Encyclopedia of Environmental Health

Jerome O. Nriagu

BOOK

Encyclopedia of Environmental Health

Jerome O. Nriagu

(2008)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-0-444-52272-6
Edition
Language: English
Pages: 5016
Subjects: Surgical orthopaedics & fractures
Biology, life sciences
The environment
Environmental science, engineering & technology
Computer programming / software engineering

Abstract

Environmental health has evolved over time into a complex, multidisciplinary field. Many of the key determinants and solutions to environmental health problems lie outside the direct realm of health and are strongly dependent on environmental changes, water and sanitation, industrial development, education, employment, trade, tourism, agriculture, urbanization, energy, housing and national security. Environmental risks, vulnerability and variability manifest themselves in different ways and at different time scales. While there are shared global and transnational problems, each community, country or region faces its own unique environmental health problems, the solution of which depends on circumstances surrounding the resources, customs, institutions, values and environmental vulnerability. This work contains critical reviews and assessments of environmental health practices and research that have worked in places and thus can guide programs and economic development in other countries or regions.

The Encyclopedia of Environmental Health seeks to conceptualize the subject more clearly, to describe the best available scientific methods that can be used in characterizing and managing environmental health risks, to extend the field of environmental health through new theoretical perspectives and heightened appreciation of social, economic and political contexts, and to encourage a richer analysis in the field through examples of diverse experiences in dealing with the health-environment interface.

The Encyclopedia of Environmental Health contains numerous examples of policy options and environmental health practices that have worked and thus can guide programs in other countries or regions
It includes a wide range of tools and strategies that can assist communities and countries in assessing environmental health conditions, monitoring progress of intervention implementation and evaluating outcomes
Provides a comprehensive overview of existing knowledge in this emerging field
Articles contain summaries and assessments of environmental health practices and research, providing a framework for further research
Places environmental health in the broader context of environmental change and related ecological, political, economic, social, and cultural issues

"This set, weighing in at five volumes, attempts to embrace a multidisciplinary and splintered field. The emphasis is on public health problems: description, detection, evaluation, control, and prevention. This involves toxicology, waste management, water and air quality, pesticides, radiation, noise, and communicable diseases. The 450 articles submitted by over 700 international contributors are alphabetically arranged by title. The articles are classified under 30 subject areas appearing at the beginning of each volume, and the set has an extensive 270-page index. Articles range from 3,000 to over 10,000 words, and many include high-quality graphics and tables. Each article starts with a list of abbreviations; some also have glossaries. Similar articles are cross-reference…. Summing up: Recommended." --CHOICE, December 2011

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Volume 1	Vol-1-Cover
Front Cover	Vol-1-Cover
Encyclopedia of Environmental Health	Vol-1-iii
Copyright Page	Vol-1-iv
EDITORS	Vol-1-v
SECTION EDITORS	Vol-1-vi
CONTRIBUTORS	Vol-1-vii
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA	Vol-1-xxxi
SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION	Vol-1-xxxiii
CONTENTS	Vol-1-xliii
PREFACE	Vol-1-lix
Part 1: A	Vol-1-1
Chapter 1. Acute Radiation Sickness from Chernobyl	Vol-1-1
Acute Radiation Sickness	Vol-1-1
Further Reading	Vol-1-8
Chapter 2. Advances in Analytical Methods for the Determination of Pharmaceutical Residues in Waters and Wastewaters	Vol-1-9
Introduction	Vol-1-9
Current Status in Respect to Sample Preparation and Extraction Methods	Vol-1-11
Recent Developments in Chromatographic Systems and Techniques	Vol-1-14
Multiresidue Methods	Vol-1-15
Conclusions	Vol-1-16
Further Reading	Vol-1-16
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-16
Chapter 3. Air Pollution and Development of Children’s Pulmonary Function	Vol-1-17
Introduction	Vol-1-17
Performance Measures	Vol-1-18
Short- and Long-Term Effects of Air Pollution	Vol-1-18
Methodological Issues	Vol-1-19
Elevated Risk Groups	Vol-1-20
Other Risk Factors	Vol-1-24
Implication for Research and Public Health Policy	Vol-1-24
Further Reading	Vol-1-24
Chapter 4. Air Pollution and Lung Cancer Risks	Vol-1-26
Introduction	Vol-1-26
Atmospheric Pollution and Lung Cancer	Vol-1-26
Indoor Air Pollution and Lung Cancer	Vol-1-30
Meta-Analysis on Lung Cancer Risk Estimate of Indoor Air Pollution in China	Vol-1-31
Confounding Factors	Vol-1-34
Conclusions	Vol-1-35
Further Reading	Vol-1-38
Chapter 5. Air Pollution Episodes	Vol-1-39
Introduction	Vol-1-39
Important Air Pollution Episodes	Vol-1-39
Pollutant Types	Vol-1-41
Pollutant Frequency Distribution	Vol-1-44
Policy Response	Vol-1-44
Further Reading	Vol-1-45
Chapter 6. Air Pollution from Solid Fuels	Vol-1-46
Introduction	Vol-1-46
Global Consumption Pattern of Solid Fuels	Vol-1-46
Indoor Air Pollution from Solid Fuels	Vol-1-46
Ambient Air Pollution from Solid Fuels	Vol-1-47
Pollution from Solid Waste Material	Vol-1-48
Health Impact Due to Exposure to Solid Fuel Use	Vol-1-49
Intervention	Vol-1-49
Further Reading	Vol-1-51
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-52
Chapter 7. Air Transportation and Human Health	Vol-1-53
Introduction	Vol-1-53
Public Heath Impact of Large Airports	Vol-1-54
Ambient Air Pollution	Vol-1-55
Mitigation of Air Pollution	Vol-1-57
Airport-Related Noise	Vol-1-57
Aircraft Cabin Air Quality	Vol-1-61
Other Issues	Vol-1-61
Summary and Conclusions	Vol-1-62
Further Reading	Vol-1-63
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-63
Chapter 8. Algal Particles in the Atmosphere	Vol-1-64
Introduction	Vol-1-64
Aerosolization and Aeroalgal Pathway	Vol-1-66
Ecological Importance of Airborne Algae	Vol-1-67
Airborne Algae as a Health Hazard	Vol-1-68
Allergenicity	Vol-1-68
Toxicity	Vol-1-68
Future Research	Vol-1-69
Further Reading	Vol-1-69
Chapter 9. Ambient Concentrations of Acrolein: Health Risks	Vol-1-71
Introduction	Vol-1-71
Air Concentrations and Sources of Exposure	Vol-1-71
Adverse Health Effects	Vol-1-72
Limitations of the Toxicological and Human Studies	Vol-1-73
Risks to the Public	Vol-1-73
Further Reading	Vol-1-74
Chapter 10. Animal and Human Waste as Components of Urban Dust Pollution: Health Implications	Vol-1-75
Introduction	Vol-1-75
Pathway of Exposure to Urban Dust Fecal Pollution	Vol-1-75
Human Health Effects Associated with Polluted Urban Dust	Vol-1-77
Final Considerations	Vol-1-81
Further Reading	Vol-1-81
Chapter 11. Antarctic: Persistent Organic Pollutants and Environmental Health in the Region	Vol-1-83
Introduction	Vol-1-83
Health of Antarctic Organism	Vol-1-88
Conclusive Considerations	Vol-1-94
Further Reading	Vol-1-95
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-95
Chapter 12. Antibiotics Pollution in Soil and Water: Potential Ecological and Human Health Issues	Vol-1-97
Introduction	Vol-1-97
Environmental Fate of Antibiotics: Focus on Tetracyclines and Sulfonamides	Vol-1-102
Ecological Impacts of Antibiotics and Resistant Bacteria	Vol-1-104
Occurrence in Drinking Water Sources and Potential Human Health Risks	Vol-1-105
Summary and Conclusion	Vol-1-106
Further Reading	Vol-1-107
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-110
Chapter 13. Application of Healthy Life Year Measures to Environmental Health Issues	Vol-1-111
Introduction	Vol-1-111
The Environment and Measurement of Its Impact on Health	Vol-1-111
Background to Measures of Population Health	Vol-1-111
Composite Measures	Vol-1-112
Healthy Life Year	Vol-1-114
Valuing Life and Social Values	Vol-1-116
Environmental Impact on Health	Vol-1-117
Conclusion	Vol-1-122
Further Reading	Vol-1-122
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-122
Chapter 14. Aquaculture Ef.uent: Impacts and Remedies for Protecting the Environment and Human Health	Vol-1-123
Introduction	Vol-1-123
Water Quality and Quantity for Aquaculture Pond	Vol-1-124
Characteristics of Aquaculture Ef.uent	Vol-1-125
Major Problems Associated with Aquaculture Ef.uent Discharge	Vol-1-126
Pond Effluent	Vol-1-126
Other Concerns	Vol-1-127
Treatment Technologies	Vol-1-127
Removal of Organic Matter	Vol-1-127
Recent Studies on Treatment of Aquaculture Ef.uent	Vol-1-128
Diseases of Aquatic Species	Vol-1-129
Conclusions	Vol-1-134
Further Reading	Vol-1-134
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-135
Chapter 15. Aral Sea: An Ecological Disaster Zone with Impact on Human Health	Vol-1-136
Background: History of the Aral Sea Story	Vol-1-136
Water Level of the Aral Sea	Vol-1-137
Environmental Effects of the Falling Level of the Aral Sea	Vol-1-137
Economic Situation of the Riparian States	Vol-1-138
Effects on Income and Social Structures of Inhabitants	Vol-1-139
Effects on Fishery	Vol-1-139
Effects on Climate	Vol-1-140
Effects on Health of Local Population	Vol-1-140
Political Aspects	Vol-1-142
Further Reading	Vol-1-143
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-144
Chapter 16. Arsenic Exposure from Seafood Consumption	Vol-1-145
Introduction	Vol-1-145
Arsenic in Seafood	Vol-1-146
Human Intake of Arsenic from Seafood	Vol-1-148
Seafood Safety – Present and Future Food Legislation	Vol-1-148
Further Reading	Vol-1-149
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-149
Chapter 17. Arsenic in Groundwater of India	Vol-1-150
Introduction	Vol-1-150
Sources of Arsenic in India	Vol-1-150
Mechanisms of Arsenic Mobilization and Transport in Indian Groundwater	Vol-1-151
Impact of Contamination on Agriculture	Vol-1-154
Major Arsenic-Contaminated Regions in India	Vol-1-155
Further Reading	Vol-1-164
Chapter 18. Arsenic: Occurrence in Groundwater	Vol-1-165
Introduction	Vol-1-165
Absorption, Distribution, and Excretion of Arsenic in Human	Vol-1-166
Mechanism of Arsenic Toxicity in Human	Vol-1-168
Impacts of Arsenic on Human Health in Chronically Exposed Population	Vol-1-168
Health Effects on Children	Vol-1-177
Further Reading	Vol-1-179
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-180
Chapter 19. Arsenic Pollution of Groundwater in Bangladesh	Vol-1-181
The Country	Vol-1-181
Discovery and Measurement of Arsenic Pollution in Bangladesh	Vol-1-181
Distribution of As-Pollution	Vol-1-181
Geology and Hydrogeology of the Affected Aquifers	Vol-1-183
Geochemistry and the Causes of Arsenic Pollution	Vol-1-185
Exposure Pathways and Exposed Population	Vol-1-186
Health Effects	Vol-1-186
Water Supply Mitigation	Vol-1-187
Arsenic Pollution and Agriculture	Vol-1-188
Arsenic and Climate Change	Vol-1-190
Policies and Politics	Vol-1-190
Conclusions and Prospects	Vol-1-191
Acknowledgments	Vol-1-191
Further Reading	Vol-1-191
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-192
Chapter 20. Asbestos Exposure and Autoimmune Disease	Vol-1-193
Introduction	Vol-1-193
Overview of Systemic Autoimmune Disease and Suspected Risk Factors	Vol-1-193
Historical Overview of Asbestos Exposure and Pulmonary Health Effects	Vol-1-195
Epidemiology: Observational Studies of Asbestos Exposure and Systemic Autoimmune Disease	Vol-1-196
Immunological Studies of Asbestos Exposure in Humans	Vol-1-198
Toxicology: Animal Studies of Asbestos Exposure and Autoimmune Response	Vol-1-200
A Proposed Connection Between Asbestos, Systemic Autoimmune Disease, and Interstitial Lung Disease	Vol-1-200
Challenges for the Future	Vol-1-202
Further Reading	Vol-1-202
Chapter 21. Assessing Human Exposure to Environmental Toxicants	Vol-1-204
Exposure Assessment Methods and Their Uses	Vol-1-205
Analytical Methods Used in Environmental and Biologic Monitoring	Vol-1-209
Conclusions	Vol-1-211
Further Reading	Vol-1-211
Chapter 22. Assessing Indoor Air Quality	Vol-1-213
Introduction	Vol-1-213
Factors Affecting Indoor Air Quality	Vol-1-213
General Principles of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Measurement	Vol-1-215
Measurement Methods of Particulate Constituents	Vol-1-216
Measurement Methods of Vapor-Phase Constituents	Vol-1-217
Measurement Methods of Gaseous Pollutants	Vol-1-219
Further Reading	Vol-1-220
Chapter 23. Assessing Regulatory Costs and Bene.ts	Vol-1-221
Introduction	Vol-1-221
Analytic Framework	Vol-1-221
US Government-Wide Guidance	Vol-1-223
US Environmental Protection Agency Practices	Vol-1-225
Canadian and European Practices	Vol-1-227
Acknowledgments	Vol-1-228
Further Reading	Vol-1-228
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-229
Chapter 24. Assessment of Human Exposure to Air Pollution	Vol-1-230
Introduction	Vol-1-230
Human Exposure to Air Pollution	Vol-1-230
Exposure Sources	Vol-1-231
Exposure Monitoring	Vol-1-232
Direct-Reading Devices	Vol-1-233
Continuous Monitoring Analyzers	Vol-1-233
Pumped Samplers	Vol-1-233
Diffusive Samplers	Vol-1-233
Modeling	Vol-1-235
Exposure Assessment	Vol-1-236
Further Reading	Vol-1-237
Chapter 25. Asthma: Environmental Risk Factors	Vol-1-238
Introduction	Vol-1-238
Immunologic Assessments to Environmental Factors	Vol-1-238
Environmental Sensitizers That Cause Asthma	Vol-1-239
Environmental Agents Causing Asthma Attack	Vol-1-240
Environmental Risks Causing Deterioration of Lung Function	Vol-1-241
Environmental Risk in Workplace	Vol-1-242
Further Reading	Vol-1-246
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-246
Chapter 26. Automobile Exhaust: Detrimental Effects on Pulmonary and Extrapulmonary Tissues and Offspring	Vol-1-247
Introduction	Vol-1-247
Diesel Exhaust Particles and Their Chemical Components	Vol-1-247
Health Effects of Diesel Exhaust Exposure	Vol-1-248
Detrimental Effects of Diesel Exhaust Exposure on Extrapulmonary Tissues	Vol-1-249
Detrimental Effects of Maternal Exposure to Diesel Exhaust on Offspring	Vol-1-249
A Supporting Hypothesis ‘Early Developmental Origins of Adult Disease’	Vol-1-251
How should the Detrimental Effects of Automobile Exhaust Be Managed?	Vol-1-252
Further Reading	Vol-1-252
Chapter 27. Avian In.uenza Viruses: Environmental In.uence	Vol-1-253
Structure and Nomenclature	Vol-1-253
Evolution	Vol-1-253
Transmission, Introduction to Poultry, and Spreading	Vol-1-254
Conclusions	Vol-1-260
Acknowledgments	Vol-1-260
Further Reading	Vol-1-260
Part 2: B	Vol-1-263
Chapter 28. Bahama Archipelago: Environment and Health	Vol-1-263
Geography of the Bahama Archipelago	Vol-1-263
History and Discovery of the Bahama Archipelago	Vol-1-265
Health of the Population	Vol-1-270
Environmental Health: Extinct, Discovered, and Newly Arrived Species	Vol-1-271
Disturbance of Natural Environments	Vol-1-272
Naturals Hazards (Hurricanes and Tsunami) and Human-Related Hazards	Vol-1-273
Preservation and Conclusions	Vol-1-273
Acknowledgments	Vol-1-274
Further Reading	Vol-1-274
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-274
Chapter 29. Bene.ts and Limitations of the Precautionary Principle	Vol-1-276
Introduction	Vol-1-276
Precautionary Principles	Vol-1-277
The European Union	Vol-1-278
Uncertainty and Precaution: Three Lessons Learned from the Intersection of Ethics, Law, and Science	Vol-1-279
Other Approaches	Vol-1-280
Discussion	Vol-1-281
Cause and Effect under Any Precautionary Principle	Vol-1-283
Conclusion	Vol-1-284
Further Reading	Vol-1-285
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-285
Chapter 30. Benzene: Environmental Exposure	Vol-1-286
Introduction	Vol-1-286
Properties	Vol-1-286
Production and Use	Vol-1-287
Emission Sources	Vol-1-287
Outdoor, Indoor, and Personal Levels of Benzene	Vol-1-288
Toxicology, Biomarkers, and Health Effects	Vol-1-289
Preventive Actions and Research Priorities	Vol-1-290
Further Reading	Vol-1-292
Chapter 31. Beryllium: Environmental Geochemistry and Health Effects	Vol-1-293
Introduction	Vol-1-293
Beryllium Chemistry	Vol-1-293
Natural Occurrence of Be in Rocks, Soils, and Plants	Vol-1-294
Be – Economic and Industrial Applications	Vol-1-295
Be in the Atmosphere and Precipitation	Vol-1-295
Be Occurrence in the Marine Environment and in Natural and Polluted Waters	Vol-1-295
Beryllium Toxicology	Vol-1-298
Further Reading	Vol-1-301
Chapter 32. Bhopal Gas Catastrophe 1984: Causes and Consequences	Vol-1-302
Introduction	Vol-1-302
The Pre-event Phase	Vol-1-302
The Event Phase	Vol-1-306
The Postevent Phase	Vol-1-310
Analysis of Causes and Consequences	Vol-1-313
What Has Been Learnt from the Bhopal Disaster?	Vol-1-313
Preventing ‘New Bhopals’	Vol-1-315
Further Reading	Vol-1-316
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-316
Chapter 33. Bioaccessibility of Trace Metals in Household Dust	Vol-1-317
Introduction	Vol-1-317
Nature and Sources of Household Dust	Vol-1-317
Metal Concentrations in Household Dust	Vol-1-317
Bioaccessibility of Metals in Household Dust	Vol-1-318
Application of a PBET to Household Dust	Vol-1-320
Mechanisms of Metal Mobilization and Absorption	Vol-1-321
Implications for Dose Calculations and Risk Assessment	Vol-1-321
Further Reading	Vol-1-322
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-322
Chapter 34. Bioaerosols in Apartment Buildings	Vol-1-323
Introduction	Vol-1-323
Composition of Bioaerosols in Apartments	Vol-1-323
Bioaerosol Measurements	Vol-1-324
Bioaerosol Levels in Apartments	Vol-1-325
Hypersensitivity Diseases and Infectious Diseases Caused by Bioaerosols in Apartments	Vol-1-328
Investigation of Bioaerosol Problems in Apartments	Vol-1-328
Control of Bioaerosols in Apartments	Vol-1-329
Further Reading	Vol-1-329
Chapter 35. Bioavailable Aluminum: Its Effects on Human Health	Vol-1-331
Introduction	Vol-1-331
Diseases from Occupational Al3+ Exposure	Vol-1-331
Diseases Related to Medical Treatments that Involve Al3	Vol-1-332
Long-Term Routine Exposure of Humans to Low-Dose Aluminum	Vol-1-334
Alzheimer Disease	Vol-1-336
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Parkinsonism-Dementia of Guam	Vol-1-341
Parkinson Disease	Vol-1-341
Conclusions	Vol-1-342
Further Reading	Vol-1-342
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-342
Chapter 36. Bioavailable Aluminum: Its Metabolism and Effects on the Environment	Vol-1-343
Physical Properties of Aluminum	Vol-1-343
Aluminum in Soil	Vol-1-343
Aluminum in Water Systems	Vol-1-345
Aluminum in Air	Vol-1-345
Aluminum-Related Waste	Vol-1-346
Aluminum Toxicity in Living Cells	Vol-1-346
Aluminum Toxicity in Plants	Vol-1-346
Aluminum Toxicity in Aquatic Life and Shore Birds	Vol-1-349
Reversing the Effects of Acid Rain	Vol-1-349
Aluminum and Disease in Herbivorous Animals	Vol-1-350
Aluminum Metabolism in Humans and Other Mammals	Vol-1-351
Conclusions	Vol-1-352
Further Reading	Vol-1-352
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-352
Chapter 37. Biodiversity and the Loss of Biodiversity Affecting Human Health	Vol-1-353
What Is Health?	Vol-1-353
Biological Diversity	Vol-1-353
The Relationship between Biodiversity and Human Health	Vol-1-353
Examples of Global Changes and Their Effects on Biodiversity and Feedback Loops to Human Health	Vol-1-355
Newly Emerging Diseases	Vol-1-361
Further Reading	Vol-1-362
