production of the digital radiographic image | 251 | ||
| 34.1 Aim | 251 | ||
| 34.2 The Digital Image | 251 | ||
| 34.3 Digital Image Production | 252 | ||
| 34.4 Short-term Storage, Manipulation and Display of Digital Images | 253 | ||
| 34.5 Digital Imaging in General Radiography | 253 | ||
| Further Reading | 257 | ||
| 35 The fluoroscopic image | 259 | ||
| 35.1 Aim | 259 | ||
| 35.2 Fluoroscopic Principles | 259 | ||
| 35.3 The Image Intensifier | 260 | ||
| 35.4 Solid-state Image Intensifiers | 261 | ||
| 35.5 Fluoroscopic Image Quality | 262 | ||
| 35.6 Dose Reduction in Fluoroscopy | 263 | ||
| Further Reading | 264 | ||
| 36 Consequences of digital imaging in radiography | 265 | ||
| 36.1 Aim | 265 | ||
| 36.2 Image Processing | 265 | ||
| 36.3 Image Storage and Retrieval | 266 | ||
| 36.4 Picture Archiving and Communications Systems (PACS) | 267 | ||
| 36.5 Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine (DICOM) | 268 | ||
| Further Reading | 268 | ||
| 8 Applications of radiographic physics | 269 | ||
| 37 Radionuclide imaging | 271 | ||
| 37.1 Aim | 271 | ||
| 37.2 Basic Concept of Radionuclide Imaging | 271 | ||
| 37.3 Production of Artificially Produced Radionuclides | 271 | ||
| 37.4 Clinically Useful Radionuclides | 272 | ||
| 37.5 Organ Scanning | 274 | ||
| Further Reading | 278 | ||
| 38 CT scanning | 279 | ||
| 38.1 Aim | 279 | ||
| 38.2 Introduction | 279 | ||
| 38.3 The Development of the CT Scanner | 279 | ||
| 38.4 Scanner Subsystems | 280 | ||
| 38.5 Advances in CT Technology | 281 | ||
| 38.6 Formation of the CT Image | 283 | ||
| 38.7 CT and Radiation Dose | 284 | ||
| Further Reading | 285 | ||
| 39 Magnetic resonance imaging | 287 | ||
| 39.1 Aim | 287 | ||
| 39.2 Key Principles of MRI | 287 | ||
| 39.3 Image Weightings, Sequences and Appearances | 291 | ||
| 39.4 MRI Equipment – Scanners and Coils | 293 | ||
| 39.5 MRI Bioeffects and Safety | 294 | ||
| Further Reading | 295 | ||
| 40 Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning | 297 | ||
| 40.1 Aim | 297 | ||
| 40.2 Revision of Positron Physics | 297 | ||
| 40.3 Detection of Positrons | 297 | ||
| 40.4 Radionuclides Used in Pet Scanning | 298 | ||
| 40.5 Modern Trends in Pet Scanning | 299 | ||
| Further Reading | 300 | ||
| 41 Hybrid scanners | 301 | ||
| 41.1 Aim | 301 | ||
| 41.2 Background | 301 | ||
| 41.3 Historical Development | 301 | ||
| 41.4 The Spect/CT Hybrid Scanner | 302 | ||
| 41.5 The PET/CT Hybrid Scanner | 302 | ||
| 41.6 The PET/MRI Hybrid Scanner | 302 | ||
| 41.7 Other Hybrid Scanner Combinations and Current Research | 303 | ||
| Further Reading | 303 | ||
| 42 Ultrasound imaging | 305 | ||
| 42.1 Aim | 305 | ||
| 42.2 Sound Properties | 305 | ||
| 42.3 The Doppler Effect | 309 | ||
| 42.4 Production and Application of Ultrasound | 309 | ||
| Further Reading | 310 | ||
| 43 Mammography | 311 | ||
| 43.1 Aim | 311 | ||
| 43.2 Introduction | 311 | ||
| 43.3 Tissue X-ray Attenuation Challenges for Breast Imaging | 311 | ||
| 43.4 X-ray Beam Adaptations for Breast Imaging | 312 | ||
| 43.5 Image Quality Considerations | 313 | ||
| Further Reading | 313 | ||
| 9 Radiation protection | 315 | ||
| 44 Practical radiation protection | 317 | ||
| 44.1 Aim | 317 | ||
| 44.2 Purpose and Scope of Radiation Protection | 317 | ||
| 44.3 Legal Aspects | 318 | ||
| 44.4 Dose-equivalent Limits | 319 | ||
| 44.5 Local Rules | 320 | ||
| 44.6 The Role of the Practitioner | 322 | ||
| 44.7 The Role of the Operator | 323 | ||
| Further Reading | 325 | ||
| 10 Appendices and tables | 327 | ||
| Appendix A: Mathematics for radiography | 329 | ||
| A.1 Algebraic Symbols | 329 | ||
| A.2 Fractions and Percentages | 330 | ||
| A.3 Multiplying and Dividing | 331 | ||
| A.4 Solving Equations | 332 | ||
| A.5 Powers (Indices) | 334 | ||
| A.6 Powers of 10 | 335 | ||
| A.7 Proportionality | 336 | ||
| A.8 Graphs | 336 | ||
| A.9 The Geometry of Triangles | 338 | ||
| A.10 Pocket Calculators and Calculations in Examinations | 339 | ||
| A.11 Logarithms | 339 | ||
| A.12 Vector Quantities | 340 | ||
| Answers to Exercises | 340 | ||
| Appendix B: Modulation transfer function | 343 | ||
| B.1 Modulation and Spatial Frequencies | 343 | ||
| B.2 MTF and Spatial Frequency | 344 | ||
| B.3 Objects as Spatial Frequencies | 344 | ||
| B.4 Measurement of MTF | 345 | ||
| Appendix C: SI base units | 347 | ||
| C.1 Mass | 347 | ||
| C.2 Length | 347 | ||
| C.3 Time | 347 | ||
| C.4 Electric Current | 347 | ||
| C.5 Temperature | 347 | ||
| C.6 Luminous Intensity | 347 | ||
| C.7 Amount of Substance | 347 | ||
| Table A: Powers of 10 | 349 | ||
| Table B: Physical constants | 351 | ||
| Table C: Important conversion factors | 353 | ||
| Table D: Greek symbols and their common usage | 355 | ||
| Table E: The periodic table of elements | 357 | ||
| Table F: Electron configuration of the elements | 359 | ||
| Index | 365 |