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-362
Chapter 38. Biological Agents and Infectious Diseases in War and Terrorism	Vol-1-363
Introduction	Vol-1-363
Biologic Agents	Vol-1-363
Infectious Diseases	Vol-1-368
What Needs to Be Done	Vol-1-369
Further Reading	Vol-1-370
Chapter 39. Biological Pathways Between the Social Environment and Health	Vol-1-371
Introduction	Vol-1-371
Emerging Gradients in Child Development	Vol-1-372
From Child Development to the Life Course	Vol-1-373
How Experience Gets Under the Skin	Vol-1-374
The ‘Life Course Development’ of the HPA Axis in Society	Vol-1-374
Conclusion: Biological Embedding to Underlying Mechanisms	Vol-1-376
Further Reading	Vol-1-377
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-377
Chapter 40. Biomarkers in Environmental Carcinogenesis	Vol-1-378
Introduction	Vol-1-378
Environmental Carcinogens	Vol-1-378
Biotransformation, Metabolic Activation of Chemical Carcinogens	Vol-1-380
Study Designs and Human Biological Samples for Biomarker Determinations	Vol-1-381
Main Categories of Biomarkers	Vol-1-381
Biomarkers of Predictive Purposes and Cancer Risk Assessment	Vol-1-386
Future Perspectives of Biomarkers in Environmental Health	Vol-1-386
Further Reading	Vol-1-387
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-388
Chapter 41. Biomass Smoke and Infection: Mechanisms of Interaction	Vol-1-389
Streptococcus Pneumoniae	Vol-1-389
Mycobacterium Tuberculosis	Vol-1-391
Viruses	Vol-1-391
Other Pathogens	Vol-1-391
Oxidative Stress: A Common Mechanism?	Vol-1-392
Limitations of Data	Vol-1-392
Conclusions	Vol-1-392
Further Reading	Vol-1-392
Chapter 42. Biosolids: Human Health Impacts	Vol-1-394
Introduction	Vol-1-394
Pathogens in Biosolids	Vol-1-394
Effect of Treatment Processes on Pathogen Numbers in Biosolids	Vol-1-398
Potential Health Risks from Pathogens via Exposure to Biosolids	Vol-1-399
Conclusions and Outlook	Vol-1-402
Further Reading	Vol-1-402
Chapter 43. Biotechnology and Advances Environmental Health Research	Vol-1-403
Introduction	Vol-1-403
Genomics Technology	Vol-1-405
Transcriptomics Technology	Vol-1-406
Proteomics Technology	Vol-1-407
Metabonomics/Metabolomics Technology	Vol-1-409
Conclusions	Vol-1-411
Acknowledgment	Vol-1-411
Further Reading	Vol-1-411
Chapter 44. Bismuth: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-1-414
Introduction	Vol-1-414
Consumption and Distribution of Bismuth in the World	Vol-1-414
Bismuth in the Manufacturing Industry	Vol-1-414
Bismuth in Medicine	Vol-1-415
Potential Targets of Bismuth in Biological Systems	Vol-1-418
Side Effects of Bismuth	Vol-1-419
Further Reading	Vol-1-420
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-420
Chapter 45. Bolivia: Mining, River Contamination, and Human Health	Vol-1-421
Introduction	Vol-1-421
The Rio Madeira Basin	Vol-1-421
The Rio Pilcomayo Basin	Vol-1-433
Concluding Comments	Vol-1-441
Further Reading	Vol-1-441
Chapter 46. Boron: Environmental Exposure and Human Health	Vol-1-442
Introduction	Vol-1-442
Boron and the Environment	Vol-1-442
Boron Exposure and Human Health	Vol-1-442
Conclusion and Future Direction	Vol-1-445
Further Reading	Vol-1-445
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-445
Chapter 47. Built Environment and Mental Health	Vol-1-446
Housing	Vol-1-446
Crowding	Vol-1-446
Noise	Vol-1-447
Light and Natural Settings	Vol-1-448
Limitations and Future Research Directions	Vol-1-448
Further Reading	Vol-1-449
Part 3: C	Vol-1-451
Chapter 48. Cadmium and the Welfare of Animals	Vol-1-451
Introduction	Vol-1-451
Cadmium Exposure	Vol-1-451
Effects of Cadmium on the Health and Behavior of Mammals	Vol-1-452
Effects of Cadmium on Wild Animals	Vol-1-453
Combinations of Cadmium and Other Heavy Metals	Vol-1-454
Conclusions	Vol-1-454
Further Reading	Vol-1-455
Chapter 49. Cadmium Exposure from Seafood Intake	Vol-1-456
Introduction	Vol-1-456
Cadmium in Marine Environment	Vol-1-456
Guidelines for Human and Seafood Legislation	Vol-1-458
Human Intake of Cadmium from Food	Vol-1-459
Human Intake of Cadmium from Seafood	Vol-1-460
Further Reading	Vol-1-463
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-463
Chapter 50. Cadmium Exposure in the Environment: Renal Effects and the Benchmark Dose	Vol-1-465
Introduction	Vol-1-465
Cadmium and the Environment	Vol-1-465
Environmental Exposure	Vol-1-466
Kinetics and Biological Indicators of Exposure and Dose	Vol-1-468
Environmental Cadmium Exposure and Kidney Effects	Vol-1-470
Dose–Response Assessment and Benchmark Dose	Vol-1-471
Further Reading	Vol-1-472
Chapter 51. Cadmium Neurotoxicity	Vol-1-474
Introduction	Vol-1-474
Chemistry and Physical Properties	Vol-1-475
Role of Blood-Brain Barrier in Cadmium Toxicity	Vol-1-475
Effect of Cadmium in Calcium Homeostasis	Vol-1-475
Oxidative Stress and Cadmium	Vol-1-476
Effect of Cadmium on Neurotransmitters	Vol-1-477
Role of Metallothionein in Neurotoxicity	Vol-1-477
Cell Death Mechanisms in Neurotoxicity of Cadmium	Vol-1-478
Cadmium Neuropathology	Vol-1-479
Final Commentary	Vol-1-480
Further Reading	Vol-1-481
Chapter 52. Cancer Risk Assessment and Communication	Vol-1-482
Restricting the Term ‘Environmental Cancer’	Vol-1-482
Hazard Identi.cation	Vol-1-483
Qualitative Risk Assessment	Vol-1-484
Quantitative Risk Assessment	Vol-1-485
Communication of Carcinogenic Risk	Vol-1-486
Further Reading	Vol-1-488
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-488
Chapter 53. Cancer Risks from Residential Exposure to Pesticides	Vol-1-489
Introduction	Vol-1-489
Pesticides Metabolism and Toxicity	Vol-1-490
Residential Pesticide Exposure	Vol-1-490
Epidemiological Studies on Cancer and Household Pesticide Use	Vol-1-492
Mechanisms of Action	Vol-1-494
Conclusions	Vol-1-496
Further Reading	Vol-1-496
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-497
Chapter 54. Carbon Sequestration and Agriculture	Vol-1-498
Importance of Carbon Dioxide in Global Warming	Vol-1-498
An Overview of the Carbon Cycle	Vol-1-498
Agricultural Practices That Moderate Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide	Vol-1-501
Agricultural Practices That Can Enhance Carbon Sequestration in Soil	Vol-1-502
Health Signi.cance of Carbon Sequestration Moderated by Agriculture	Vol-1-502
Conclusions	Vol-1-503
Further Reading	Vol-1-503
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-503
Chapter 55. Carcinogenicity of Disinfection Byproducts in Humans: Epidemiological Studies	Vol-1-505
Introduction	Vol-1-505
Epidemiological Studies on Bladder Cancer	Vol-1-506
Colon and Rectal Cancers	Vol-1-509
Epidemiological Studies on Other Cancer Sites	Vol-1-511
General Remarks and Conclusion	Vol-1-514
Further Reading	Vol-1-514
Chapter 56. Carcinogenicity of Disinfection Byproducts in Laboratory Animals	Vol-1-516
Introduction	Vol-1-516
Experimental Design of Carcinogenicity Studies in Laboratory Animals	Vol-1-517
Results of Carcinogenicity Studies of DBPs in Laboratory Animals	Vol-1-517
Discussion	Vol-1-521
Further Reading	Vol-1-522
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-523
Chapter 57. Cardiotoxicology	Vol-1-524
Definition and Main Causes of Cardiotoxicity	Vol-1-524
Cardiomyopathy Associated with Metabolic Abnormalities	Vol-1-524
Other Main Causes of Cardiotoxicity	Vol-1-526
Conclusions	Vol-1-530
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-531
Chapter 58. Cardiovascular Effects of Noise	Vol-1-532
Introduction	Vol-1-532
Noise Metrics	Vol-1-533
Physiological Response to Noise	Vol-1-533
Biological Model	Vol-1-533
Epidemiology	Vol-1-534
Uncertainties and Challenges	Vol-1-539
Risk Assessment	Vol-1-541
Conclusions	Vol-1-541
Further Reading	Vol-1-541
Chapter 59. Cellular Stress Responses to DNA Damage: An Intracellular Balance between Life, Senescence, and Death	Vol-1-543
Introduction	Vol-1-543
Roles of p53 and Mdm2 in Genotoxic Stress and Aging	Vol-1-544
Role of the Prosurvival Complex, Bax/ Ku70, in Genotoxic Stress and Cellular Senescence	Vol-1-545
Roles of Bax and Ku70 in Aging-Related Cell Death	Vol-1-546
Regulation of Nuclear Clusterin: The Prodeath Form of Clusterin	Vol-1-546
Secretory Clusterin Regulation	Vol-1-548
Discussion	Vol-1-551
Acknowledgments	Vol-1-551
Further Reading	Vol-1-552
Chapter 60. Chagas Disease: Environmental Risk Factors	Vol-1-553
Introduction	Vol-1-553
Agent: Trypanosoma cruzi	Vol-1-553
Vectors and Host Species	Vol-1-554
Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Potential for Treatment in Humans	Vol-1-555
Acute Stage	Vol-1-555
Indeterminate Stage	Vol-1-556
Chronic Stage	Vol-1-556
Modes of Transmission	Vol-1-557
Congenital and Multigenerational Transmission	Vol-1-558
Blood Transfusion	Vol-1-558
Organ Transplantation	Vol-1-559
Laboratory Acquired	Vol-1-559
Oral Transmission	Vol-1-560
Migration of Diseased Hosts and Vectors	Vol-1-560
Occurrence in the United States	Vol-1-560
Disease Control through Intervention and Education	Vol-1-560
The Future of Research on Chagas Disease	Vol-1-562
Biogeographic and Epidemiological Research	Vol-1-564
Vector Control	Vol-1-564
Parasitology and Pathogenesis	Vol-1-564
Therapeutics	Vol-1-564
Acknowledgments	Vol-1-564
Further Reading	Vol-1-564
Chapter 61. Challenges in Pesticide Risk Communication	Vol-1-566
Introduction	Vol-1-566
Risk Communication	Vol-1-566
Risk Communication Factors	Vol-1-567
Pesticide Risk Communication	Vol-1-569
Pesticide Risk Communication Strategies	Vol-1-569
Pesticide Labels as a Risk Communication Tool	Vol-1-570
Interpreting and Communicating Pesticides Risk Assessment Data	Vol-1-570
Communicating the Concept of ‘Toxicity’ and Acute Effects	Vol-1-570
New Initiative to Harmonize Chemical Hazard Classi.cation and Communication	Vol-1-573
Communicating the Concept of ‘Long-Term,’ Chronic Health Effects	Vol-1-573
Comprehension Issues	Vol-1-573
Pesticide Risk Perceptions	Vol-1-574
Can Pesticide Risk Communication Be Context Neutral?	Vol-1-574
Challenges in and Recommendations for Effective Pesticide Risk Communication	Vol-1-574
Further Reading	Vol-1-575
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-575
Chapter 62. Chemically-Induced Respiratory Toxicities	Vol-1-576
Introduction	Vol-1-576
Expression of Cytochrome P-450 Enzymes in the Respiratory Tract	Vol-1-577
Glutathione and Glutathione S-Transferases	Vol-1-578
Susceptibility of Lung Cells to Chemically Induced Cytotoxicities	Vol-1-579
Metabolic Activation of 1,1- Dichloroethylene and Clara Cell Necrosis	Vol-1-581
Metabolic Activation of Vinyl Carbamate: Formation of DNA Adducts, Mutations, and Lung Tumors	Vol-1-583
Oxidative Stress: Studies with Paraquat	Vol-1-584
Conclusion and Comments	Vol-1-585
Further Reading	Vol-1-585
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-586
Chapter 63. Chemical Warfare Agents	Vol-1-587
Introduction	Vol-1-587
History	Vol-1-587
Chemicals	Vol-1-588
Exposure	Vol-1-589
Physical, Chemical, and Fate Properties of CWA in the Marine Environment	Vol-1-590
Environmental Toxicity	Vol-1-590
Case Studies and Site-Speci.c Risk Assessment	Vol-1-590
CWA as Environmental Contaminants of Emerging Concern	Vol-1-593
Scienti.c and Decision-Making Research Needs	Vol-1-594
Summary	Vol-1-595
Further Reading	Vol-1-595
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-596
Chapter 64. Children’s Environmental Health: General Overview	Vol-1-597
Introduction	Vol-1-597
Windows of Vulnerability	Vol-1-597
Public Health Consequences	Vol-1-597
Conclusions	Vol-1-599
Further Reading	Vol-1-599
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-600
Chapter 65. Children’s Environmental Health in Developing Countries	Vol-1-601
Introduction	Vol-1-601
Why Children in Developing Countries are Particularly Vulnerable	Vol-1-603
Main Environmental Risk Factors in Developing Areas	Vol-1-605
Taking Action to Protect Children’s Environmental Health	Vol-1-608
Further Reading	Vol-1-610
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-610
Chapter 66. Children’s Exposure to Environmental Agents	Vol-1-611
Introduction	Vol-1-611
Exposure	Vol-1-611
Dose	Vol-1-611
Exposure Factors	Vol-1-612
Measurements of Exposure	Vol-1-615
Critical Windows of Exposure	Vol-1-615
Toxicokinetics and Toxicodynamics in Children	Vol-1-615
Conclusions	Vol-1-616
Further Reading	Vol-1-616
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-617
Chapter 67. Children’s Health Risk Assessment: Issues and Approaches	Vol-1-618
Introduction	Vol-1-618
Problem Formulation	Vol-1-618
Hazard Characterization	Vol-1-619
Dose–Response Assessment	Vol-1-620
Exposure Assessment	Vol-1-622
Risk Characterization	Vol-1-622
Conclusions	Vol-1-623
Further Reading	Vol-1-623
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-624
Chapter 68. China: Economic Impacts of Air Pollution in the Country	Vol-1-625
Introduction	Vol-1-625
Environmental Impact and External Cost Assessment	Vol-1-625
Summary	Vol-1-639
Further Reading	Vol-1-640
Chapter 69. Cholera: Environmental Risk Factors	Vol-1-641
Introduction	Vol-1-641
Microbiological Aspects	Vol-1-641
Global Epidemiology of Cholera	Vol-1-643
Clinical Manifestations and Treatment	Vol-1-645
V. Cholerae and Its Environment	Vol-1-645
Global Warming and the Spread of Cholera	Vol-1-646
Cholera Vaccines	Vol-1-647
Preventive and Control Measures	Vol-1-648
Further Reading	Vol-1-648
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-649
Chapter 70. Chromium: Environmental Pollution, Health Effects and Mode of Action	Vol-1-650
Introduction	Vol-1-650
Chromium in the Environment	Vol-1-650
Chromium and Health Concerns	Vol-1-651
Chromium and Human Nutrition	Vol-1-651
Role in Glucose Metabolism	Vol-1-654
Toxic Mode of Action of Chromium	Vol-1-655
Controlling Chromium Contamination	Vol-1-657
Chromium: The Future Course of Epidemiology	Vol-1-658
Further Reading	Vol-1-658
Chapter 71. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease	Vol-1-660
Introduction	Vol-1-660
Definition	Vol-1-660
Prevalence	Vol-1-660
Burden of COPD	Vol-1-661
Risk Factors for COPD	Vol-1-661
Diagnosis	Vol-1-662
Pathological Features	Vol-1-663
Systemic Effects of COPD	Vol-1-663
Prognostic Indicators and Natural History of COPD	Vol-1-664
Treatment	Vol-1-664
Conclusion	Vol-1-667
Further Reading	Vol-1-667
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-668
Chapter 72. Cigarette Smoke, DNA Damage Repair, and Human Health	Vol-1-669
Introduction	Vol-1-669
Chemical Composition of Cigarette Smoke	Vol-1-670
Cigarette Smoke Toxicity	Vol-1-670
Cigarette Smoke-Induced Transformation of Cells	Vol-1-670
Cigarette Smoke and Lung Cancer	Vol-1-673
Cigarette Smoke and Other Types of Cancers	Vol-1-673
Cigarette Smoking and Breast Cancer	Vol-1-673
Cigarette Smoke-Induced Carcinogenesis and Individual Susceptibility	Vol-1-674
Cigarette Smoke-Induced DNA Adduct Formation and Mutagenesis	Vol-1-675
Metabolic Detoxi.cation and DNA Repair Mechanisms in Cigarette Smoke-Induced Carcinogenesis	Vol-1-676
Involvement of APC in Cigarette Smoke-Induced Base Excision Repair and Carcinogenesis	Vol-1-677
Summary and Prospective	Vol-1-678
Acknowledgments	Vol-1-678
Further Reading	Vol-1-678
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-679
Chapter 73. Climate Change and Health	Vol-1-680
Weather, Climate, and Climate Change	Vol-1-680
Public Health Risks from Climate Change	Vol-1-682
Particularly Vulnerable Populations	Vol-1-687
Responses to Address Climate Change-Related Health Risks	Vol-1-688
Further Reading	Vol-1-689
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-689
Chapter 74. Climate Change and Health: Risks and Adaptive Strategies	Vol-1-690
Introduction	Vol-1-690
Population Health: Late Recognition of a Crucial Domain of Risk	Vol-1-690
Categories of Risks to Health	Vol-1-691
Health Risks in Australia as an Example	Vol-1-692
Differences in Vulnerability	Vol-1-693
Vulnerability and Environmental Justice	Vol-1-694
Spatial and Temporal Scales of Health Risks	Vol-1-694
Identifying and Choosing Adaptive Strategies	Vol-1-695
Main Categories of Adaptive Strategies	Vol-1-695
Climate Change and Health: Attuning the Public Health System	Vol-1-697
Conclusions	Vol-1-698
Further Reading	Vol-1-698
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-698
Chapter 75. Climate Change, Environmental Health, and Human Rights	Vol-1-699
Introduction	Vol-1-699
Human Health and the Political Agenda	Vol-1-699
Climate Change and the Environmental Quality–Human Health Relationship	Vol-1-701
Climate Change and Rights	Vol-1-701
Reassessing the Human Right to Health	Vol-1-702
The Evolving Environment–Rights Debate	Vol-1-704
Summary of Rights Debate	Vol-1-705
Environmental Justice Dimensions	Vol-1-705
Interdisciplinary Challenge	Vol-1-705
Climate Change, Human Health, and Human Rights: Conclusions	Vol-1-705
Further Reading	Vol-1-706
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-707
Chapter 76. Clinical Consequences of Radiation Exposure	Vol-1-708
Introduction	Vol-1-708
Basic Terms of Radiation Exposure	Vol-1-708
Decontamination and Decorporation	Vol-1-710
Acute Health Effects	Vol-1-710
Late Effects	Vol-1-713
Further Reading	Vol-1-714
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-715
Chapter 77. Clinical Waste Management	Vol-1-716
Introduction	Vol-1-716
Containers for Clinical Waste	Vol-1-717
What Are the Hazards?	Vol-1-720
Sharps Injury	Vol-1-722
Waste Storage	Vol-1-722
Odor	Vol-1-723
Waste Treatment Technologies	Vol-1-723
Control of the Treatment Process	Vol-1-725
Environmental Monitoring	Vol-1-726
Landfill	Vol-1-727
Waste Policy	Vol-1-727
To Segregate or Not?	Vol-1-728
Clinical Wastes in the Community	Vol-1-729
Looking Ahead	Vol-1-730
Further Reading	Vol-1-730
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-731
Chapter 78. Cockroach Allergens: Exposure Risk and Health Effects	Vol-1-732
Introduction	Vol-1-732
Cockroach Allergen Background	Vol-1-732
Prevalence of Cockroach Allergy and Asthma	Vol-1-733
Relationships among Exposure, Sensitization, and Disease	Vol-1-733
Cockroach Allergen Prevalence and Determinants of Exposure	Vol-1-736
Environmental Exposure Reduction	Vol-1-737
Future Directions	Vol-1-738
Further Reading	Vol-1-739
Chapter 79. Colombia: Environmental Health Issues	Vol-1-740
Introduction	Vol-1-741
Demography and General Health	Vol-1-741
Deforestation, Deserti.cation, Erosion, and Sediment Loads in Rivers	Vol-1-742
Drinking Water and Sanitation	Vol-1-743
Air Quality	Vol-1-744
Environmental Pollutants	Vol-1-745
New Challenges	Vol-1-750
Concluding Remarks and Recommendations	Vol-1-752
Acknowledgments	Vol-1-752
Further Reading	Vol-1-752
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-754
Chapter 80. Combined Exposures to Noise and Chemicals at Work	Vol-1-755
Introduction	Vol-1-755
Organic Solvents	Vol-1-755
Heavy Metals	Vol-1-760
Asphyxiants	Vol-1-762
Safety Policy Implications	Vol-1-762
Further Reading	Vol-1-763
Chapter 81. Combined Noise Exposure at Home	Vol-1-764
Introduction	Vol-1-764
Auditory Perception of Combined Sound in Experimental Settings	Vol-1-765
Annoyance from Combined Sound Sources in Field Settings	Vol-1-766
General Findings	Vol-1-766
Specific Findings: Railway and Road Traf.c	Vol-1-767
Specific Findings: Aircraft and Road Traf.c	Vol-1-769
Specific Findings: Aircraft, Railway, and Road Traf.c Noise	Vol-1-769
Transportation Noise Combined with Special Acoustic Features	Vol-1-770
Complex Sound Sources from Industry	Vol-1-771
Models for Combined Noise Sources (Multisource Situation)	Vol-1-771
Combined Exposure to Noise and Vibration	Vol-1-772
Combined Exposure to Noise and Air Pollution	Vol-1-774
Noise and Total Exposure in Different Contexts	Vol-1-776
Further Reading	Vol-1-777
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-777
Chapter 82. Community Noise Disease Burden: DALYs may be the Answer, but What is the Question?	Vol-1-778
An Inescapable Nuisance	Vol-1-778
‘Noisy’ Epidemiological Data	Vol-1-780
Approaches to Assess Disease Attributable to Noise	Vol-1-782
Some General Remarks	Vol-1-787
Some Remarks Specific to the Use of DALYs	Vol-1-788
Further Reading	Vol-1-790
Chapter 83. Community Outdoor Air Quality: Sources, Exposure Agents and Health Outcomes	Vol-1-791
Introduction	Vol-1-791
Background Concepts: Exposure Science	Vol-1-791
Outdoor Air Quality in Communities	Vol-1-794
Selected Health Outcomes of Public Concern Due to Community Air Quality	Vol-1-803
Conclusion	Vol-1-805
Further Reading	Vol-1-805
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-805
Chapter 84. Comparative Mammalian Cell Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity	Vol-1-806
Introduction	Vol-1-806
Mammalian Cell Bioassays	Vol-1-807
Systematic Analysis of DBPs with Mammalian Cell Assays	Vol-1-809
CHO Cell Chronic Cytotoxicity and Acute Genotoxicity Assays	Vol-1-809
Relationship between DBP Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity	Vol-1-810
Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity Indices	Vol-1-810
Comparison of the Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity Indices of C-DBPs and N-DBPs	Vol-1-811
Impact of the Halogen Species on the DBP Toxicity Indices	Vol-1-811
Conclusion	Vol-1-812
Further Reading	Vol-1-812
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-812
Chapter 85. Composite Measures of the Environmental Burden of Disease at the Global Level	Vol-1-813
Introduction	Vol-1-813
Methodology	Vol-1-814
Estimating Environmental DALYs	Vol-1-814
Global Pro.le of the Environmental Burden of Disease	Vol-1-817
Regional and Country Pro.les	Vol-1-817
Further Reading	Vol-1-821
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-821
Chapter 86. Connecting Environmental Stress to Cancer Cell Biology Through the Neuroendocrine Response	Vol-1-822
Introduction	Vol-1-822
Defining Stress	Vol-1-822
Epidemiological Data	Vol-1-823
The Physiological Response to Stress	Vol-1-823
Preclinical Models of Stress and Cancer	Vol-1-824
Stress and Epithelial Tumor Biology	Vol-1-825
Prevention and Therapeutic Implications	Vol-1-825
Challenges and Future Directions	Vol-1-826
Further Reading	Vol-1-827
Chapter 87. Cooking: Effects on Dietary Exposure to Arsenic from Rice and Vegetables	Vol-1-828
Introduction	Vol-1-828
Arsenic in Rice	Vol-1-829
Arsenic in Vegetables	Vol-1-830
Conclusion	Vol-1-832
Further Reading	Vol-1-833
Chapter 88. Critical Windows of Children’s Development and Susceptibility to Environmental Toxins	Vol-1-834
Introduction	Vol-1-834
Stages of Development	Vol-1-834
Timing of Exposure	Vol-1-835
Windows of Susceptibility and Associated Outcomes	Vol-1-837
Summary	Vol-1-842
Further Reading	Vol-1-843
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-843
Chapter 89. Cryptosporidiosis: An Update	Vol-1-844
Introduction	Vol-1-844
The Organism	Vol-1-844
Cryptosporidium in Human Health	Vol-1-845
Cryptosporidium in Animal Health	Vol-1-846
Parasite Taxonomy and Zoonotic Implications	Vol-1-846
Reservoirs for Human Infection	Vol-1-847
Transmission of Infection	Vol-1-848
Conclusions and Future Research Perspectives	Vol-1-850
Further Reading	Vol-1-851
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-851
Chapter 90. Cumulative Environmental Risk	Vol-1-852
Introduction	Vol-1-852
Exposure	Vol-1-853
Toxicity and Dose–Response	Vol-1-855
Risk Characterization	Vol-1-858
Further Reading	Vol-1-858
Chapter 91. Cyanobacterial Toxins in Fresh Waters	Vol-1-860
Introduction	Vol-1-860
Occurrence of Freshwater Cyanobacterial Blooms	Vol-1-861
Diversity of Cyanobacterial Toxins and Toxicity	Vol-1-861
Pathways of Human Exposure to Cyanobacterial Toxins	Vol-1-865
Degradation of Cyanobacterial Toxins in the Environment	Vol-1-866
Human Activities and Toxic Cyanobacterial Blooms	Vol-1-867
Management Implications	Vol-1-869
Priorities for Future Research	Vol-1-870
Further Reading	Vol-1-871
Chapter 92. Cyanotoxins in Egypt and Saudi Arabia	Vol-1-872
Introduction	Vol-1-872
Types of Cyanotoxins in Egypt and Saudi Arabia	Vol-1-872
Potential Health Risks of Cyanotoxins in Egypt and Saudi Arabia	Vol-1-877
Monitoring and Management Needs	Vol-1-879
Further Reading	Vol-1-880
Relevant Websites	Vol-1-880
Volume 2	Vol-2-Cover
Front Cover	Vol-2-Cover
Encyclopedia of Environmental Health	Vol-2-iii
Copyright Page	Vol-2-iv
EDITORS	Vol-2-v
SECTION EDITORS	Vol-2-vi
CONTRIBUTORS	Vol-2-vii
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA	Vol-2-xiii
SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION	Vol-2-xv
VOLUME 2. \rCONTENTS	Vol-2-xxv
PREFACE	Vol-2-xxix
PART 1: D	Vol-2-1
Chapter 1. DDT and Reproductive Health	Vol-2-1
Introduction	Vol-2-1
Human Exposure	Vol-2-2
Endocrine Disruption	Vol-2-2
Human Reproductive Toxicity	Vol-2-4
Conclusion	Vol-2-4
Further Reading	Vol-2-4
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-5
Chapter 2. DDT: Health Effects	Vol-2-6
Introduction	Vol-2-6
Chemical and Physical Properties	Vol-2-6
Exposure Routes and Metabolism	Vol-2-6
DDT Levels in Humans	Vol-2-7
Acute Health Effects of DDT	Vol-2-7
The Long-Term Health Effects of DDT	Vol-2-7
Further Reading	Vol-2-10
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-10
Chaper 3. Dental Amalgam Fillings: A Source of Mercury Exposure	Vol-2-11
Introduction	Vol-2-11
Mercury Uptake from Dental Amalgam	Vol-2-12
Chronic Disease Incidence and Mortality	Vol-2-13
Studies of Self-Reported Symptoms	Vol-2-17
Overview and Conclusions	Vol-2-19
Further Reading	Vol-2-20
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-20
Chapter 4. Depleted Uranium: Exposure and Possible Health Effects	Vol-2-21
Introduction	Vol-2-21
Sources and Properties of Uranium andDepleted Uranium	Vol-2-21
Assessment of Depleted Uranium	Vol-2-24
Consequences of the Use of DepletedUranium	Vol-2-26
Further Reading	Vol-2-29
Chapter 5. Desertification	Vol-2-30
Introduction	Vol-2-30
Health Implications	Vol-2-32
Desertification in the Future	Vol-2-34
Conclusion	Vol-2-34
Further Reading	Vol-2-34
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-35
Chapter 6. Developmental and Reproductive Toxicity of TCDD, Lead andMercury	Vol-2-36
Introduction	Vol-2-36
Lead	Vol-2-39
Mercury	Vol-2-40
Conclusion	Vol-2-42
Further Reading	Vol-2-42
Chapter 7. Developmental Immunotoxicants	Vol-2-44
Immune System Development	Vol-2-44
Critical Windows of Immune SystemVulnerability Having Systemic Impact	Vol-2-45
Critical Windows Having Local…RegionalImpact	Vol-2-46
Neonates and Asthma	Vol-2-46
Agents That Suppress the DevelopingImmune System	Vol-2-47
A Testing Framework for DevelopmentalImmunotoxicants in ExperimentalAnimals	Vol-2-48
Tests Available to IdentifyImmunosuppression in Human Neonates	Vol-2-49
Risk Assessment Issues	Vol-2-49
Further Reading	Vol-2-50
Chapter 8. Developmental Programming and the Epigenome	Vol-2-51
Introduction	Vol-2-51
Developmental Programming andDisease	Vol-2-52
The Epigenome: A Mechanistic Basis forDevelopmental Programming	Vol-2-54
Environmental Modulators of theEpigenome	Vol-2-56
Epigenomic Tools for EnvironmentalHealth Scientists	Vol-2-57
Further Reading	Vol-2-58
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-59
Chapter 9. Diabetes Mellitus in Albania: A Two Fold Increase in the LastDecade	Vol-2-60
Diabetes Burden	Vol-2-60
Epidemiological Data about Diabetes inAlbania	Vol-2-60
The Aging of Albanian Population	Vol-2-61
Urbanization	Vol-2-63
Lifestyle Changes	Vol-2-63
The Increase in Obesity and CentralAdiposity	Vol-2-67
Conclusions	Vol-2-68
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-68
Further Reading	Vol-2-68
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-69
Chapter 10. Diet as a Healthy and Cost-Effective Instrument in Environmental Protection	Vol-2-70
Introduction	Vol-2-70
How Does Our Choice of Diet Affect theEnvironment?	Vol-2-71
Could Choice of Diet Be an EffectiveInstrument in Environmental Protection?	Vol-2-73
Analyses for Denmark: A TypicalIndustrialized Country	Vol-2-73
Improved Economy, Everyone Wins	Vol-2-79
Responsibility and Global Consequences	Vol-2-79
Differential Taxation may be the Most RealisticWay Forward	Vol-2-80
Conclusion	Vol-2-81
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-81
Further Reading	Vol-2-82
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-82
Chapter 11. Dioxins	Vol-2-83
Introduction	Vol-2-83
Toxicity and Risk Assessment of Dioxins	Vol-2-83
Sources of Dioxins	Vol-2-85
Methods for Treatment of Dioxins	Vol-2-87
Further Reading	Vol-2-91
Chapter 12. Dioxins: Health Effects	Vol-2-93
Health Effects of Dioxins	Vol-2-95
Historical Episodes of Dioxin Exposure	Vol-2-97
Dioxins and Challenges in OccupationalMedicine	Vol-2-99
Further Reading	Vol-2-100
Chapter 13. Disabling Environments	Vol-2-100
Introduction	Vol-2-100
Understanding Disability	Vol-2-102
Health Inequalities	Vol-2-104
Environmental Access	Vol-2-106
Conclusion	Vol-2-108
Further Reading	Vol-2-108
Chapter 14. Disinfection By-Products: Formation and Occurrence in Drinking Water	Vol-2-110
Introduction	Vol-2-110
Analytical Methods for Identifying By-Products	Vol-2-113
Lists of DBPs	Vol-2-113
Regulated DBPs	Vol-2-117
Unregulated DBPs	Vol-2-123
Nonhalogenated DBPs	Vol-2-133
Discovery Research for New Highly Polarand High-Molecular-Weight DBPs	Vol-2-134
DBPs Formed from AnthropogenicContaminants	Vol-2-135
Conclusions	Vol-2-135
Further Reading	Vol-2-135
Chapter 15. Distribution of Water: Developing Countries	Vol-2-137
Introduction	Vol-2-137
Existing Conditions	Vol-2-137
Future Pressures	Vol-2-138
Impact on Health	Vol-2-141
Integrated Risk Assessment	Vol-2-141
A Way Forward	Vol-2-143
Asset Deterioration	Vol-2-145
Conclusions	Vol-2-145
Further Reading	Vol-2-146
Chapter 16. Diverse Options for Diverse Environmental Health EngineeringNeeds: Rationale, Technologies and Practices	Vol-2-147
Introduction	Vol-2-147
Water Supply and Excreta Management inRelation to Human Health	Vol-2-147
Excreta Management Options	Vol-2-149
Excreta Management Needs Analysis	Vol-2-153
Coupling Multiple Options to Diverse andEvolving Challenges	Vol-2-156
Further Reading	Vol-2-157
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-157
Chapter 17. Drinking Water Distribution Systems: Their Role in Reducing Risksand Protecting Public Health	Vol-2-158
Introduction	Vol-2-158
Development of Legislation andRegulations	Vol-2-159
Water System Diversity in the UnitedStates	Vol-2-161
Distribution System Design andOperation	Vol-2-162
Distribution System Water Quality	Vol-2-163
CWS Systems Associated withDistribution System Deficiencies	Vol-2-164
Recommendations from the NRC Report	Vol-2-165
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-166
Further Reading	Vol-2-166
Chapter 18. Drinking Water Nitrate and Health	Vol-2-167
Background: Human Exposure toIngested Nitrate	Vol-2-167
Methemoglobinemia	Vol-2-168
Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes	Vol-2-169
Cancer	Vol-2-172
Diabetes, Thyroid Effects, CardiovascularHealth	Vol-2-177
Summary	Vol-2-177
Further Reading	Vol-2-177
Chapter 19. Drosophila as a Model for Toxicogenomics of Lead	Vol-2-179
Introduction to Lead Toxicity	Vol-2-179
Behavioral Effects of Lead Exposure onDrosophila	Vol-2-180
Effects of Lead Exposure on IdentifiedSynapses in Drosophila	Vol-2-180
Effects of Lead Exposure on the CalciumPump	Vol-2-181
Systems Biology Approaches for Studyingthe Toxicogenomics of Lead	Vol-2-182
Summary	Vol-2-183
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-184
Further Reading	Vol-2-184
Chapter 20. Dust Production Following Forest Disturbances: Health Risks	Vol-2-185
Introduction	Vol-2-185
Measurement Locations and Methods forCase Study	Vol-2-186
Synopsis of Observations and Analyses	Vol-2-187
Conclusions and Implications	Vol-2-190
Further Reading	Vol-2-195
PART 2: E	Vol-2-197
Chapter 21. Economic Analysis of Health Impacts in Developing Countries	Vol-2-197
Introduction	Vol-2-197
Environmental Health Impacts: Natureand Extent	Vol-2-197
Economics of Environmental HealthImpacts	Vol-2-200
Economic Applications of Health Impacts	Vol-2-202
Indirect Methods	Vol-2-202
Direct Methods	Vol-2-204
Conclusions	Vol-2-205
Further Reading	Vol-2-206
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-206
Chapter 22. Economic Inequality and Health in the Age of Globalization	Vol-2-207
Introduction	Vol-2-207
Economic Inequality and Health: Reviewof the Evidence	Vol-2-207
Material and Psychosocial Pathwaysbetween Economic Inequality and Health	Vol-2-209
The 'Policies-Inequality Feedback' andHealth	Vol-2-210
The 'Globalization Policies-InequalityFeedback' and Health	Vol-2-211
Conclusion	Vol-2-213
Further Reading	Vol-2-213
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-214
Chapter 23. Ecosystem Changes, Biodiversity Loss and Human Well-Being	Vol-2-215
Introduction	Vol-2-215
What Is Biodiversity?	Vol-2-215
Biodiversity around the Globe	Vol-2-215
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services	Vol-2-216
Ecosystem Services and HumanWell-Being	Vol-2-217
Human Activity, Biodiversity Loss, andImplications for Human Well-Being	Vol-2-218
Forest Ecosystem Services and HumanWell-Being	Vol-2-220
Finding the Way to Sustainability	Vol-2-223
Further Reading	Vol-2-224
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-224
Ecosystems Services	Vol-2-225
Introduction	Vol-2-225
Origin and Use of the Term	Vol-2-226
What Is Value and How Is It Measured?	Vol-2-227
Markets in Ecosystem Services	Vol-2-229
Examples of Service Assessments andPolicies	Vol-2-230
Ecological Issues in Ecosystem ServicePolicy	Vol-2-231
Controversies	Vol-2-232
Conclusion	Vol-2-233
Further Reading	Vol-2-233
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-233
Chapter 24. Effect of Early Exposure on Reproductive Outcomes	Vol-2-234
Introduction	Vol-2-234
Critical Windows of Development andReproductive System Perturbations	Vol-2-234
Examples of Adverse ReproductiveOutcomes Resulting from Exposuresduring Pre- or Postnatal Development	Vol-2-235
Further Evidence from Animal Studiesthat Implicate Early-Life Exposures inAdverse Reproductive Outcomes	Vol-2-237
Assessment of Risk to ReproductiveHealth following Early…Life-StageExposures	Vol-2-239
Further Reading	Vol-2-239
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-239
Chapter 25. Effects of Low Frequency Noise and Vibrations: Environmental and Occupational Perspectives	Vol-2-240
Introduction	Vol-2-240
Definition	Vol-2-240
Sources of Low Frequency Noise	Vol-2-240
Hearing and Perception of LowFrequency Noise	Vol-2-242
Equal Loudness	Vol-2-243
Adverse Effects on Health and Well-being	Vol-2-244
The Influence of Non-hearing-mediatedExperiences of Low Frequency Noise	Vol-2-246
Specific Acoustic Characteristics of theImportance for the Response	Vol-2-249
Individual Factors of Importance for theResponse	Vol-2-250
Assessments	Vol-2-251
Conclusions and Suggestions for FurtherResearch	Vol-2-252
Further Reading	Vol-2-252
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-253
Chapter 26. Effects of Neighbourhood Environment on Social and PhysicalFunctioning in Older Age	Vol-2-254
Introduction	Vol-2-254
Home and Neighborhood	Vol-2-254
Neighborhood Social Capital	Vol-2-254
Social Functioning	Vol-2-255
Perceptions of Neighborhood inOlder Age	Vol-2-255
Evidence relating to the Influence ofNeighborhood Environment on Social andPhysical Functioning in Older Age	Vol-2-257
Conclusion	Vol-2-258
Further Reading	Vol-2-258
Chapter 27. Electromagnetic Fields: Environmental Exposure	Vol-2-259
Introduction	Vol-2-259
Dosimetry	Vol-2-260
Coupling Mechanisms	Vol-2-262
Biological Effects	Vol-2-264
Safety Guidelines and Exposure Limits	Vol-2-266
Final Remarks	Vol-2-268
Further Reading	Vol-2-268
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-268
Chapte 28. Electronic Waste and Human Health	Vol-2-269
Introduction	Vol-2-269
E-Waste and Food Chains	Vol-2-273
Exposure to and Toxicity of E-Waste-Related Toxic Chemicals	Vol-2-273
Novel Aspects for Research	Vol-2-279
Conclusion	Vol-2-280
Further Reading	Vol-2-280
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-281
Chapter 29. Empirical Models to Predict Disinfection By-products (DBPs) inDrinking Water	Vol-2-282
Disinfectants for Drinking WaterTreatment	Vol-2-282
Common DBP Types	Vol-2-283
Factors Affecting DBP Formation	Vol-2-284
Predicting DBP Formation	Vol-2-285
Critical Research Needs: ConcludingRemarks	Vol-2-291
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-292
Further Reading	Vol-2-293
Chapter 30. Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Human Cancer	Vol-2-296
Introduction	Vol-2-296
Conclusions	Vol-2-304
Further Reading	Vol-2-304
Chapter 31. Entomological Risks of Genetically Engineered Crops	Vol-2-306
Insects in Agroecosystems	Vol-2-306
Traditional Pest Management	Vol-2-306
Genetic Engineering of Crops	Vol-2-307
Changes in Agricultural Practice with theIntroduction of Transgenic Crops	Vol-2-309
Implications of Widespread Adoption onInsect Populations	Vol-2-309
Conclusion: Insects and the Sustainabilityof Genetically Engineered Crops	Vol-2-313
Further Reading	Vol-2-313
Chapter 32. Environmental and Health Costs in the European Union:Policy-Making	Vol-2-315
Cost…Benefit Analysis and External Costs:The Origins in the European Legal Texts	Vol-2-315
The Quantification of External Costs: Pastand Present European Research Efforts	Vol-2-316
The Impact Pathway Approach:A Scientifically Agreed EuropeanMethodology	Vol-2-317
Internalization of External Costs:European Policy Jargon andImplementation	Vol-2-319
External Costs: Market-BasedInstruments and Impact Assessment	Vol-2-321
The Internalization of External Costs inEU Policies	Vol-2-322
Conclusions and Outlook	Vol-2-324
Further Reading	Vol-2-325
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-326
Chapter 33. Environmental Carcinogens and Regulation	Vol-2-327
Introduction	Vol-2-327
Regulation of Carcinogens	Vol-2-327
Risk Assessment for EnvironmentalCarcinogens	Vol-2-329
Risk Management	Vol-2-334
Conclusions	Vol-2-334
Further Reading	Vol-2-335
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-335
Chapter 34. Environmental Chemicals and Childhood Cancer	Vol-2-336
Childhood Cancer Epidemiology	Vol-2-336
A Susceptible Population	Vol-2-336
Challenges and Limitations ofEpidemiological Studies of EnvironmentalInfluences on Cancer Risk	Vol-2-337
Pesticides	Vol-2-338
Other Chemicals	Vol-2-341
Physical Agents	Vol-2-343
Gene…Environment Interactions	Vol-2-345
Summary and Directions for FutureStudies	Vol-2-345
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-346
Further Reading	Vol-2-346
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-346
Chapter 35. Environmental Chemicals in Breast Milk	Vol-2-347
Introduction	Vol-2-347
Environmental Chemicals in Breast Milk	Vol-2-348
Factors Influencing Concentrations ofEnvironmental Chemicals in Breast Milk	Vol-2-351
Health Effects	Vol-2-352
Conclusions	Vol-2-354
Further Reading	Vol-2-355
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-356
Chapter 36. Environmental Epidemiology and Human Health: Biomarkers ofDisease and Genetic Susceptibility	Vol-2-357
Introduction	Vol-2-357
Biomarkers in EnvironmentalEpidemiology and Human Health	Vol-2-359
Breast Cancer and Genetic Polymorphism	Vol-2-363
Lung Cancer and Genetic Polymorphism	Vol-2-364
Conclusions	Vol-2-365
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-366
Further Reading	Vol-2-366
Chapter 37. Environmental Factors in Children's Asthma and RespiratoryEffects	Vol-2-367
Development of Asthma	Vol-2-367
Asthma as a Developmental Disease	Vol-2-367
Normal Development of the RespiratorySystem	Vol-2-368
Normal Development of the ImmuneSystem	Vol-2-368
Mechanisms Underlying the Developmentof Allergic Sensitization	Vol-2-369
Impact of Intrauterine Exposures onRespiratory and Immune SystemDevelopment and the Risk of Asthma	Vol-2-370
Impact of Postnatal Exposures onRespiratory System Development and theRisk of Asthma	Vol-2-370
Impact of Postnatal Exposures toEnvironmental Pollutants on ImmuneSystem Development and the Risk ofAsthma	Vol-2-372
Synergistic Interactions between AllergicSensitization and Lower Respiratory ViralInfections in Early Life on theDevelopment of Asthma	Vol-2-372
Factors Modifying the Induction ofAsthma	Vol-2-372
Further Reading	Vol-2-378
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-379
Chapter 38. Environmental Factors in Obesity	Vol-2-380
Introduction	Vol-2-380
Definition of Overweight and Obese	Vol-2-380
Epidemiology of Obesity	Vol-2-381
Web of Causation	Vol-2-388
Potential Interventions	Vol-2-389
Priorities for Further Research	Vol-2-390
Further Reading	Vol-2-390
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-391
Chapter 39. Environmental Health and Bioterrorism	Vol-2-392
Introduction	Vol-2-392
Bioterrorism Related to Humans	Vol-2-393
Agroterrorism	Vol-2-396
Further Reading	Vol-2-398
Chapter 40. Environmental Health Ethics in Study of Children	Vol-2-400
Children and Environmental Health:Special Concerns	Vol-2-400
Conclusions	Vol-2-408
Further Reading	Vol-2-409
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-409
Chapter 41. Environmental Health Issues for Railroads	Vol-2-410
Introduction	Vol-2-410
Global Environmental Problems andRailroads	Vol-2-410
Impacts of Railroads on the Environmentand How to Reduce Them	Vol-2-411
Summary	Vol-2-417
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-418
Further Reading	Vol-2-418
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-418
Chapter 42. Environmental Health Practice: Environmental Medicine	Vol-2-419
Introduction	Vol-2-419
Assessment of Health Complaints andEnvironmental Attribution	Vol-2-419
Case History and Exposure Assessment	Vol-2-420
Human Biomonitoring	Vol-2-420
Effect and Susceptibility Monitoring	Vol-2-420
On-Site Inspection and AmbientMonitoring	Vol-2-421
Interdisciplinary Clinical Diagnostics andEvaluation of Clinical Cases	Vol-2-423
Conclusions	Vol-2-423
Further Reading	Vol-2-423
Chapter 43. Environmental Health Tracking	Vol-2-424
Introduction	Vol-2-424
Environmental Monitoring	Vol-2-425
Biomonitoring	Vol-2-427
Public Health Surveillance	Vol-2-427
Community Environments	Vol-2-428
Data Availability and Use of Indicators	Vol-2-428
Cumulative Impacts	Vol-2-430
Health Disparities and Environmental Justice	Vol-2-430
Small Areas and the Question of Scale	Vol-2-430
The Fuzzy Line between Research and Surveillance	Vol-2-431
Future Directions	Vol-2-432
Further Reading	Vol-2-432
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-432
Chapter 44. Environmental Justice and Interventions to Prevent EnvironmentalInjustice in the United States	Vol-2-433
Introduction	Vol-2-433
Environmental Justice	Vol-2-433
Health Impacts	Vol-2-434
Regulatory Roadblocks to EnvironmentalJustice	Vol-2-437
Possibilities for Intervention	Vol-2-438
Summary	Vol-2-439
Further Reading	Vol-2-440
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-440
Chapter 45. Environmental Justice: An International Perspective	Vol-2-441
The Importance of Environmental Justice	Vol-2-441
How Is Environmental JusticeManifested?	Vol-2-441
Why Is Environmental Justice ParticularlyImportant for Developing Countries?	Vol-2-442
Case Studies	Vol-2-443
What Underlies Environmental Injustice?	Vol-2-446
The Human Right to a Safe Environment	Vol-2-447
Conclusion	Vol-2-448
Further Reading	Vol-2-448
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-448
Chapter 46. Environmental Justice: An Overview	Vol-2-449
Introduction and Scope	Vol-2-449
Evidence for Environmental Inequality	Vol-2-450
Analysis Issues	Vol-2-451
Unequal or Unfair?	Vol-2-454
Remedy and Response	Vol-2-456
Procedural Justice	Vol-2-457
Further Reading	Vol-2-457
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-458
Chapter 47. Environmental Justice: Social Disparities in EnvironmentalExposures and Health: Overview	Vol-2-459
Introduction	Vol-2-459
Definition and Main Features ofEnvironmental Justice	Vol-2-459
Theoretical Background and ConceptualFramework	Vol-2-460
Social Disparities in EnvironmentalExposures	Vol-2-461
Effect Modification	Vol-2-464
Social Disparities in EnvironmentalHealth	Vol-2-465
Methodological Considerations	Vol-2-466
Outlook: Further Research and Strategiesfor Dealing with Social Inequalities inEnvironmental Health	Vol-2-467
Further Reading	Vol-2-469
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-470
Chapter 48. Environmental Lung Cancer Epidemiology	Vol-2-471
Introduction	Vol-2-471
Environmental Factors and Risk of LungCancer	Vol-2-471
Further Reading	Vol-2-475
Chapter 49. Environmental Noise	Vol-2-476
The Origin of Noise Exposure Data	Vol-2-476
The European Environmental NoiseDirective	Vol-2-477
Environmental Noise in Perspective	Vol-2-477
Urbanization, Mechanization,Industrialization, Mobility, andGlobalization	Vol-2-477
Indicators for Environmental Noise	Vol-2-478
Sources of Environmental Noise andTheir Relevance	Vol-2-479
Basis for Extrapolation	Vol-2-481
Galloway's Findings	Vol-2-482
Validation of the Approach	Vol-2-483
Other Approaches	Vol-2-483
Updated Approach	Vol-2-483
Extrapolation to World Level	Vol-2-484
Extrapolation to EU-27 Level	Vol-2-485
The Quality and Reliability of the Estimate	Vol-2-486
Synthesis	Vol-2-487
Further Reading	Vol-2-487
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-488
Chapter 50. Environmental Pollution and Human Health in Ancient Times	Vol-2-489
Introduction	Vol-2-489
The Hunter-Gatherers of Neolithic Time	Vol-2-489
Early Holocene and Transition toAgriculture	Vol-2-492
Mid-Holocene to Classical Times:Transition to Urbanization andManufactories	Vol-2-495
Further Reading	Vol-2-505
Chapter 51. Environmental Specimen Bank for Human Tissues	Vol-2-507
Introduction	Vol-2-507
Archive of Human Specimens	Vol-2-508
Sampling, Sample Characterization, andSample Treatment	Vol-2-508
Real-Time Monitoring until 2006	Vol-2-515
Retrospective Monitoring	Vol-2-519
Current Research	Vol-2-525
Bioethical Relevance	Vol-2-526
Conclusions	Vol-2-527
Further Reading	Vol-2-527
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-527
Chapter 52. Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Cancer	Vol-2-528
Introduction	Vol-2-528
Environmental Tobacco Smoke	Vol-2-528
Carcinogenic Constituents of ETS	Vol-2-529
Exposure to ETS	Vol-2-529
Measuring ETS Exposure	Vol-2-529
Carcinogenic Effects Linked with ETSExposure	Vol-2-529
Mechanism of ETS-Induced Cancer	Vol-2-532
Epidemiological Evidence of ETS-InducedCancer	Vol-2-534
Interventions to Reduce Risk of Exposureto ETS	Vol-2-539
Further Reading	Vol-2-541
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-541
Chapter 53. Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Health Risk Assessment	Vol-2-542
Introduction	Vol-2-542
Health Risk Assessment	Vol-2-543
Identification of Hazards Associated withEnvironmental Tobacco Smoke:Composition of Tobacco Smoke	Vol-2-544
Exposure Assessment Methods forEstimating Health Effects	Vol-2-545
Risk Characterization of Exposure toEnvironmental Tobacco Smoke amongAdults and Children	Vol-2-547
Risk Management	Vol-2-547
Legislative and Regulatory Controls	Vol-2-548
Education and Behavior Change toReduce Exposures to EnvironmentalTobacco Smoke	Vol-2-549
Further Reading	Vol-2-550
Chapter 54. Environment and Health of Rural Women	Vol-2-551
Introduction	Vol-2-551
Health Problem Related to EnvironmentalPollutants	Vol-2-551
Communicable Diseases	Vol-2-553
Psychological Problem	Vol-2-554
Socioeconomic Problems	Vol-2-554
Occupational Health and Safety	Vol-2-555
Nutritional Health Problems	Vol-2-556
Reproductive Health Problems	Vol-2-556
Inadequate Data and Lack of Resources	Vol-2-557
World Rural Women's Day	Vol-2-557
The Millennium Development Goals	Vol-2-558
Further Reading	Vol-2-558
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-558
Chapter 54. Environment, Genetic and Epigenetic Alterations and PediatricCentral Nervous System Tumors	Vol-2-559
Introduction	Vol-2-560
Environmental Factors and pCNST	Vol-2-560
Molecular Changes in Different Types ofpCNSTs	Vol-2-561
Mitochondrial…Nuclear Signaling in CNSTDevelopment	Vol-2-565
Gene…Environment Interaction (GEI) andCNST Development	Vol-2-566
Conclusions	Vol-2-567
Further Reading	Vol-2-568
Chapter 55. Epidemiology of Infectious Diarrhea	Vol-2-569
Basic Concepts	Vol-2-569
The Epidemiological Point of View:Sporadic and Epidemic Cases	Vol-2-571
Some of the Microorganisms Capable ofProducing Diarrhea and Their PrincipalFeatures	Vol-2-573
Bacterias	Vol-2-577
Long-Term Effects of GastrointestinalInfections	Vol-2-580
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-581
Further Reading	Vol-2-581
Chapter 56. Epigenetic Changes Induced by Environment and Diet in Cancer	Vol-2-582
Introduction	Vol-2-582
Epigenetic Inheritance	Vol-2-582
Environment and Epigenetic Mechanisms	Vol-2-583
Environmental Epimutagens	Vol-2-584
Tobacco	Vol-2-585
Dietary Factors	Vol-2-585
Alcohol	Vol-2-586
Infectious Agents	Vol-2-586
Metastable Epialleles	Vol-2-588
Further Reading	Vol-2-588
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-589
Chapter 57. Erionite and its Health Effects	Vol-2-590
Introduction	Vol-2-590
Definition of Erionite Series Minerals	Vol-2-590
Characterization Guidelines	Vol-2-590
Erionite Locations	Vol-2-590
Health Effects of Erionite Series Minerals	Vol-2-592
Exposure Standards and Guidelines	Vol-2-593
Further Reading	Vol-2-593
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-593
Chapter 58. Essential Nature of Water for Health: Water as Part of the DietaryIntake for Nutrients and the Role of Water in Hygiene	Vol-2-594
Introduction	Vol-2-594
Water	Vol-2-594
Hydration	Vol-2-594
Salt Loss and Physical Activity	Vol-2-598
Requirements and Recommendations	Vol-2-599
Fluid, Hydration, and Disease	Vol-2-601
Water-Washed Disease	Vol-2-604
Further Reading	Vol-2-604
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-604
Chapter 59. Estrogenic Chemicals and Cardiovascular Disease	Vol-2-605
Introduction	Vol-2-605
Role of Estrogen in CardiovascularDisease	Vol-2-605
Rationale for the Paradigm Shift ofAdverse Effects of Estrogenic Chemicals	Vol-2-605
Human Studies	Vol-2-606
Redox Signaling and Vascular Lesions	Vol-2-607
Conclusion	Vol-2-608
Further Reading	Vol-2-608
Chapter 60. Ethics in Pediatric Environmental Health Research	Vol-2-609
Introduction	Vol-2-609
Justice and Pediatric EnvironmentalHealth Research	Vol-2-609
The Kennedy Krieger Study	Vol-2-609
The Role of the Family in Children'sEnvironmental Health Research	Vol-2-610
Family Privacy	Vol-2-610
Sharing Research-Generated Informationwith Parents	Vol-2-611
Relationship between Data and Disease	Vol-2-612
The Importance of CommunityPerspectives	Vol-2-612
The Familia Study: A Case Example ofReporting Pesticide Assessment Resultsto Farmworker Families	Vol-2-613
Conclusion	Vol-2-613
Further Reading	Vol-2-614
Chapter 61. Evidence for Endocrine Disruption in Children: SensitiveDevelopmental Endpoints	Vol-2-615
Introduction	Vol-2-615
Sensitive Developmental Endpoints ofEndocrine Disruption	Vol-2-616
Conclusion	Vol-2-621
Further Reading	Vol-2-622
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-623
Chapter 62. Exposure Guidelines and Radon Policy	Vol-2-624
Introduction	Vol-2-624
Problem Characterization and SituationAnalysis	Vol-2-625
Identification of Radon-Prone Areas	Vol-2-625
Regulations and Reference Levels	Vol-2-625
Radon Measurement Protocols	Vol-2-627
Remediation of Homes with High RadonConcentrations	Vol-2-627
Regulations and Guidelines for NewBuildings	Vol-2-628
Radon and Smoking	Vol-2-628
Radon in Drinking Water	Vol-2-628
Radon in Workplaces	Vol-2-628
Program Evaluation	Vol-2-629
Radon Policy Development and Research	Vol-2-629
Further Reading	Vol-2-629
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-629
Chapter 63. Exposure Modeling and Measurement: Exposure Factors	Vol-2-630
Introduction	Vol-2-630
Further Reading	Vol-2-635
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-635
Chapter 64. Exposure Reconstruction Using Space-Time InformationTechnology	Vol-2-636
Introduction	Vol-2-636
Space…Time and Location-EnabledTechnologies for Exposure Assessment	Vol-2-637
Space…Time Data Types	Vol-2-638
Space…Time Software Systems	Vol-2-639
Applications of Space…Time Technologyfor Exposure Assessment	Vol-2-640
Conclusions	Vol-2-642
Further Reading	Vol-2-644
Chapter 65. Exposure Science: Contaminant Mixtures	Vol-2-645
Introduction	Vol-2-645
Major Contaminant Mixtures and Classesof Chemicals of Health Concern	Vol-2-645
Exposure Assessment of ContaminantMixtures	Vol-2-651
Challenges	Vol-2-655
Further Reading	Vol-2-655
Chapter 66. Exposure Science: Ingestion	Vol-2-657
What Is Ingestion Exposure?	Vol-2-657
What Is the Significance of Dietary andNondietary or Incidental IngestionExposure?	Vol-2-657
Measures of Ingestion Exposure	Vol-2-658
Estimates of Dietary Ingestion	Vol-2-661
Blood Serum, Urine, and FecalBiomarkers and Tracers	Vol-2-662
Other Indirect Estimates of DietaryIngestion	Vol-2-662
Ingestion Models	Vol-2-663
EPA Models	Vol-2-663
Susceptible Populations for Exposurethrough the Ingestion Route	Vol-2-663
Intervention and Prevention of DietaryExposure	Vol-2-664
Priorities for Further Research	Vol-2-665
Further Reading	Vol-2-665
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-665
Chapter 67. Exposure Science: Inhalation	Vol-2-666
Measurement Concepts	Vol-2-666
Modeling of Inhalation Exposure	Vol-2-667
Biomarkers of Exposure	Vol-2-667
Respiratory Tract	Vol-2-668
Activity Patterns	Vol-2-669
Breathing Rate and Activity	Vol-2-670
Pollutant Gases	Vol-2-671
Volatile Organic Compounds	Vol-2-671
Particulate Matter	Vol-2-672
Semivolatile Species	Vol-2-672
Inhalation to Biologics	Vol-2-673
Conclusion	Vol-2-673
Further Reading	Vol-2-673
Chapter 68. Exposure Science: Monitoring Environmental Contaminants	Vol-2-675
Basics of Environmental Monitoring	Vol-2-675
Sampling Plan and Quality Assurance	Vol-2-676
Statistical Tools for Data Analysis	Vol-2-677
Uncertainty Analysis	Vol-2-677
Monitoring of Air Contaminants	Vol-2-678
Monitoring of Water Contaminants	Vol-2-678
Monitoring of Soil Contaminants	Vol-2-679
Current Technological Advances	Vol-2-679
Challenges for the Future	Vol-2-680
Further Reading	Vol-2-680
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-680
Chapter 69. Exposure Science: Pharmacokinetic Modeling	Vol-2-681
Introduction	Vol-2-681
Tools for Interpreting BiomonitoringStudies	Vol-2-682
Conclusions	Vol-2-691
Further Reading	Vol-2-691
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-692
Chapter 70. Extreme Temperatures and Mortality	Vol-2-693
Introduction	Vol-2-693
Links between Extreme Temperaturesand Mortality: Results fromEpidemiological Studies	Vol-2-693
Physiopathology of Extreme TemperatureHealth Effects	Vol-2-697
Conclusion	Vol-2-698
Further Reading	Vol-2-698
PART 3: F	Vol-2-701
Chapter 71. Fate and Transport: Geostatistics and EnvironmentalContaminants	Vol-2-701
Introduction	Vol-2-701
Data Sources	Vol-2-702
Description of the Spatial and TemporalVariability	Vol-2-702
A Probabilistic Model	Vol-2-706
Predicting Contaminant Levels atUnmonitored Locations and Times	Vol-2-708
Mapping the Probability of ExceedingRegulatory Thresholds	Vol-2-710
Generating Possible Scenarios for theSpatial Distribution of Contaminants	Vol-2-711
Validating Geostatistical Models	Vol-2-712
Conclusions	Vol-2-714
Further Readings	Vol-2-714
Chapter 72. Fate and Transport of Microbial Contaminants in Groundwater	Vol-2-715
Introduction	Vol-2-715
Sources and Types of MicrobialContaminants Present in the Subsurface	Vol-2-715
Surrogates Used to Assess Microbial Fateand Transport in Groundwater	Vol-2-717
Processes Controlling Microbial Fate andTransport	Vol-2-719
Physicochemical Factors InfluencingMicrobial Fate and Transport Processes	Vol-2-723
Linking the Science to the Protection ofPublic Health	Vol-2-725
Further Reading	Vol-2-725
Chapter 73. Fertilizers	Vol-2-727
Introduction	Vol-2-727
Nitrogen Cycle, Fertilizers, and N LossPathways	Vol-2-727
Nitrogen Fertilizers and Water Quality	Vol-2-729
Nitrogen Fertilizers and Air Quality	Vol-2-730
Phosphorus Fertilizers and LossPathways	Vol-2-731
Phosphorus Fertilizers and Water Quality	Vol-2-731
Pathogens, Veterinary Pharmaceuticals,and Endocrine Disrupters from AnimalManures	Vol-2-732
Strategies for Reducing the Environmentaland Health Effects of Fertilizers	Vol-2-734
Further Reading	Vol-2-737
Chapter 74. First Do No Harm: An Environmental Health Context	Vol-2-738
The Rising Disease Burden	Vol-2-738
Health Care's Contribution to ChemicalContamination	Vol-2-739
Evolving the Hippocratic Oath	Vol-2-740
Health Care's Path to Ecological Medicine	Vol-2-741
Conclusion	Vol-2-743
Further Reading	Vol-2-743
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-743
Chapter 75. Floods as Human Health Risks	Vol-2-744
Introduction	Vol-2-744
Health Impacts of Floods	Vol-2-746
Emergency Relief and Planning	Vol-2-753
Mitigation and Prevention	Vol-2-753
Conclusions	Vol-2-754
Further Reading	Vol-2-754
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-755
Chapter 76. Floriculture	Vol-2-756
The Floriculture Industry	Vol-2-756
Floriculture Production	Vol-2-757
Floriculture Consumption	Vol-2-766
Further Reading	Vol-2-768
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-768
Chapter 78. Fluoride in Drinking Water: Effect on Liver and Kidney Function	Vol-2-769
Introduction	Vol-2-769
Fluoride Intake	Vol-2-769
Renal Excretion of Fluoride	Vol-2-770
Liver Damages and Fluoride in DrinkingWater	Vol-2-770
Renal Damages and Fluoride in DrinkingWater	Vol-2-772
Molecular Mechanisms of FluorideToxicity	Vol-2-772
Further Reading	Vol-2-775
Chapter 79. Fluorine: Human Health Risks	Vol-2-776
Introduction	Vol-2-776
Fluoride Health Effects	Vol-2-776
Etiology of Fluoride Health Issues	Vol-2-780
Further Reading	Vol-2-784
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-785
Chapter 80. Fluorosis	Vol-2-786
Introduction	Vol-2-786
Sources of Fluoride for Human Exposure	Vol-2-786
Chemobiokinetics, Metabolism, andFunctions of Fluoride in Humans	Vol-2-787
Epidemiology of Fluorosis	Vol-2-788
Clinical Presentations	Vol-2-788
Diagnosis of Fluoride	Vol-2-790
Treatment and Prevention of Fluorosis	Vol-2-790
Further Reading	Vol-2-791
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-791
Chapter 81. Food Safety and Risk Analysis	Vol-2-792
Introduction	Vol-2-792
Food Safety Challenges	Vol-2-793
Causes of Foodborne Disease	Vol-2-794
Consequences of Foodborne Disease	Vol-2-795
Food Safety Tools	Vol-2-797
Risk Analysis Applied to Food Safety	Vol-2-797
Further Reading	Vol-2-801
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-802
Chapter 82. Forest Transition and Zoonoses Risk	Vol-2-803
Introduction	Vol-2-803
Forest Transition Processes	Vol-2-803
Environmental Improvement Effect ofForest Regeneration	Vol-2-803
Forest Transition, Species Diversity, andZoonoses Risk	Vol-2-804
Lyme Disease	Vol-2-804
Importance of Forest Species Diversity inTick Control	Vol-2-806
Spreading of Trichinellosis	Vol-2-806
Human Activities and Disease Risk	Vol-2-807
Association Between Forest Transitionand Some Zoonoses Risks in Serbia	Vol-2-807
Further Reading	Vol-2-811
Chapter 83. Frequency and Timing of Environmental Exposure	Vol-2-812
Introduction	Vol-2-812
Temporal Models of Exposure	Vol-2-812
Illustrative Example: Arsenic in DrinkingWater	Vol-2-813
Conclusions	Vol-2-815
Further Reading	Vol-2-815
Chapter 84. Functional Genomics and Molecular Analysis of a SubtropicalHarmful Algal Bloom Species, Karenia brevis	Vol-2-816
Introduction	Vol-2-816
EST Libraries for K. brevis	Vol-2-817
Understanding K. brevis Biology forBetter Modeling	Vol-2-819
Cellular Biology (Cell Cycle)	Vol-2-821
Molecular Biology	Vol-2-821
Toxin Production	Vol-2-822
Plastid Genes	Vol-2-825
Mitochondrial Genes	Vol-2-827
Conclusion	Vol-2-828
Further Reading	Vol-2-828
PART 4: G	Vol-2-816
Chapter 85. Gallium: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-2-829
Introduction	Vol-2-829
Applications	Vol-2-829
Environmental Sources and PossibleExposure Routes	Vol-2-830
Health Effects of Gallium	Vol-2-831
Further Reading	Vol-2-832
Chapter 86. Gender and Disasters	Vol-2-834
Introduction	Vol-2-834
Shelter/Housing and Livelihoods	Vol-2-835
Water, Sanitation, and WasteManagement	Vol-2-836
General Environmental Health	Vol-2-837
Food Safety and Nutrition	Vol-2-838
Conclusions	Vol-2-838
Further Reading	Vol-2-838
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-838
Chapter 87. Gender Differences in Cancer Incidence	Vol-2-839
Introduction	Vol-2-839
Gender Differences in ExperimentalCarcinogenesis in Rodents	Vol-2-839
Gender Differences in Cancer in Humans	Vol-2-841
Gender Differences in EcologicalEpidemiology Studies	Vol-2-841
Conclusions	Vol-2-847
Further Reading	Vol-2-847
Chapter 88. Gene-Environment Interactions and Childhood Cancer	Vol-2-848
Introduction	Vol-2-848
Childhood Cancer Epidemiology	Vol-2-848
Gene…Environment Interactions	Vol-2-850
Special Topics	Vol-2-853
Future Prospects	Vol-2-854
Further Reading	Vol-2-854
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-854
Chapter 89. Gene-Environment Interactions in Human Traits	Vol-2-855
Introduction	Vol-2-855
Statistical versus Biological Interaction	Vol-2-856
Study Designs	Vol-2-856
Cohort Design	Vol-2-856
Case-Control Design	Vol-2-857
Additive versus Multiplicative Scale	Vol-2-858
Case-Only Design	Vol-2-859
Family-Based Designs	Vol-2-859
Efficiency and Bias	Vol-2-860
Effect of Measurement Error orMisclassification Error	Vol-2-861
Software	Vol-2-861
Acknowledgment	Vol-2-861
Further Reading	Vol-2-861
Chapter 90. Gene-Environment Interactions in Neurodegenerative Diseases	Vol-2-863
Introduction	Vol-2-863
Alzheimer's Disease	Vol-2-863
Huntington's Disease	Vol-2-865
Neurodegenerative Diseases Caused bySimple Sequence Repeat Expansions	Vol-2-868
Multiple Sclerosis	Vol-2-868
Other Neurodegenerative Diseases	Vol-2-869
Conclusions	Vol-2-869
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-869
Further Reading	Vol-2-869
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-870
Chapter 91. General Introduction to Valuation of Human Health Risks	Vol-2-871
Environmental Health Risks and PotentialEffects	Vol-2-871
General Approaches for Valuing HealthRisks	Vol-2-871
Valuation Methods	Vol-2-873
An Alternative Metric: Quality-AdjustedLife Year (QALY)	Vol-2-876
Some Special Issues	Vol-2-876
Conclusions	Vol-2-878
Further Reading	Vol-2-878
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-878
Chapter 92. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)	Vol-2-879
Introduction	Vol-2-879
State of the Art in GMO Research andDevelopment	Vol-2-879
GMO Benefits and Adverse Effects	Vol-2-881
Regulatory Issues on GMO	Vol-2-884
Traceability of GMOs	Vol-2-885
Public Opinion on GMO	Vol-2-887
Further Reading	Vol-2-887
Chapter 93. Genetics is Involved in Everything, but not Everything is Genetic	Vol-2-889
Introduction	Vol-2-889
Gene…Environment Contribution to Human Disease	Vol-2-891
Cancer	Vol-2-891
Asthma	Vol-2-894
Cardiovascular Disease	Vol-2-894
Obesity	Vol-2-895
Mental Health	Vol-2-896
Occupational-Related Disease	Vol-2-896
Epigenetic In.uence on Environmentally Related Disease	Vol-2-896
Genomics and Treatment for Environmentally Related Disease	Vol-2-897
Summary	Vol-2-897
Further Reading	Vol-2-898
Chapter 94. Genome-Based Drug Design	Vol-2-899
Introduction	Vol-2-899
Further Reading	Vol-2-906
Chapter 95. Genome Effects and Mutational Risk of Radiation	Vol-2-908
Introduction	Vol-2-908
Molecular Studies	Vol-2-910
Molecular Cellular Studies	Vol-2-912
Whole Organism Studies	Vol-2-913
Conclusions	Vol-2-916
Further Reading	Vol-2-916
Chapter 96. Genotoxicity of Disinfection By-Products: Comparison to Carcinogenicity	Vol-2-920
Introduction	Vol-2-920
The Mutagenesis Paradigm	Vol-2-920
DNA Damage and DNA Damage Assays	Vol-2-921
Mutations and Mutagenicity Assays	Vol-2-921
Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of the 11 Regulated DBPs	Vol-2-921
Genotoxicity of Unregulated DBPs	Vol-2-922
Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of 11 Unregulated DBPs	Vol-2-924
DBPs for Genotoxicity Testing	Vol-2-924
Route of Exposure	Vol-2-925
Conclusions	Vol-2-925
Further Reading	Vol-2-926
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-926
Chapter 97. Germanium: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-2-927
Introduction	Vol-2-927
Discovery and Properties of Germanium	Vol-2-927
Sources and Productions of Germanium	Vol-2-927
Industrial Uses of Germanium or Germanium Compounds	Vol-2-928
Biological Effects of Germanium Compounds and Their Applications	Vol-2-928
Uptake of Germanium	Vol-2-929
Absorption and Excretion of Germanium	Vol-2-929
Tissue Distribution of Germanium	Vol-2-929
Adverse Effects of Germanium Compounds	Vol-2-930
Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Germanium-Induced Toxicity	Vol-2-931
The Impact of Environmental Pollution of Germanium on Human Health	Vol-2-932
Conclusion	Vol-2-933
Further Reading	Vol-2-933
Chapter 98. Ghana: Environmental Health Issues	Vol-2-934
Introduction	Vol-2-934
Morbidity and Mortality in Ghana	Vol-2-934
Agroecology and Health Risks	Vol-2-935
Water and Sanitation Ecologies and Health Risks	Vol-2-938
High-Tech/E-Waste Ecologies and Health Risks	Vol-2-941
Terrestrial and Subterranean Ecologies of Mining and Health Risks	Vol-2-942
Ecologies of Development Projects and Health Risks	Vol-2-942
Excessive Moisture Ecologies and Health Risks	Vol-2-943
Residential Ecologies and Health Risks	Vol-2-943
Environmental Health Promotion	Vol-2-943
Further Reading	Vol-2-945
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-945
Chapter 99. Giardia and Cryptosporidium: Occurrence in Water Supplies	Vol-2-946
Introduction	Vol-2-946
Giardia duodenalis	Vol-2-947
Cryptosporidium spp.	Vol-2-948
Detection Water Methodology	Vol-2-950
Protozoan, Water, and Food	Vol-2-951
LAMP Applications	Vol-2-952
The Worldwide Perspective	Vol-2-953
Further Reading	Vol-2-953
Chapter 100. Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Approach and the Use of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) at the World Health Organization (WHO)	Vol-2-955
Introduction	Vol-2-955
Quantifying Disease and Disability	Vol-2-956
Today's Global Burden of Disease	Vol-2-958
Major Risks to Health	Vol-2-959
Conclusions	Vol-2-963
Further Reading	Vol-2-963
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-964
Chapter 101. Global Climate Changes and International Trade and Travel: Effects on Human Health Outcomes	Vol-2-965
Introduction	Vol-2-965
The Interrelationships of Climate Change, International Commerce, Free Trade, and International Travel on Observed Human Health Consequences	Vol-2-965
Some Speci.c Examples of the In.uences of Climate Change and International Commerce and Travel on Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases	Vol-2-969
Conclusions and Recommendations	Vol-2-974
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-975
Further Reading	Vol-2-975
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-975
Chapter 102. Global Development and Population Health	Vol-2-976
Introduction: Health Disparities, Health Equity, and Social Determinants of Health	Vol-2-976
Is Wealthier Healthier?	Vol-2-977
Globalization and Development	Vol-2-980
The Future Politics of Globalization and Health: Domestic and International Dimensions	Vol-2-983
Acknowledgments	Vol-2-985
Further Reading	Vol-2-985
Chapter 103. Global Energy Sources and Trends	Vol-2-987
Historical Trends	Vol-2-987
Future Prospects	Vol-2-989
Conclusion	Vol-2-992
Appendix: Ten Regions of the World	Vol-2-993
Further Reading	Vol-2-994
Chapter 104. Globalization and Environmental Health	Vol-2-995
Globalization and Environmental Health: De.nitions and Interconnections	Vol-2-995
Globalization and Environmental Health	Vol-2-997
The Interconnections between Globalization and Human Health	Vol-2-997
Globalization is among the Leading Forces Now Affecting Environmental Health	Vol-2-998
Will Common Threats to Health Strengthen the Global Commons?	Vol-2-999
Further Reading	Vol-2-1000
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-1001
Chapter 105. Global Life Cycle Impacts of Consumer Products	Vol-2-1002
Introduction	Vol-2-1003
Overview of Life Cycle Assessment and Global Application	Vol-2-1004
Applications of Global LCIA	Vol-2-1010
Guide to Sustainable Consumption	Vol-2-1012
Conclusion	Vol-2-1013
Further Reading	Vol-2-1014
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-1014
Chapter 106. Gold and Amalgams: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-2-1015
Introduction	Vol-2-1015
Mercury Intoxication Cases	Vol-2-1015
Global Mercury Production and Consumption	Vol-2-1016
Dominating Uses of Mercury as an Amalgamating Agent	Vol-2-1019
Health and Environmental Concern of Hg Lost	Vol-2-1023
Need for a Global Directive Restricting Hazardous Substances	Vol-2-1024
Mercury Trade or Sound Waste Management?	Vol-2-1024
Further Reading	Vol-2-1025
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-1026
Chapter 107. Greenland: Contaminants and Dietary Factors in Health of the Country	Vol-2-1027
Introduction	Vol-2-1027
Traditional Food and Dietary Composition	Vol-2-1028
Contaminant Levels in Greenland	Vol-2-1030
Areas of Suspected Health Effects of Contaminants	Vol-2-1032
Summary	Vol-2-1035
Further Reading	Vol-2-1035
Relevant Websites	Vol-2-1036
Chapter 108. Groundwater and Soil Pollution: Bioremediation	Vol-2-1037
Introduction	Vol-2-1037
Phytoremediation	Vol-2-1042
Further Reading	Vol-2-1044
Volume 3	Vol-3-Cover
Front Cover	Vol-3-Cover
Encyclopedia of Environmental Health	Vol-3-iii
Copyright Page	Vol-3-iv
EDITORS	Vol-3-v
SECTION EDITORS	Vol-3-vi
CONTRIBUTORS	Vol-3-vii
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA	Vol-3-xiii
SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION	Vol-3-xv
CONTENTS\r	Vol-3-xxv
PREFACE	Vol-3-xxix
Part 1: H	Vol-3-1
Chapter 1. Hair for Biomonitoring of Environmental Exposures\r	Vol-3-1
Introduction	Vol-3-1
Trends of Hair Analysis	Vol-3-2
Methods	Vol-3-3
Biological Characteristics of Hair	Vol-3-4
Hair as an Indicator of Body Store of Elements\r	Vol-3-5
Environmental Exposures	Vol-3-5
Reference Values of Hair Elements	Vol-3-10
Evaluation of Hair Analysis	Vol-3-10
Conclusions	Vol-3-11
Further Reading	Vol-3-11
Chapter 2. Hantavirus\r	Vol-3-12
Introduction and History	Vol-3-12
Virology	Vol-3-14
Pathogenesis and Pathology	Vol-3-19
Disease Progression	Vol-3-19
Summary	Vol-3-21
Further Reading	Vol-3-22
Chapter 3. Hazardous (Organic) Air Pollutants\r	Vol-3-23
Introduction\r	Vol-3-23
Volatile Organic Compounds	Vol-3-24
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons	Vol-3-27
Dioxins and Furans	Vol-3-28
Summary	Vol-3-32
Further Reading	Vol-3-33
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-33
Chapter 4. Health Issues of Travellers\r	Vol-3-34
Introduction	Vol-3-34
Physical Health Hazards	Vol-3-35
Geological Health Hazards	Vol-3-38
Biological Health Hazards	Vol-3-40
Prevention and Countermeasures	Vol-3-41
Further Reading	Vol-3-42
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-42
Chapter 5. Heat Wave and Mortality of the Elderly\r	Vol-3-43
Introduction\r	Vol-3-43
Heat Waves	Vol-3-43
Why Elderly Persons Are at Greater Risk of Death During Heat Waves\r	Vol-3-44
Methodological Aspects	Vol-3-45
Public Health: Measures for Reducing the Mortality Associated with Heat Waves\r	Vol-3-47
Further Reading	Vol-3-48
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-49
Chapter 6. Heterotrophic Bacteria in Bottled Water\r	Vol-3-50
Introduction	Vol-3-50
Bottled Water Definitions and Regulations\r	Vol-3-50
Bottled Water Microbiology	Vol-3-51
HPC Definition and Analysis	Vol-3-52
HPC Epidemiology	Vol-3-53
HPC Pathogenesis and Antibiotic Resistance\r	Vol-3-54
HPC Key Facts	Vol-3-54
Further Reading	Vol-3-55
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-55
Chapter 7. Hong Kong: Particulate Air Pollution and Health Impacts\r	Vol-3-56
Introduction	Vol-3-56
Sources of Particulate Matter in Hong Kong\r	Vol-3-57
Exposure to Roadside Emissions in Hong Kong\r	Vol-3-59
Health Impacts of PM in Hong Kong	Vol-3-59
Legal Regulation: Air Quality Objectives of PM in Hong Kong\r	Vol-3-60
Further Reading	Vol-3-60
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-61
Chapter 8. Household Energy Solutions in Developing Countries\r	Vol-3-62
Introduction	Vol-3-62
Approaches to Delivering Improved Household Energy in Developing Countries\r	Vol-3-64
Effectiveness of Interventions	Vol-3-66
Economic Evaluation of Household Energy Interventions\r	Vol-3-68
Experience with the Implementation of Household Energy Programs\r	Vol-3-71
Conclusions, and Research and Development Agenda\r	Vol-3-73
Further Reading	Vol-3-74
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-74
Chapter 9. Housing-Related Health Hazards: Assessment and Remediation\r	Vol-3-76
Introduction	Vol-3-76
Housing Hazard Assessment	Vol-3-79
Summary of the Strength of the Evidence Linking Housing Quality to Environmental Health\r	Vol-3-84
Comparison of Three Bundled Housing Intervention Protocols\r	Vol-3-88
Conclusions and Research Needs	Vol-3-91
Further Reading	Vol-3-93
Chapter 10. How Hormesis will Change the Risk Assessment Process\r	Vol-3-95
Introduction	Vol-3-95
Resurgence of Hormesis	Vol-3-95
What Is the Dose Response in the Low-Dose Zone\r	Vol-3-96
Implications of Hormesis for Risk Assessment\r	Vol-3-97
Choosing Hormesis: A Future Course of Action\r	Vol-3-98
Limitations of Hormesis	Vol-3-98
Further Reading	Vol-3-99
Chapter 11. Human Exposure Assessment for DBPs: Factors Influencing Blood Trihalomethane Levels\r	Vol-3-100
Introduction	Vol-3-100
Exposure Assessment for THMs: General Issues and Specific Approaches\r	Vol-3-100
Assessing THM Levels in People	Vol-3-103
Interpreting THM Levels in Blood: Biomonitoring Equivalents\r	Vol-3-104
Further Reading	Vol-3-107
Chapter 12. Human Health and the State of the Pedosphere\r	Vol-3-108
Introduction to Soils and Health	Vol-3-108
The Role of Soils in Food Security	Vol-3-109
The Impact of Soils on Trace Element Deficiency and Toxicity\r	Vol-3-110
Soil Biotic Processes and Health	Vol-3-111
Soil Contamination and Chemical Transformations\r	Vol-3-113
Health Risks from Physical and Structural Attributes of Soils\r	Vol-3-115
Further Reading	Vol-3-115
Chapter 13. Human Health Link to Invasive Species\r	Vol-3-116
Introduction	Vol-3-116
Phenomenon of Invasion	Vol-3-116
Importance of NIS in Global Change	Vol-3-119
Impacts of NIS	Vol-3-119
Further Reading	Vol-3-123
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-123
Chapter 14. Hydrogen Sulfide: Integrative Analysis of Acute Toxicity Data for Estimating Human Health Risk\r	Vol-3-124
Introduction	Vol-3-125
CatReg	Vol-3-126
Review of Acute Toxicity of H2S: Responses and Severity Categorization Scheme\r	Vol-3-128
CatReg Analysis	Vol-3-133
Commentary and Remarks	Vol-3-136
Appendix: Selected Examples of Severity Categorization and Data Input\r	Vol-3-137
Further Reading	Vol-3-139
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-139
PART 2: I	Vol-3-141
Chapter 15. Immune Response to Environmental Exposure\r	Vol-3-141
Introduction	Vol-3-141
Immune Toxicity of Metals and Metalloids	Vol-3-148
Immune Toxicity of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)\r	Vol-3-150
Immune Toxicity of Polyhalogenated Aromatic Hydrocarbons\r	Vol-3-151
Immune Toxicity of Pesticides	Vol-3-152
Further Reading	Vol-3-154
Chapter 16. Immunological Effects of the Chernobyl Accident\r	Vol-3-155
Introduction	Vol-3-155
Immune Function after the AcuteRadiation Injury	Vol-3-155
Immunological Effects in the Cleanup Workers\r	Vol-3-158
Immunological Effects in the Population Exposed to Internal Irradiation\r	Vol-3-162
Further Reading	Vol-3-164
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-164
Chapter 17. Impact of Mass Casualties Resulting from Radiation Exposure on Healthcare Systems\r	Vol-3-165
Introduction	Vol-3-165
Early Events after Detonation of a Nuclear Weapon\r	Vol-3-166
Impact of IND Detonation onInfrastructure	Vol-3-166
US Federal Response to a RadiologicalIncident	Vol-3-167
Integration of Health Care System Services with the Community Response\r	Vol-3-167
Surge Capacity	Vol-3-168
Command and Control for Managing a Nuclear Detonation Disaster\r	Vol-3-169
Design of Triage and Treatment Areas	Vol-3-169
Patient Triage and Decontamination	Vol-3-170
Recognition of Acute RadiationSyndrome	Vol-3-172
Management of ARS	Vol-3-173
Protection of Health Care Personnel	Vol-3-175
Residual Radiation Injury	Vol-3-176
Summary	Vol-3-176
Acknowledgments	Vol-3-176
Further Reading	Vol-3-176
Chapter 18. Impact of Natural Dusts on Human Health\r	Vol-3-178
Introduction	Vol-3-178
Dust Sources, Characteristics, and Dispersion Pathways\r	Vol-3-178
Health Outcomes from Chemical Toxicants in Natural Dusts\r	Vol-3-181
Health Outcomes from Bioaerosols and Pathogens in Natural Dusts\r	Vol-3-185
Indirect Health Risks of Natural Dusts	Vol-3-185
Further Reading	Vol-3-185
Chapter 19. Indonesia: Threats to the Country’s Biodiversity\r	Vol-3-187
Introduction	Vol-3-187
Marine	Vol-3-188
Human Activities	Vol-3-188
Natural Disturbances	Vol-3-191
Terrestrial	Vol-3-193
Further Reading	Vol-3-195
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-197
Chapter 20. Indoor Air Pollution Attributed to Solid Fuel Use for Heating and Cooking and Cancer Risk\r	Vol-3-198
Solid Fuel Usage	Vol-3-198
Disease Burden	Vol-3-198
Exposures Associated with In-Home Fuel Combustion\r	Vol-3-198
Associated Cancers	Vol-3-198
Genetic Susceptibility	Vol-3-199
Interventions	Vol-3-199
Future Research	Vol-3-199
Further Reading	Vol-3-200
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-200
Chapter 21. Indoor Air Pollution: Unusual Sources\r	Vol-3-201
Introduction	Vol-3-201
Incense	Vol-3-201
Candle	Vol-3-204
Mosquito Coil	Vol-3-205
Other Unusual Sources of Indoor Air Pollution\r	Vol-3-205
Real-World Scenarios and Health Effects	Vol-3-206
Further Reading	Vol-3-207
Chapter 22. Indoor Radon Prevention and Mitigation\r	Vol-3-208
Introduction	Vol-3-208
Radon Source and Transport	Vol-3-208
Prevention and Mitigation Design Criteria	Vol-3-209
Radon Prevention	Vol-3-209
Radon Prevention Techniques	Vol-3-210
Radon Mitigation	Vol-3-212
Building Investigation and Diagnostics	Vol-3-214
Radon Mitigation Techniques	Vol-3-215
Further Reading	Vol-3-217
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-217
Chapter 23. Industrial Livestock Production Facilities: Airborne Emissions\r	Vol-3-218
Gaseous and Vapor-Phase Pollutants	Vol-3-218
Airborne Particulate Matter and Bioaerosols\r	Vol-3-221
Measurements of Gases, Vapors, and Odors\r	Vol-3-224
Particulate Matter and Bioaerosol Measurements\r	Vol-3-224
Conclusion	Vol-3-225
Further Reading	Vol-3-225
Chapter 24. Infectious/Medical/Hospital Waste: General Characteristics\r	Vol-3-227
Introduction	Vol-3-227
Characteristics of Medical Waste	Vol-3-227
Potential Risks and Pathways	Vol-3-229
Current Practices and Strategy of Medical Waste Management in the Developing Countries\r	Vol-3-230
Further Reading	Vol-3-231
Chapter 25. Infectious Processes and Medical Geology\r	Vol-3-232
Introduction	Vol-3-232
Geologic Determinants of Earliest Microbes: Living Rocks and Primeval Soup\r	Vol-3-233
Direct Interactions with Natural Geologic Transmission Environments\r	Vol-3-234
Anthropogenically Modified Geologic Transmission Environments\r	Vol-3-235
Geologic Transmission Environments and Ecosystem Disruption\r	Vol-3-236
Geologic Determinants of Extraterrestrial Microbial Life\r	Vol-3-238
Further Reading	Vol-3-238
Chapter 26. Inhaled Woodsmoke\r	Vol-3-240
Introduction	Vol-3-240
Chemical Composition of Woodsmoke	Vol-3-241
Extent of the Problem	Vol-3-242
Health Effects	Vol-3-243
Conclusions and Recommendations	Vol-3-247
Further Reading	Vol-3-248
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-248
Chapter 27. Insect Repellents: Assessment of Health Risks\r	Vol-3-249
Introduction	Vol-3-249
Compounds	Vol-3-249
Conclusion	Vol-3-252
Further Reading	Vol-3-253
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-253
Chapter 28. Integrated Management of Source Water Quantity and Quality for Human Health in a Changing World\r	Vol-3-254
Introduction	Vol-3-254
Source Water Quantity	Vol-3-254
Source Water Quality	Vol-3-259
Integrated Management of Water Sources	Vol-3-262
Alternative Water Sources	Vol-3-263
Further Reading	Vol-3-265
Chapter 29. Intercontinental Air Pollution Transport: Links to Environmental Health\r	Vol-3-266
Introduction	Vol-3-266
Health Impacts of Intercontinental Ozone Transport\r	Vol-3-267
Intercontinental Transport of Particulate Matter\r	Vol-3-268
Intercontinental Transport of Mercury	Vol-3-269
Conclusion	Vol-3-272
Further Reading	Vol-3-272
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-272
Chapter 30. International Environmental Agreements and Environmental Health\r	Vol-3-273
Introduction and Overview	Vol-3-273
Political Economy of International Environmental Agreements\r	Vol-3-274
Monitoring, Reporting, and Enforcement	Vol-3-276
Coordination and Its Failures	Vol-3-277
Other International Agreements with Environmental and Health Implications\r	Vol-3-278
Conclusion	Vol-3-278
Further Reading	Vol-3-279
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-279
Chapter 31. Iodine in the Environment\r	Vol-3-280
Introduction	Vol-3-280
Biogeochemical Cycling of Iodine	Vol-3-280
Contribution of Technology to Contamination of the Environment\r	Vol-3-282
Potential Sources of Iodine	Vol-3-282
Functions of Iodine in Humans	Vol-3-283
Further Reading	Vol-3-287
Chapter 32. Ionizing Radiation Exposure: Psychological and Mental Health Aspects\r	Vol-3-288
Introduction	Vol-3-288
The Basis for Radiation FearsIn	Vol-3-288
How Mythology Affects What People Believe about Radiation\r	Vol-3-288
Why Are Radiation Myths So Popular?	Vol-3-291
The Power of Images behind Fears of Radiation Consequences\r	Vol-3-291
The Gift of Fear	Vol-3-292
How We Learns about Radiation	Vol-3-292
The Importance of Memory	Vol-3-293
Comparisons with Antique Items	Vol-3-293
How to Deal with Images That Drive People’s Concerns for Radiation\r	Vol-3-293
Hearing, Identifying, and Reflecting People’s Feelings about Radiation\r	Vol-3-294
Reflecting People’s Feelings about Radiation\r	Vol-3-294
The Most Powerful Tool for Effective Radiation Risk Communication: ActiveListening\r	Vol-3-295
Why Not Just Tell Workers, ‘‘It Is Safe’’?	Vol-3-296
Further Reading	Vol-3-296
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-296
Chapter 33. Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Environmental and Influence on Human Health\r	Vol-3-297
Introduction	Vol-3-297
Contradictions between Food Security, Water Scarcity, and Environment Sustainability\r	Vol-3-297
Freshwater Resources: The Green Water and the Blue Water Concept\r	Vol-3-298
Irrigation and Food Security	Vol-3-298
Impacts of Irrigation on Environmental and Human Health\r	Vol-3-299
Development of Environment-FriendlyWater-Saving Irrigation Strategies	Vol-3-301
Conclusions	Vol-3-302
Further Reading	Vol-3-303
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-303
Chapter 34. Issues and Challenges for Determining Environmental Risk Factorsand Causes of Disease Among Children\r	Vol-3-304
Introduction	Vol-3-304
The Changing Epidemiology of Childhood Disease\r	Vol-3-304
The Need for Research and Prevention	Vol-3-306
Prospective Birth Cohorts	Vol-3-306
Concluding Thoughts	Vol-3-306
Further Reading	Vol-3-307
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-307
Chapter 35. Itai-Itai Disease\r	Vol-3-308
Introduction	Vol-3-308
Epidemiology	Vol-3-308
Environmental Pollution due to Cd in Itai-Itai Disease Endemic Districts	Vol-3-309
Clinical Picture of Itai-Itai Disease	Vol-3-311
Mechanism of Renal and Bone Injury Caused by Cd Exposure\r	Vol-3-312
Factors Related to the Development ofItai-Itai Disease	Vol-3-313
Itai-Itai Disease in Cd-Polluted RegionsOther Than the Jinzu River Basin	Vol-3-313
Social Issues Associated with Itai-Itai Disease\r	Vol-3-313
Further Reading	Vol-3-314
PART 3: J\r	Vol-3-315
Chapter 36. Jamaica: Heavy Metals in the Natural and Anthropic Environments\r	Vol-3-315
Introduction	Vol-3-315
Geochemistry and Health	Vol-3-315
Heavy Metals in Jamaican Soils	Vol-3-317
Further Reading	Vol-3-322
Chapter 37. Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air\r	Vol-3-323
Introduction	Vol-3-323
Water Resources and Their Qualities	Vol-3-324
Soil Quality	Vol-3-328
Air Pollution in Jordan	Vol-3-331
Conclusion	Vol-3-333
Further Reading	Vol-3-333
PART 4: K\r	Vol-3-335
Chapter 38. Kuwait: Before and After the Gulf War\r	Vol-3-335
Introduction	Vol-3-335
Environmental Quality Before 1990	Vol-3-336
Health Issues	Vol-3-337
Conclusions	Vol-3-343
Further Reading	Vol-3-343
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-343
PART 5: L\r	Vol-3-345
Chapter 39. Labelling of Genetically Modified Foods\r	Vol-3-345
Introduction	Vol-3-345
Further Reading	Vol-3-352
Chapter 40. Land Disposal of Wastes\r	Vol-3-353
Introduction	Vol-3-353
Waste Classification	Vol-3-353
Waste Land Disposal Basics	Vol-3-354
Health Effects Associated with WasteLand Disposal and Land Application	Vol-3-355
Routes of Contamination and Exposure	Vol-3-357
Mitigation of Health Effects	Vol-3-359
Further Reading	Vol-3-360
Chapter 41. Land Quality: Environmental and Human Health Effects\r	Vol-3-362
Introduction	Vol-3-362
Definition and Scopes	Vol-3-362
Indicators to Measure Land Quality	Vol-3-362
Factors Affecting Land Quality	Vol-3-364
Further Reading	Vol-3-364
Chapter 42. Landscape Epidemiology of Human Onchocerciasis in SouthernVenezuela\r	Vol-3-366
Introduction: The Impact ofOnchocerciasis on Human Health	Vol-3-366
Onchocerciasis: A Vector-Borne Disease	Vol-3-366
The Lifecycle of Simulium	Vol-3-366
Vector Bionomy and Transmission	Vol-3-367
The Lifecycle of O. volvulus	Vol-3-368
Onchocerca–Simulium Complexes	Vol-3-368
Focal Geographical Distribution of LatinAmerican Foci	Vol-3-369
Parasite, Vector, and Human Populationsas Part of the Disease Ecosystem	Vol-3-369
Remote Sensing, GeographicalInformation Systems, and LandscapeEpidemiology	Vol-3-370
A Case Study: Onchocerciasis in theSouthern (Amazonian) Venezuelan Focus	Vol-3-370
Concluding Remarks and FutureDirections	Vol-3-378
Further Reading	Vol-3-379
Chapter 43. Landslides: Human Health Effects\r	Vol-3-380
Introduction	Vol-3-380
Landslide Causes and Triggers	Vol-3-381
Global Distribution	Vol-3-387
Few Notable Landslide Types andDisasters	Vol-3-388
Landslide-Generated Tsunamis	Vol-3-393
Economic Impacts of Landslides	Vol-3-393
Benefits of Landslides (Landslides asNatural Disturbance Agents)	Vol-3-394
The Future	Vol-3-394
Landslide Mitigation	Vol-3-394
Further Reading	Vol-3-394
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-395
Chapter 44. Land Use Change and Human Health\r	Vol-3-396
Introduction	Vol-3-396
Deforestation	Vol-3-396
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry	Vol-3-400
Dams and Irrigation Projects	Vol-3-402
Roads	Vol-3-403
Urbanization	Vol-3-403
Conclusion	Vol-3-404
Further Reading	Vol-3-404
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-404
Chapter 45. Lead and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder\r	Vol-3-405
Effects of Lead Exposure: Update andBackground	Vol-3-405
ADHD	Vol-3-406
Association of Lead Exposure and ADHD	Vol-3-408
Conclusion	Vol-3-410
Further Reading	Vol-3-410
Chapter 46. Lead, Deliquency and Violence\r	Vol-3-412
Introduction	Vol-3-412
Intelligence and Violence	Vol-3-413
Epidemiological Studies on Lead andViolence	Vol-3-413
Biological Mechanisms	Vol-3-418
Conclusions	Vol-3-419
Further Reading	Vol-3-419
Chapter 47. Lead Exposure and Caries in Children\r	Vol-3-421
Introduction	Vol-3-421
Dental Caries	Vol-3-421
Sources of Lead and Exposure Routes	Vol-3-421
Health Effects of Lead	Vol-3-423
Linkage between Tooth Decay andChildhood Lead Exposure	Vol-3-423
Caries and Minerals	Vol-3-424
Evidence of Relationship between Leadand Caries	Vol-3-424
Possible Mechanisms of Lead as a RiskFactor for Caries	Vol-3-424
Environment in Oral Cavity	Vol-3-425
Tooth Susceptibility	Vol-3-426
Interference with Oral Bacteria	Vol-3-427
Conclusion	Vol-3-428
Further Reading	Vol-3-428
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-429
Chapter 48. Lead Exposure and Female Infertility\r	Vol-3-430
Environmental Lead Exposure	Vol-3-430
The Routes of Lead Absorption in Humans	Vol-3-430
Indicators of Lead Exposure and theHealth Hazardous Effects	Vol-3-430
The Toxicity of Lower Lead Exposure onthe Reproductive System	Vol-3-431
Epidemiological Studies on Human’s Reproductive Toxicity of Lead\r	Vol-3-431
An Empirical Study of Low-Level LeadExposure in Taiwan	Vol-3-432
Summary	Vol-3-434
Further Reading	Vol-3-434
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-435
Chapter 49. Lebanon: Health Valuation of Water Pollution at the Upper LitaniRiver Basin\r	Vol-3-436
Introduction	Vol-3-436
Study Area Characterization	Vol-3-436
Methodology	Vol-3-439
Results and Discussion	Vol-3-441
Cost–Benefit Analysis	Vol-3-444
Conclusion and Limitations	Vol-3-445
Acknowledgments	Vol-3-446
Further Reading	Vol-3-446
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-447
Chapter 50. Legionnaires’ Disease: Environmental Risk Factors\r	Vol-3-448
Introduction	Vol-3-448
Habitats of Legionella	Vol-3-448
Influence of Temperature	Vol-3-449
Heating Units	Vol-3-449
Age of Houses	Vol-3-449
Influence of pH, Iron, Calcium, andMagnesium	Vol-3-449
Influence of Organic Matter	Vol-3-449
Biofilms	Vol-3-450
Influence of Chlorine	Vol-3-450
Relation of Health Condition toLegionnaires’ Disease	Vol-3-451
A Case Experienced in Japan	Vol-3-451
Conclusion	Vol-3-451
Further Reading	Vol-3-451
Chapter 51. Leishmaniases\r	Vol-3-453
Leishmaniases: Neglected Public HealthProblems	Vol-3-453
Leishmaniases: A Range of Ill-ControlledDiseases	Vol-3-455
Complex Epidemiology of Leishmaniases	Vol-3-459
Emerging Trends in Leishmaniasis	Vol-3-470
Current Prospects in Control ofLeishmaniases	Vol-3-473
Further Reading	Vol-3-480
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-480
Chapter 52. Leishmaniasis and Environment in Argentina: AnEco-Epidemiological Approach\r	Vol-3-481
Introduction	Vol-3-481
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis andEnvironment	Vol-3-481
Medical Anthropology and ACL: WhenDisease Comes from Nature	Vol-3-487
ACL risk as a ‘Labor-EnvironmentalDisease’	Vol-3-488
Risk Destroys Control and Predictabilityover Environment	Vol-3-488
Risk Interpretation as an Answer toUncertainty	Vol-3-488
Defining Risk Makes Something InvisibleVisible	Vol-3-489
Risk is Probability	Vol-3-489
Further Remarks	Vol-3-489
Further Reading	Vol-3-490
Chapter 53. Life Course Epidemiology and Inequality in Health\r	Vol-3-491
The Life Course and the Environment	Vol-3-491
Strengths of the Life Course Approach	Vol-3-491
Life Course Models of Health and Disease	Vol-3-492
Sources of Information on the Life Course	Vol-3-493
Life Course and Disease: Present State ofKnowledge	Vol-3-494
‘Selection’ in the Life Course	Vol-3-495
Evidence on Indirect Selection	Vol-3-496
Societal Institutions and the Life Course	Vol-3-497
Acknowledgments	Vol-3-497
Further Reading	Vol-3-497
Chapter 54. Lithium: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects\r	Vol-3-499
Introduction	Vol-3-499
Sources of Lithium	Vol-3-500
Lithium Chemicals	Vol-3-502
Sources and Routes of Lithium Exposure	Vol-3-503
Toxicity and Health Effects of LithiumExposure	Vol-3-504
Epidemiology	Vol-3-504
Environmental Pollution and Toxicology	Vol-3-505
Conclusion	Vol-3-507
Further Reading	Vol-3-507
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-507
Chapter 55. Liver Toxicology	Vol-3-509
Introduction	Vol-3-509
Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)	Vol-3-509
Mushroom Hepatotoxins	Vol-3-512
Fungal Hepatotoxins	Vol-3-512
Hepatotoxic Metals	Vol-3-513
Plant Hepatotoxins	Vol-3-513
Organic Environmental Pollutants	Vol-3-514
Further Reading	Vol-3-514
Chapter 56. Long-Range Transport and Deposition of Air Pollution\r	Vol-3-515
Introduction	Vol-3-515
Transboundary Air Pollution	Vol-3-515
Intercontinental Transport of Air Pollution	Vol-3-516
Source–Receptor Relationships	Vol-3-517
Historical and Projected EmissionChanges	Vol-3-518
Summary	Vol-3-519
Further Reading	Vol-3-519
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-519
Chapter 57. Long-Term Effects of Particulate Air Pollution on Human Health\r	Vol-3-520
Introduction	Vol-3-520
Further Reading	Vol-3-527
Chapter 58. Lyme Disease\r	Vol-3-528
Introduction	Vol-3-528
The Pathogen and the Tick	Vol-3-528
Forest Patches	Vol-3-529
Dilution Effect	Vol-3-530
The Edge Effect	Vol-3-530
Acorn and Lyme Disease	Vol-3-531
Recent Changes in the GeographicalDistribution of Ixodes Ticks	Vol-3-531
Conclusions and Implications	Vol-3-532
Further Reading	Vol-3-533
PART 6: M\r	Vol-3-535
Chapter 59. Magnesium and Calcium in Drinking Water and Heart Diseases\r	Vol-3-535
Introduction	Vol-3-535
Regional CVD Mortality and Morbidity	Vol-3-535
Water Intake	Vol-3-536
Magnesium and Calcium Intake	Vol-3-536
Physiology of Magnesium and Calcium	Vol-3-537
Magnesium and Calcium Deficiency	Vol-3-538
Water Hardness	Vol-3-538
Environmental Elements Affecting Mgand Ca Level in Drinking Water	Vol-3-539
Magnesium, Calcium, and WaterHardness in Drinking Water in Relation toHeart Diseases	Vol-3-540
Perspective on Public Health	Vol-3-543
Further Reading	Vol-3-543
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-544
Chapter 60. Magnetic Fields: Possible Environmental Health Effects\r	Vol-3-545
Electromagnetic Fields Describe Forceson Electrical Charges	Vol-3-545
Lines of Scientific Inquiry into HealthEffects of Magnetic Fields	Vol-3-547
Expert Panel Reviews of Magnetic Fieldsand Environmental Effects	Vol-3-549
Current Quantitative Guidelines onMagnetic Fields (and Electric Fields)	Vol-3-553
Ecological Effects of Magnetic Fields	Vol-3-553
Further Reading	Vol-3-556
Chapter 61. Malaria as an Environmental Disease\r	Vol-3-558
Introduction	Vol-3-558
Mosquito Ecology and Limiting Factors onVector Life Cycle	Vol-3-558
Environmental Factors That Increase Riskof Malaria Transmission	Vol-3-560
Malaria Prevention and ControlStrategies through EnvironmentalManagement	Vol-3-564
Conclusions	Vol-3-566
Further Reading	Vol-3-566
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-567
Chapter 62. Malaria, Bilharzia and Geo-Helminth Transmission in Kenya:Environmental Determinants\r	Vol-3-568
Introduction	Vol-3-568
Policy on Environmental Health in Kenya\r	Vol-3-569
Environment and Human Health	Vol-3-569
Vector-Borne Diseases with SpecialAttention to Malaria	Vol-3-571
Environmental Factors Leading to MalariaRisk	Vol-3-572
Environmental Factors SpreadingBilharzia and Geohelminths in Kenya	Vol-3-573
Household Environmental Health	Vol-3-574
Ecofriendly Malaria Control Interventions	Vol-3-574
Acknowledgments	Vol-3-575
Further Reading	Vol-3-575
Chapter 63. Malaysia: Environmental Health Issues\r	Vol-3-577
Introduction	Vol-3-577
A Brief Scenario of Environmental Health	Vol-3-581
Major Environmental Challenges	Vol-3-582
Major Environmental Health Issues	Vol-3-589
Concluding Remarks	Vol-3-592
Further Reading	Vol-3-594
Chapter 64. Malformations of Cortical Development and Epilepsy in Children\r	Vol-3-595
Introduction	Vol-3-595
Etiology of Malformations of CorticalDevelopment and Epilepsy	Vol-3-596
Gene–Environment Interactions, MCD,and Epilepsy	Vol-3-597
Mitochondria, Cortical Dysplasia, andEpilepsy	Vol-3-600
Conclusion	Vol-3-601
Further Reading	Vol-3-602
Chapter 65. Management and Export of Wastes: Human Health Implications\r	Vol-3-603
Introduction	Vol-3-603
Globalization of Waste Management	Vol-3-603
Trends in Waste Production, WasteStatistics	Vol-3-605
Waste Classification Systems	Vol-3-605
Recent Waste Management Strategy	Vol-3-606
Waste Recovery and TreatmentTechniques	Vol-3-607
Insufficiencies in Waste Management andRisk to Environment and Human Health	Vol-3-610
Further Reading	Vol-3-611
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-611
Chapter 66. Manganese: Environmental Exposure\r	Vol-3-612
Introduction	Vol-3-612
Sources of Manganese Intake	Vol-3-612
Manganese Toxicity in the GeneralPopulation	Vol-3-612
Manganese Toxicity in Pregnant Womenand Neonates	Vol-3-613
Diagnosis of Manganese Toxicity andIndices of Exposure	Vol-3-614
A Biologically Based Dose–ResponseModel	Vol-3-614
Conclusion	Vol-3-616
Further Reading	Vol-3-616
Chapter 67. Manganese: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects\r	Vol-3-617
Introduction	Vol-3-617
Sources of Manganese	Vol-3-618
Pharmacokinetics of Manganese	Vol-3-619
Absorption and Toxicity of Manganese	Vol-3-619
Disorders Resulting from ManganeseDeficiency	Vol-3-622
Disorders Resulting from ExcessiveExposure to Manganese	Vol-3-623
Concerns about Community Exposure toEnvironmental Manganese	Vol-3-625
Manganese Toxicity: Future ResearchPriorities	Vol-3-627
Further Reading	Vol-3-628
Chapter 68. Maternal and Child Health Disparities: Environmental Contribution\r	Vol-3-630
Introduction	Vol-3-630
Connection between EnvironmentalPollutants and MCH Disparities	Vol-3-630
Connection between Individual andPlace-Based Stressors and BirthOutcomes	Vol-3-631
‘Double Jeopardy’: Interplay betweenEnvironmental and SocioeconomicStressors	Vol-3-631
Physiological Mechanisms	Vol-3-631
Evidence from Epidemiological Studies	Vol-3-632
Implications for Environmental Policy andJustice	Vol-3-633
Further Reading	Vol-3-633
Chapter 69. Measurement of Air Pollutants\r	Vol-3-635
Introduction	Vol-3-635
Commonly Monitored AtmosphericPollutants	Vol-3-636
Pollutant Measurement Techniques	Vol-3-639
Measurement of Particulate Matter	Vol-3-642
Long-Term Monitoring of GlobalPollutants	Vol-3-644
Summary	Vol-3-644
Further Reading	Vol-3-645
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-645
Chapter 70. Measuring Noise for Health Impact Assessment\r	Vol-3-646
Introduction	Vol-3-646
Noise Measurement: Common Practice	Vol-3-646
Noise Measurement: Some CriticalRemarks and Foresights	Vol-3-648
Where Should Exposure to EnvironmentalNoise Be Determined?	Vol-3-648
Noise Monitoring Networks andCalculated Noise Maps	Vol-3-649
Population Exposure	Vol-3-652
Further Reading	Vol-3-653
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-654
Chapter 71. Mechanisms of Environmental Carcinogenesis\r	Vol-3-655
Introduction	Vol-3-655
What are Environmental Carcinogens?	Vol-3-655
Distinction between Exogenous andEndogenous Carcinogens	Vol-3-655
Distinction between Lifestyle-RelatedRisk Factors and Cancer-Causing Agents	Vol-3-656
General Mechanisms of Carcinogens	Vol-3-656
Specific Mechanisms of EnvironmentalCarcinogens	Vol-3-658
Search for Basic Properties andMechanisms Common to EnvironmentalCarcinogens	Vol-3-662
Conclusion	Vol-3-664
Further Reading	Vol-3-664
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-665
Chapter 72. Mechanisms of Immune Modulation by Xenobiotics\r	Vol-3-666
Introduction	Vol-3-666
Relevance of Animal Models for HumanRisk Evaluation	Vol-3-667
Developmental Immunotoxicology	Vol-3-667
Mechanisms of Immunomodulation byOrganic Xenobiotics	Vol-3-668
Biomarkers for the Prediction ofPathogenesis	Vol-3-670
Mechanisms of Immunomodulation byHeavy Metals	Vol-3-671
Conclusions and Outlook for FutureResearch	Vol-3-672
Further Reading	Vol-3-673
Chapter 73. Medical Anthropology\r	Vol-3-674
Introduction and Relevance	Vol-3-674
Methods and Framing	Vol-3-674
Key Concepts	Vol-3-675
Future Directions for MedicalAnthropology	Vol-3-679
Further Reading	Vol-3-682
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-682
Chapter 74. Mental Health Effects of Noise\r	Vol-3-683
Introduction	Vol-3-683
Definition of Noise	Vol-3-683
Noise Exposure Assessment	Vol-3-683
Noise Annoyance	Vol-3-683
Mechanism for the Effects of Noise onMental Health	Vol-3-684
Scope of the Review	Vol-3-684
Conclusions	Vol-3-688
Further Reading	Vol-3-688
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-689
Chapter 75. Mercury in Air\r	Vol-3-690
Background	Vol-3-690
Chemistry of Mercury in Air	Vol-3-690
Sources of Atmospheric Mercury	Vol-3-691
Atmospheric Transport and Deposition ofMercury	Vol-3-692
Concentration Levels of Atmospheric Hgunder the Influence of AnthropogenicSources	Vol-3-693
Long-Term Trends of AtmosphericMercury	Vol-3-693
Mercury Exposure and its Impact onPublic Health	Vol-3-695
Acknowledgments	Vol-3-696
Further Reading	Vol-3-696
Chapter 76. Mercury in Fish: Human Health Risks\r	Vol-3-697
Introduction	Vol-3-697
Factors for Increased Mercury Levels inEnvironment and Fish	Vol-3-697
MeHg Intake from Fish Consumption	Vol-3-698
Kinetics of MeHg	Vol-3-699
Hair as Biomarker for MeHg Exposure	Vol-3-700
Toxicity of MeHg	Vol-3-700
Fish Consumption and Child Development	Vol-3-701
Health Agency Efforts to Establish SafeLevels of MeHg Exposure	Vol-3-702
Benefits of Fish Consumption	Vol-3-702
Balancing Benefits and Risks	Vol-3-703
Conclusions	Vol-3-704
Further Reading	Vol-3-704
Chapter 77. Mercury Toxicity\r	Vol-3-705
Forms of Mercury	Vol-3-705
Mercury in Environment	Vol-3-705
Speciation of Mercury	Vol-3-706
Mercury in Food and Drugs	Vol-3-707
Absorption of Mercury	Vol-3-707
Distribution of Mercury in the Body	Vol-3-707
Metabolism and Excretion of Mercury	Vol-3-708
Tests for Mercury Exposure	Vol-3-708
Effect of Mercury	Vol-3-708
Modification of Mercury Toxicity	Vol-3-712
Conclusion	Vol-3-712
Further Reading	Vol-3-712
Chapter 78. Metal-Induced Toxicologic Pathology: Human Exposure and RiskAssessment\r	Vol-3-713
Introduction	Vol-3-713
Geogenic Arsenic	Vol-3-713
Metal Fragments: Depleted Uranium	Vol-3-715
Tungsten and Tungsten Alloys	Vol-3-716
Metal Implants: Cobalt–Chromium andTitanium–Nickel	Vol-3-717
Environmental Thallium	Vol-3-718
Acknowledgment	Vol-3-720
Further Reading	Vol-3-720
Chapter 79. Methodologies for Assessing Bioaerosol Exposures\r	Vol-3-722
Introduction	Vol-3-722
Bioaerosol Types	Vol-3-723
General Principles of ExposureAssessment	Vol-3-725
Bioaerosol Sampling	Vol-3-726
Bioaerosol Analysis	Vol-3-728
Data Interpretation	Vol-3-730
Further Reading	Vol-3-730
Chapter 80. Methods for Estimating Exposure to Metals in Drinking Water\r	Vol-3-731
Introduction	Vol-3-731
Water Consumption Surveys	Vol-3-731
Methods to Estimate Exposure to Metalsin Drinking Water	Vol-3-733
Conclusions	Vol-3-737
Acknowledgments	Vol-3-737
Further Reading	Vol-3-737
Chapter 81. Mexican Epidemiological Paradox: A Developing Country with aBurden of ‘‘Richness’’ Diseases\r	Vol-3-738
Introduction	Vol-3-738
Economic Background	Vol-3-738
Mexican Health System	Vol-3-739
Population Issues	Vol-3-739
Nutrition Issues	Vol-3-740
Other Lifestyle Features	Vol-3-741
Somatometric Transition	Vol-3-741
Mortality Due to CardiometabolicDiseases	Vol-3-742
Metabolic Syndrome in Adults andChildren	Vol-3-743
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus	Vol-3-743
Hypertension	Vol-3-744
Dyslipidemia	Vol-3-745
Ischemic Heart Disease and Stroke	Vol-3-746
Conclusions	Vol-3-747
Further Reading	Vol-3-748
Chapter 82. Microbes and Water Quality in Developed Countries\r	Vol-3-749
Introduction	Vol-3-749
Sources of MicroorganismsContaminating Drinking Water	Vol-3-751
Microorganisms Typically Found inDrinking Water	Vol-3-754
Further Reading	Vol-3-756
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-756
Chapter 83. Microbial Risks Associated with Biogas and Biodigestor Sludge\r	Vol-3-757
Introduction	Vol-3-757
Biodigestion	Vol-3-757
Hygiene Risk of Outgoing Material	Vol-3-759
Further Reading	Vol-3-764
Chapter 84. Microwaves: Exposure and Potential Health Consequences\r	Vol-3-765
Introduction	Vol-3-766
Exposure Limits	Vol-3-766
Biological Effects	Vol-3-767
Conclusions	Vol-3-772
Further Reading	Vol-3-773
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-773
Chapter 85. Minamata Disease\r	Vol-3-774
Introduction	Vol-3-774
Prologue of Minamata Disease	Vol-3-774
Official Record of Minamata Disease	Vol-3-775
Descriptive Study on the Strange Disease	Vol-3-776
What was the Causal Agent?	Vol-3-776
Messages from the Newborn	Vol-3-777
Company’s Defense	Vol-3-777
Attitudes of the Government toward theDisease	Vol-3-778
Implication of Minamata Disease	Vol-3-779
Epilogue	Vol-3-780
Further Reading	Vol-3-780
Chapter 86. Mineral and Fuel Extraction: Health Consequences\r	Vol-3-781
Introduction	Vol-3-781
Health Risks from Mining-GeneratedToxicants	Vol-3-782
Health Risks from Geotechnical andStructural Mining Processes	Vol-3-786
Indirect and Delayed Health Risks	Vol-3-786
Conclusion	Vol-3-787
Further Reading	Vol-3-787
Chapter 87. Mining Activities: Health Impacts\r	Vol-3-788
Introduction	Vol-3-790
Mining Operations	Vol-3-790
Mine Closure	Vol-3-792
Abandoned Mines	Vol-3-793
Mining Health Impacts	Vol-3-793
Initiatives to Reduce Mining Impacts	Vol-3-800
Legislation	Vol-3-801
Future Directions	Vol-3-802
Further Reading	Vol-3-802
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-802
Chapter 88. Mobile Source Related Air Pollution: Effects on Health and theEnvironment\r	Vol-3-803
Local Health Concerns	Vol-3-803
Particulate Matter	Vol-3-803
Ozone	Vol-3-804
Nitrogen Dioxide	Vol-3-805
Sulfur Dioxide	Vol-3-806
Summary of the Updated WHO AQGLevels	Vol-3-807
Carbon Monoxide	Vol-3-807
Air Toxics	Vol-3-807
Further Reading	Vol-3-809
Chapter 89. Modeling Exposure to Disinfection ByProducts\r	Vol-3-810
Introduction	Vol-3-810
Modeling the Environmental Occurrenceof DBPs in Drinking Water	Vol-3-811
Toxicokinetic Modeling Profile forTrihalomethanes in Humans	Vol-3-814
Further Reading	Vol-3-819
Chapter 90. Models of Human Exposure to Environmental Contaminants\r	Vol-3-820
Introduction	Vol-3-820
Exposure Modeling	Vol-3-821
Route-Specific Exposure Models	Vol-3-823
Advanced Exposure Models:Multiple-Route (Aggregate) Models	Vol-3-827
Discussion	Vol-3-828
Conclusions	Vol-3-829
Further Reading	Vol-3-829
Chapter 91. Modulation of Human Mobile Elements and Genetic Instability byEnvironmental Factors\r	Vol-3-831
Introduction	Vol-3-831
Human Mobile Elements	Vol-3-831
Overall Impact of Mobile ElementInsertions on the Genome	Vol-3-832
Genetic Instability Due to Mobile ElementExpression	Vol-3-833
Cellular Controls of Mobile ElementActivity	Vol-3-835
Environmental Factors Affect MobileElement Activity	Vol-3-835
Conclusion	Vol-3-839
Further Reading	Vol-3-839
Chapter 92. Molybdenum in the Environment and its Relevance for Animal andHuman Health\r	Vol-3-840
Introduction	Vol-3-840
Molybdenum Metabolism in Humans	Vol-3-841
Exposures to High Levels of Molybdenum	Vol-3-841
Essentiality of Molybdenum	Vol-3-843
Molybdenum Interactions with OtherElements	Vol-3-844
Importance of Molybdenum and ItsCompounds for Human Health	Vol-3-845
Further Reading	Vol-3-846
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-846
Chapter 93. Monetary Valuation of Greenhouse Gases\r	Vol-3-847
Introduction	Vol-3-847
Monetary Valuation of Greenhouse Gases	Vol-3-848
Case Studies	Vol-3-852
Conclusions	Vol-3-854
Further Reading	Vol-3-855
Chapter 94. Monetary Valuation of Trace Pollutants\r	Vol-3-856
Introduction	Vol-3-856
Dispersion Models	Vol-3-857
Exposure–Response Functions	Vol-3-858
Monetary Valuation	Vol-3-861
Case Studies	Vol-3-865
Uncertainties	Vol-3-866
Further Reading	Vol-3-868
Chapter 95. Mozambique: Environment and Health in One of the World’sPoorest Nations\r	Vol-3-870
General	Vol-3-870
Biodiversity and Environmental PolicyFramework	Vol-3-872
Environmental Problems	Vol-3-875
Conclusion	Vol-3-879
Further Reading	Vol-3-879
Relevant Websites	Vol-3-879
Chapter 96. Mutagenicity of PM2.5\r	Vol-3-880
Introduction	Vol-3-881
Source and Composition of the PM2.5	Vol-3-881
PM2.5 Exposure	Vol-3-882
Health Effects of PM2.5	Vol-3-883
Mutagens and Genotoxic Compounds inPM2.5	Vol-3-883
Evaluation of PM2.5 Mutagenicity aroundthe World	Vol-3-885
Perspectives	Vol-3-886
Further Reading	Vol-3-887
Chapter 97. Mycotoxins in Foods\r	Vol-3-888
Introduction	Vol-3-888
Aflatoxins	Vol-3-889
Deoxynivalenol	Vol-3-889
Ergot Alkaloids	Vol-3-890
Fumonisins	Vol-3-891
Ochratoxins	Vol-3-891
Patulin	Vol-3-892
Zearalenone	Vol-3-892
Methods of Determination	Vol-3-893
Prevention	Vol-3-893
Regulatory Control of Mycotoxins	Vol-3-894
Economic Impact	Vol-3-896
Future Research	Vol-3-896
Further Reading	Vol-3-897
Chapter 98. Mycotoxins: Natural Food Chain Contaminants and Human Health\r	Vol-3-898
Introduction	Vol-3-898
Fungi and Mycotoxin Production	Vol-3-898
Mycotoxins and Disease	Vol-3-900
Mycotoxins and Human Health	Vol-3-900
Chronic Effects of Mycotoxins in HumanPopulations	Vol-3-902
Monitoring Mycotoxin Contamination andExposure	Vol-3-903
Approaches to Reducing Mycotoxin Risk	Vol-3-903
Other Considerations	Vol-3-904
Further Reading	Vol-3-905
Volume 4	Vol-4-Cover
Front Cover	Vol-4-Cover
Encyclopedia of Environmental Health	Vol-4-iii
Copyright Page	Vol-4-iv
EDITORS	Vol-4-v
SECTION EDITORS	Vol-4-vi
CONTRIBUTORS	Vol-4-vii
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA	Vol-4-xiii
SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION	Vol-4-xv
VOLUME 4 CONTENTS	Vol-4-xxv
PREFACE	Vol-4-xxix
Part 1: N	Vol-4-1
Chapter 1. Nanomaterials: Potential Ecological Uses and Effects	Vol-4-1
General Overview	Vol-4-1
Characteristics of Nanomaterials	Vol-4-1
Sources of Nanomaterials in the Environment	Vol-4-2
Measurement of Nanomaterials	Vol-4-3
Surface area	Vol-4-3
Surface reactivity	Vol-4-3
Agglomeration	Vol-4-4
Potential Environmental Uses andExposures	Vol-4-4
Analysis of Potential Ecological Effects	Vol-4-5
Microbial Assays	Vol-4-5
Plants and Soil	Vol-4-5
Aquatic Species	Vol-4-8
Summary	Vol-4-9
Further Reading	Vol-4-10
Chapter 2. Nanoscale Titanium Dioxide: Environmental Health and Ecotoxicological Effects	Vol-4-12
Introduction	Vol-4-12
Human Health	Vol-4-12
Exposure	Vol-4-13
Dermal uptake	Vol-4-13
Inhalation	Vol-4-13
Ingestion	Vol-4-14
Toxicity	Vol-4-14
Mechanism	Vol-4-14
Cellular toxicity	Vol-4-17
Oral toxicity	Vol-4-17
Liver and kidney toxicity	Vol-4-18
Pulmonary toxicity	Vol-4-18
Neurotoxicology	Vol-4-19
Carcinogenic Hazards	Vol-4-19
Epidemiology	Vol-4-19
Ecological Impacts	Vol-4-20
Further Reading	Vol-4-20
Chapter 3. Nano Silver: Environmental Health Effects	Vol-4-22
Further Reading	Vol-4-23
Chapter 4. Nanotechnology: Human Safety Issues, Research Gaps and Potential Beneficial Opportunities	Vol-4-24
General Overview	Vol-4-24
Exposure to Nanomaterials	Vol-4-24
Nanomaterial Characteristics	Vol-4-25
Health Effects of Nanomaterials	Vol-4-26
Respiratory System	Vol-4-26
Cardiovascular Effects	Vol-4-29
Other Organ Systems	Vol-4-29
Use of Nanomaterials in Medicine	Vol-4-30
Molecular Imaging	Vol-4-30
Drug Delivery	Vol-4-30
Anticancer Therapy	Vol-4-31
Gene Therapy	Vol-4-31
Summary	Vol-4-31
Further Reading	Vol-4-31
Chapter 5.Natural Health Products (NHPs)	Vol-4-33
Introduction	Vol-4-33
Brief History	Vol-4-34
Fundamental Concepts	Vol-4-34
Market Trends	Vol-4-35
Research & Development	Vol-4-37
Clinical Trials	Vol-4-40
Regulatory Scenario	Vol-4-42
Further Reading	Vol-4-42
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-43
Chapter 6. Neighborhood Environment, Physical Activity and Obesity	Vol-4-44
Introduction	Vol-4-44
Obesogenic Environments	Vol-4-44
The Neighborhood Environment, Physical Activity, and Obesity	Vol-4-45
Economic Aspects of the Neighborhood Environment	Vol-4-46
Physical Aspects of the Neighborhood Environment	Vol-4-47
Urban form	Vol-4-47
Access to green spaces	Vol-4-48
Access to exercise and leisure facilities	Vol-4-48
Access to shops and services	Vol-4-48
Aesthetics	Vol-4-49
Sociocultural Aspects of the Neighborhood Environment	Vol-4-49
Social networks and support	Vol-4-49
Social capital and cohesion	Vol-4-49
Neighborhood safety	Vol-4-50
Policy Interventions in the Neighborhood Environment	Vol-4-50
Conclusion	Vol-4-51
Further Reading	Vol-4-52
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-53
Chapter 7. Neighborhoods and Birth Outcomes	Vol-4-54
Introduction	Vol-4-54
Infant Health	Vol-4-54
Neighborhood Risks	Vol-4-55
Social Neighborhood Risks	Vol-4-55
Physical Neighborhood Risks	Vol-4-57
The Built Environment	Vol-4-58
Neighborhood Factors and Race/Ethnic Differences in Birth Outcomes	Vol-4-58
Health Care	Vol-4-60
Limitations	Vol-4-61
Future Research	Vol-4-62
Further Reading	Vol-4-62
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-63
Chapter 8. Neighborhoods and Environmental Determinants of Infectious Diseases	Vol-4-64
Introduction	Vol-4-64
How We Study Neighborhood Effects on Infectious Disease	Vol-4-65
Case Studies	Vol-4-68
Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever	Vol-4-68
Cholera	Vol-4-69
Conclusion	Vol-4-70
Further Reading	Vol-4-71
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-71
Chapter 9. Neighbourhood ‘Social Infrastructure’ for Health: The Role of Social Capital, Fear of Crime and Area Reputation	Vol-4-72
Introduction	Vol-4-72
What is a Neighborhood?	Vol-4-72
Social Capital	Vol-4-73
Social Capital, Neighborhoods, and Health	Vol-4-74
Social capital and health	Vol-4-74
How might social capital have an impact on health?	Vol-4-74
Access to social capital	Vol-4-75
Amenities and services – Opportunities for interaction in neighborhoods	Vol-4-75
Fear of Crime and Disorder	Vol-4-75
Reputation	Vol-4-77
Conclusion	Vol-4-77
Further Reading	Vol-4-78
Chapter 10. Neurodevelopmental Toxicants	Vol-4-79
Introduction	Vol-4-79
Lead	Vol-4-80
Methylmercury	Vol-4-81
Flame Retardants	Vol-4-84
Manganese	Vol-4-84
Arsenic	Vol-4-84
Fluoride	Vol-4-84
Pesticides	Vol-4-84
Societal Cost of Environmental Chemical Exposure	Vol-4-85
Conclusions	Vol-4-86
Further Reading	Vol-4-86
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-86
Chapter 11. Neurotoxicology	Vol-4-87
Introduction	Vol-4-87
Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration	Vol-4-88
Excitoxicity	Vol-4-88
Oxidative Stress	Vol-4-89
Mitochondria and Endoplasmic Reticulum	Vol-4-90
Calpain Activation	Vol-4-91
Defining Neurotoxicity	Vol-4-92
Astrogliosis	Vol-4-93
Microgliosis	Vol-4-96
Neuroinflammation	Vol-4-98
Biomarkers: From the Laboratory to the Field	Vol-4-99
Autoimmunity and Neural Proteins in Neuropathology	Vol-4-100
Emerging Challenges	Vol-4-102
Angiogenesis	Vol-4-102
Nanotechnology	Vol-4-103
Further Reading	Vol-4-105
Chapter 12. New Molecular Aspects of Ultraviolet-Induced Immunosuppression	Vol-4-107
Introduction	Vol-4-107
Experimental Models of UV-Induced Immunosuppression	Vol-4-107
Primary Molecular Targets of UVB Radiation	Vol-4-108
Urocanic Acid is Involved in UV-Induced Immunosuppression	Vol-4-109
UV Irradiation Induces Regulatory T Cells	Vol-4-110
UV Irradiation, Malignancy, and Inflammation	Vol-4-111
UV Radiation Induces Cytokine Release	Vol-4-111
Further Reading	Vol-4-112
Chapter 13. Nigeria: Environmental Health Concerns	Vol-4-114
Introduction	Vol-4-114
General Environmental and Public Health Issues in Nige	Vol-4-114
Water	Vol-4-116
Air Pollution	Vol-4-117
Soil	Vol-4-118
Solid Waste Disposal	Vol-4-118
Environmental Quality and Food Contamination	Vol-4-119
Emerging Issues: Climate Change and Health in Nigeria	Vol-4-121
Environmental Remediation Programs in Nigeria: Focus on the Niger Delta	Vol-4-122
Legislation and Environmental Protection in Nigeria	Vol-4-122
Combating Water Pollution and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The Nigerian Experience	Vol-4-123
Conclusion	Vol-4-123
Further Reading	Vol-4-124
Chapter 14. 1976 Trichlorophenol Reactor Explosion at Seveso, Italy	Vol-4-125
Nature, Extent, and Timing of the Explosion	Vol-4-125
Coordinated Public Health Response	Vol-4-125
Initial Health Impacts	Vol-4-127
Medical Surveillance within 10 Years	Vol-4-129
Mortality and Cancer Incidence	Vol-4-130
Long-Term Monitoring of Dioxin Body Burdens and Effects on Kinetics	Vol-4-132
Research on Potential Reproductive and Developmental Effects and Other Latent Morbidity	Vol-4-133
Discussion	Vol-4-135
Further Reading	Vol-4-136
Chapter 15. Nitrate and Nitrite in Drinking Water: A Toxicological Review	Vol-4-137
Introduction	Vol-4-137
Occurrence and Exposure	Vol-4-137
Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion	Vol-4-138
Acute, Subchronic, and Chronic Toxicity	Vol-4-138
Nitrate: Experimental	Vol-4-138
Nitrite: Experimental	Vol-4-138
Methemoglobinemia	Vol-4-139
Reproductive and Developmental Effects	Vol-4-139
Nitrate: Human	Vol-4-139
Nitrate: Experimental	Vol-4-139
Nitrate/Nitrite: Human	Vol-4-140
Nitrate/Nitrite: Experimental	Vol-4-140
Nitrite: Experimental	Vol-4-140
Other Noncancer Outcomes	Vol-4-140
Thyroid	Vol-4-140
Nitrate: Human	Vol-4-140
Nitrate: Experimental	Vol-4-140
Other Outcomes	Vol-4-141
Health-based Reference Values	Vol-4-141
Carcinogenicity	Vol-4-142
Nitrate/Nitrite: Human and Experimental	Vol-4-142
Nitrate: Experimental	Vol-4-143
Nitrite: Experimental	Vol-4-144
Genotoxic Effects	Vol-4-144
Nitrate/Nitrite	Vol-4-144
Conclusion	Vol-4-145
Further Reading	Vol-4-145
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-145
Chapter 16. Noise and Cognition in Children	Vol-4-146
Introduction	Vol-4-146
Some Distinctions and Notes	Vol-4-146
Different Memory Processes	Vol-4-146
Measuring Noise Exposure	Vol-4-147
A Summary of Epidemiological and Field Studies of Chronic Noise	Vol-4-147
Reading, Memory, and Learning	Vol-4-147
Attention	Vol-4-148
Motivation	Vol-4-148
A Summary of Experimental Studies of Acute Noise	Vol-4-148
Reading, Memory, and Learning	Vol-4-148
The Link between Acute and Chronic Noise Effects on Cognition	Vol-4-148
Classroom Acoustics and Performance	Vol-4-148
An Attempt to Theorize about Noise Effects on Memory	Vol-4-149
Magnitudes of Noise Effects on Memory	Vol-4-149
A Note on Studies of Chronic Noise Exposure	Vol-4-149
Some General Conclusions from the Studies of Chronic Noise Exposure	Vol-4-150
An Emerging Perspective and Framework for Further Research	Vol-4-150
Further Reading	Vol-4-151
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-151
Chapter 17. Noise and Health: Annoyance and Interference	Vol-4-152
Introduction	Vol-4-152
The Concept of Noise Annoyance	Vol-4-152
Ambient Stressors and Coping with Annoyance	Vol-4-153
Is Annoyance Really a Health Problem?	Vol-4-154
Socio-Acoustic Community Studies	Vol-4-154
Validity and Reliability of the Annoyance Questions	Vol-4-156
Exposure–Response Relationships in Static Situations	Vol-4-157
Alternative Physical Noise Exposure Measures	Vol-4-158
Limitations of Classical Noise Exposure Measures	Vol-4-158
Ecological Context Validity	Vol-4-159
Are the Exposure–Response Data Sets Still Valid?	Vol-4-160
Population Noise Annoyance Indicators	Vol-4-160
Modifying Factors and Vulnerable Groups	Vol-4-161
Activity Interference	Vol-4-161
Exposure–Response Relationships in Dynamic Situations	Vol-4-162
Increasing Importance of Gray Exposure Areas	Vol-4-163
Further Reading	Vol-4-163
Chapter 18. Noise Management: International Regulations	Vol-4-164
Introduction	Vol-4-165
Evolution from Safety to Aesthetics	Vol-4-165
Sleep Disturbance	Vol-4-166
Occupational Hearing Loss	Vol-4-166
Community	Vol-4-168
Protecting Children and the Noise Sensitive	Vol-4-169
Preservation of Quiet Areas	Vol-4-170
Role of Technology	Vol-4-171
Technology and Aircraft Noise Regulation	Vol-4-171
Technology and Hearing Hazardous Noise Regulation	Vol-4-171
Bureaucratic Inertia	Vol-4-171
Role of Globalization	Vol-4-172
Future Considerations	Vol-4-172
Further Reading	Vol-4-173
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-173
Chapter 19. Noise Management: Soundscape Approach	Vol-4-174
Introduction	Vol-4-174
The Development and Spectrum of Soundscape Approaches	Vol-4-174
The Evaluation of a Soundscape	Vol-4-175
Differences between Sound Sources	Vol-4-176
Diversity in People and Context	Vol-4-177
Variations in Space	Vol-4-178
Soundscape as a Part of the Overall Environment	Vol-4-179
The Description of a Soundscape	Vol-4-179
The Creation of a Soundscape	Vol-4-180
Selection and Creation of Sound Sources	Vol-4-180
Consideration of Sound Paths and Design of Space	Vol-4-181
Soundscape Indicators and Prediction Tools	Vol-4-182
Soundscape Indicators	Vol-4-183
Prediction Models	Vol-4-184
Mapping	Vol-4-184
Auralization	Vol-4-184
Further Reading	Vol-4-184
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-184
Chapter 20. Nuclear Energy and Human Health	Vol-4-185
Introduction	Vol-4-185
Nuclear Energy and Ionizing Radiation	Vol-4-185
Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation Exposure	Vol-4-186
Radiological Assessment	Vol-4-186
Health Impacts of Large Radiological Releases from Nuclear Power Plants	Vol-4-187
The Stages of a Severe Accident	Vol-4-188
A Tale of Two Radiological Assessments	Vol-4-189
Impacts of Radiological Releases from Irradiated Fuel in Storage	Vol-4-190
Further Reading	Vol-4-192
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-192
Chapter 21. Nucleic Acids: Environmental Chemistry, Structures and Interactions as Revealed by Computational Studies	Vol-4-193
Introduction	Vol-4-193
Tautomerism and Amino Group Nonplanarity in Nucleic Acids	Vol-4-194
Interactions with Metal Cations	Vol-4-195
Interactions with Nanomaterials	Vol-4-196
Effect of Ionizing Radiation and Slow Electrons	Vol-4-197
Photophysics of Nucleic Acids	Vol-4-197
Conclusions	Vol-4-200
Acknowledgments	Vol-4-200
Further Reading	Vol-4-200
Chapter 22. Nutrigenomics: A New Frontier in Environmental Health Sciences	Vol-4-202
Introduction	Vol-4-202
Genomics and Environment	Vol-4-202
Nutrient–Genome Interactions	Vol-4-203
Role of Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) in Nutrient–Genome Interaction	Vol-4-203
Personalized Nutrigenomics	Vol-4-204
Summary and Conclusions	Vol-4-205
Environmental Systems Biology	Vol-4-205
Further Reading	Vol-4-205
Part 2: O	Vol-4-207
Chapter 23. Objectivity and Ethics in Environmental Health Science	Vol-4-207
Community-Based Participatory Research for Improved Ethical Approaches	Vol-4-212
Further Reading	Vol-4-214
Acknowledgments	Vol-4-214
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-215
Chapter 24. Occupational Cancer: Modern History	Vol-4-216
Introduction	Vol-4-216
Occupational Hazards	Vol-4-217
Vinyl Chloride	Vol-4-218
Benzene	Vol-4-219
Asbestos	Vol-4-220
Diagnostic Radiation Risks	Vol-4-221
Aspartame and Other Suspected Carcinogens	Vol-4-221
Further Reading	Vol-4-222
Chapter 25. Oceans and Human Health	Vol-4-223
Introduction	Vol-4-223
Harmful Algae	Vol-4-223
Chemical Threats	Vol-4-226
Pathogens	Vol-4-227
Global Climate Change	Vol-4-229
Marine Natural Products	Vol-4-229
Further Reading	Vol-4-230
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-230
Chapter 26. Oil and Chemical Spills	Vol-4-231
Introduction	Vol-4-231
Water Quality in the Arabian Gulf	Vol-4-231
Water Quality in the Gulf of Oman	Vol-4-232
Impact of an Oil Spill on the MarineE nvironment of the United Arab Emirates along the Gulf of Oman	Vol-4-232
The Shatt al-Arab and Northwest Arabian Gulf	Vol-4-232
Distribution of Heavy Metals in Marine Bivalves, Fish, and Coastal Sediments in the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman	Vol-4-232
Heavy Metals	Vol-4-232
Intertidal and Subtidal Zones	Vol-4-233
Hydrocarbons in the Intertidal Sediments	Vol-4-235
Hydrocarbons in the Subtidal Sediments	Vol-4-235
Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Biota	Vol-4-236
Conclusions	Vol-4-237
Further Reading	Vol-4-237
Chapter 27. Oil Industry and the Health of Communities in the Niger Delta of Nigeria	Vol-4-240
Introduction	Vol-4-240
Oil and Gas Resources in the Niger Delta	Vol-4-240
An Environment under Pressure	Vol-4-241
Impacts of Oil Exploitation on Local Communities	Vol-4-244
Health Effects of Oil Pollution	Vol-4-247
Conclusion	Vol-4-249
Further Reading	Vol-4-249
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-250
Chapter 28. Oil Spills	Vol-4-251
Introduction	Vol-4-251
Oil	Vol-4-251
Effects of the Oil Spill on Different Ecosystems	Vol-4-251
How to Work after an Oil Spill	Vol-4-254
Further Reading	Vol-4-255
Chapter 29. On-Site Wastewater Treatment	Vol-4-256
Introduction	Vol-4-256
On-Site Wastewater Treatment Systems	Vol-4-256
Pathogens in Wastewater	Vol-4-257
Pathogen Fate in Soil and Water	Vol-4-260
Disease Potential	Vol-4-261
Further Reading	Vol-4-263
Chapter 30. Optimal Pollution: The Welfare Economic Approach to CorrectMarket Failures	Vol-4-264
Introduction	Vol-4-264
Welfare Economics and Cost–Benefit Analysis	Vol-4-264
Public Goods, Externalities, and Internalization	Vol-4-265
Acceptable Levels of Market Imperfect	Vol-4-266
Total Economic Value and Monetary Valuation	Vol-4-268
Concluding Remarks	Vol-4-273
Appendix: Definition of ‘Social Costs	Vol-4-273
Further Reading	Vol-4-274
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-274
Chapter 31. Organochlorines and the Effect on Female Reproductive System	Vol-4-275
Introduction	Vol-4-275
Organochlorine Distribution and Use	Vol-4-276
Female Reproduction	Vol-4-276
Animal Studies of Reproductive Toxicology of Organochlorines	Vol-4-277
Epidemiological Studies of the Effects of Organochlorines on Female Reproductive Syst	Vol-4-278
Evaluation of the Evidence Based on Animal and Human Data	Vol-4-281
Future Trends in Research within This Subject	Vol-4-281
Further Reading	Vol-4-281
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-282
Chapter 32. Organophosphate Insecticides: Neurodevelopmental Effects	Vol-4-283
Introduction	Vol-4-283
Laboratory Tests	Vol-4-283
Epidemiological Evidence	Vol-4-286
Future Directions	Vol-4-290
Further Reading	Vol-4-290
Chapter 33. Overview of How Ecosystem Changes Can Affect Human Health	Vol-4-291
Introduction	Vol-4-291
What Is an Ecosystem?	Vol-4-291
Ecosystem Services and Ecosystem Changes	Vol-4-292
Ecohealth: Ecosystems and Human Health	Vol-4-293
Ecosystems and Infectious Diseases	Vol-4-295
Conclusions	Vol-4-298
Further Reading	Vol-4-299
Chapter 34. Oxidation-Antioxidation-Reduction Processes in the Cell: Impacts of Environmental Pollution	Vol-4-300
Environmental Pollutants as ROS Mediators	Vol-4-300
Protection against ROS-Mediated Environmental Pollutants	Vol-4-301
Conclusion	Vol-4-305
Further Reading	Vol-4-306
Part 3: P	Vol-4-307
Chapter 35. Palladium: Exposure, Uses, and Human Health Effects	Vol-4-307
Introduction	Vol-4-307
Environmental Levels	Vol-4-308
Palladium Levels in Air	Vol-4-308
Palladium Levels in Soil	Vol-4-309
Palladium Levels in Road Dust	Vol-4-309
Palladium Levels in Water	Vol-4-310
Industrial Uses of Palladium	Vol-4-310
Palladium Levels in Food	Vol-4-310
Automobile Exhaust Catalysts	Vol-4-311
Electronics and Electrical Technologies	Vol-4-311
Fine Jewelry and Optical Instruments	Vol-4-311
Dental Materials and Other Medical Materials	Vol-4-311
Chemical Uses	Vol-4-311
Water Treatment	Vol-4-311
Environmental Monitoring	Vol-4-312
Human Exposure	Vol-4-312
Biological Monitoring	Vol-4-312
Health Effects	Vol-4-313
Further Reading	Vol-4-314
Chapter 36. Pancreatic Toxicology	Vol-4-315
Introduction	Vol-4-315
Anatomy and Morphology of the Pancreas	Vol-4-315
Pancreatic Functions	Vol-4-316
Metabolic Makeup of the Pancreas	Vol-4-316
Digestive Enzymes	Vol-4-318
Etiology and Pathophysiology of Pancreatitis	Vol-4-318
Drugs	Vol-4-321
Occupational Chemicals and Pancreatitis	Vol-4-321
Hormone and Hormone-like Chemicals	Vol-4-321
Diagnosis, Treatment, and Therapeutic Approaches	Vol-4-322
Summary	Vol-4-323
Further Reading	Vol-4-323
Chapter 37. Parasite Zoonoses	Vol-4-325
Introduction	Vol-4-325
Parasites, Hosts, and Life Cycles	Vol-4-325
Parasite Zoonoses	Vol-4-328
Emerging and Resurging (Reemerging) Disease	Vol-4-328
Environmental Health	Vol-4-329
Environmental Change, Parasite Zoonoses, and Emerging Disease	Vol-4-329
A Caution: Check the Evidence!	Vol-4-342
Case Studies for Parasite Zoonoses and Environmental Change	Vol-4-342
A Global Perspective	Vol-4-344
Further Reading	Vol-4-344
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-345
Chapter 38. PCBs	Vol-4-346
Introduction	Vol-4-346
Background on PCBs	Vol-4-346
Health Effects of PCBs	Vol-4-347
Carcinogenic Effects	Vol-4-347
Role of Metabolism	Vol-4-348
Epidemiological Evidence for Carcinogenicity of PCBs	Vol-4-348
Occupational Studies	Vol-4-348
General Discussion of Findings	Vol-4-351
Nonoccupational Studies	Vol-4-352
Noncarcinogenic Effects	Vol-4-353
Neurological Effects	Vol-4-353
Reproductive Effects	Vol-4-353
Immune Effects	Vol-4-355
Further Reading	Vol-4-355
Conclusions	Vol-4-355
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-356
Chapter 39. Perceptions and Physiological Responses to Indoor Air Quality	Vol-4-357
Introduction	Vol-4-357
Perceptual Mechanisms	Vol-4-357
Physiological Mechanisms	Vol-4-362
Conclusions	Vol-4-363
Further Reading	Vol-4-363
Chapter 40. Perchlorate: Human Toxicity	Vol-4-364
Perchlorate and Its Sources	Vol-4-364
Exposure to Perchlorate in the Environment	Vol-4-364
Inhibitory Effect on Thyroidal Iodide Uptake	Vol-4-365
Absorption, Metabolism, Distribution, and Excretion of Perchlorate	Vol-4-366
Medical Use of Perchlorate	Vol-4-367
Human Dosing Studies	Vol-4-367
Epidemiological Studies	Vol-4-368
Conclusion	Vol-4-370
Further Reading	Vol-4-370
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-370
Chapter 41. Perchlorate: Origin and Occurrence in Drinking Water	Vol-4-371
Introduction	Vol-4-371
Origins of Perchlorate	Vol-4-372
Occurrence of Perchlorate in Drinking Water	Vol-4-376
Further Reading	Vol-4-379
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-379
Chapter 42. Perfluorinated Substances	Vol-4-380
Introduction	Vol-4-380
Physicochemical Properties	Vol-4-381
Commercial and Industrial Uses	Vol-4-382
Occupational Exposure Limit	Vol-4-383
Potential Health Hazards to theDecomposition Products	Vol-4-384
Further Reading	Vol-4-386
Chapter 43. Persistent Organohalogen Pollutants and Phthalates: Effects on Male Reproductive Function	Vol-4-387
Introduction	Vol-4-387
How can the Male Reproductive Function be Defined?	Vol-4-387
Indications of Possible Association between Environmental Factors and Male Reproductive Function	Vol-4-388
Evidence of Possible Association between Endocrine Disrupters and Male Reproductive Function	Vol-4-389
Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome	Vol-4-392
Gene–Environment Interaction: Human Evidence	Vol-4-392
Future Lines of Research	Vol-4-393
Conclusion	Vol-4-393
Further Reading	Vol-4-393
Chapter 44. Personal Care Products and Breast Cancer	Vol-4-395
Introduction	Vol-4-395
Could Topical Application of Personal Care Products with Estrogenic Activity Impact on Human Endocrine Health?	Vol-4-397
The Case for a Link between Underarm Cosmetics and Breast Cancer	Vol-4-397
Evidence for Absorption of Estrogenic Chemicals from Personal Care Products into the Human Breast	Vol-4-398
How Could Absorbed Chemicals Influence Breast Cancer Development?	Vol-4-400
Evidence for Estrogenic Activity of Chemical Components of Personal Care Products	Vol-4-401
Could Estrogenic Chemicals in Personal Care Products Influence Other Human Endocrine-Related Health Issues?	Vol-4-403
Could Other Properties of Personal Care Products Influence Breast Disease?	Vol-4-404
Could Other Properties of Cosmetic Chemicals Cause Adverse Effects?	Vol-4-404
Conclusions: The Unresolved Issue of Long-Term Low-Dose Effects of Mixtures	Vol-4-405
Further Reading	Vol-4-405
Chapter 45. Pesticide Exposure and Diabetes	Vol-4-407
Introduction	Vol-4-407
Associations of Pesticide Exposure with Common Diabetes Risk Factors	Vol-4-407
Associations of Pesticide Exposure with Insulin Resistance	Vol-4-408
Cross-Sectional Associations of Pesticide Exposure with Type 2 Diabetes	Vol-4-408
Longitudinal Studies of Pesticide Exposure and Type 2 Diabetes	Vol-4-409
Proposed Mechanisms by Which Pesticide Exposure Would Cause Type 2 Diabetes	Vol-4-410
Further Reading	Vol-4-410
Chapter 46. Pesticide Exposure and Human Cancer	Vol-4-412
Introduction	Vol-4-412
What Are Pesticides?	Vol-4-412
Premarket Testing	Vol-4-412
Evidence from Epidemiology	Vol-4-413
Limitations of Pesticides Epidemiology	Vol-4-416
How to Judge the Epidemiological Evidence?	Vol-4-417
Further Reading	Vol-4-417
Chapter 47. Pesticide Poisoning in Brazil	Vol-4-419
Introduction	Vol-4-419
Pesticide Use in Brazil	Vol-4-419
Pesticide Poisoning Data in Brazil	Vol-4-420
Occupational Exposure to Pesticide	Vol-4-423
Self-Poisoning and Accidental Poisoning	Vol-4-425
Medical Management	Vol-4-426
Further Reading	Vol-4-427
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-427
Chapter 48. Pesticides and Thyroid Hormones	Vol-4-428
Introduction	Vol-4-428
Pesticides	Vol-4-429
Human Thyroid Function	Vol-4-431
Existing Evidence for Altered Thyroid Function in Relation to Pesticides	Vol-4-433
Pesticides and Thyroid Function: Potential Mechanistic Pathways	Vol-4-434
Conclusions and Considerations for Future Research	Vol-4-435
Further Reading	Vol-4-436
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-437
Chapter 49. Pesticides: Human Health Effects	Vol-4-438
Introduction	Vol-4-438
Pesticide Mode of Action	Vol-4-438
Human Exposure to Pesticide	Vol-4-441
Human Studies	Vol-4-450
Genotoxicity	Vol-4-451
Reproductive Toxicity	Vol-4-451
Strategies for Preventing and Controlling Pesticides	Vol-4-452
Cumulative Risk Assessment	Vol-4-452
Further Reading	Vol-4-453
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-453
Chapter 50. Pets as Sentinels of Human Exposure	Vol-4-454
Introduction	Vol-4-454
Pets and Environmental Cancer	Vol-4-455
Pets and Chronic Diseases Linked to Air Pollution	Vol-4-458
Dogs and Lead Exposure	Vol-4-458
Cats and Methylmer	Vol-4-459
Other Chemical Exposures in Pets	Vol-4-459
Pets as Sentinels of Infectious Diseases	Vol-4-459
Further Reading	Vol-4-461
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-461
Chapter 51. Pharmaceuticals: Environmental Effects	Vol-4-462
Introduction	Vol-4-462
Basic Pharmacology	Vol-4-463
Entry of Pharmaceuticals into the Environment	Vol-4-464
Occurrence and Environmental Effects of Pharmaceuticals	Vol-4-466
Pharmaceuticals in Surface Water and Public Health	Vol-4-469
Possible Protective Measures	Vol-4-470
Further Reading	Vol-4-470
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-471
Chapter 52. Pharmaceuticals in Drinking Water	Vol-4-472
Introduction	Vol-4-472
Pharmaceutical Use	Vol-4-472
Occurrence and Behavior of Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment	Vol-4-473
Removal Efficiencies of Water Treatment Processes	Vol-4-475
Removal in Drinking Water Treatment Works	Vol-4-476
Estimating Concentrations of Pharmaceuticals in Drinking Water	Vol-4-480
Further Reading	Vol-4-483
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-484
Chapter 53. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Considerations in Children’s Human Health Risk Assessment	Vol-4-485
Introduction	Vol-4-485
PK Factors	Vol-4-486
Factors That Affect Chemical Distribution in Children	Vol-4-489
Development of Children’s Physiologically Based PK Models	Vol-4-494
PD Factors in Early Life	Vol-4-494
Possible Risk Assessment Approaches to Early Life Vulnerability	Vol-4-496
Summary	Vol-4-496
Further Reading	Vol-4-497
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-497
Chapter 54. Phthalates: Human Exposure	Vol-4-498
Introduction	Vol-4-498
General Aspects of Human Exposure	Vol-4-499
Exposure from Outdoor Air	Vol-4-500
Exposure via Indoor Air	Vol-4-500
Exposure from Workplaces	Vol-4-500
Exposure via House Dust	Vol-4-501
Exposure from Breast Milk	Vol-4-502
Intake Estimated from Diet Studies	Vol-4-502
Exposure from Food	Vol-4-502
Exposure from Toys and Childcare Products	Vol-4-504
Exposure from Cosmetic Products	Vol-4-504
Exposure Following Medical Interventions	Vol-4-505
Exposure from Pharmaceuticals and Dietary Supplements	Vol-4-505
Human Biomonitoring	Vol-4-506
Overall Exposure Assessment	Vol-4-507
Further Reading	Vol-4-509
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-510
Chapter 55. Physical and Social Environmental Influences on Asthma andAsthma Disparities	Vol-4-511
Introduction	Vol-4-511
Spectrum of Environmental Factors Contributing to Asthma Risk	Vol-4-511
Need to Consider the Social and Physical Environment Together	Vol-4-513
Summary	Vol-4-515
Further Reading	Vol-4-515
Chapter 56. Physical Infrastructure Service and Environmental Health Deficiencies in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas	Vol-4-516
Introduction	Vol-4-516
Identification and Characterization of Urban and Periurban Areas	Vol-4-516
Identification and Characterization of Physical Infrastructure Services	Vol-4-518
Major Physical Infrastructure Service Deficiencies and Their Implications	Vol-4-520
Interactions between Physical Infrastructure Services and Environmental Health	Vol-4-522
Environmental Health in Urban and Periurban Areas and the Influence of Physical Infrastructure Services	Vol-4-523
Mitigating Effects of Physical	Vol-4-525
Further Reading	Vol-4-525
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-525
Chapter 57. Physical Urban Environment	Vol-4-526
Introduction	Vol-4-526
What is Urban?	Vol-4-526
The Importance of Cities and the Physical Urban Environment	Vol-4-528
The Physical Urban Environment and Health	Vol-4-529
Climate Change	Vol-4-533
A Healthy Urban Future	Vol-4-534
Further Reading	Vol-4-535
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-535
Chapter 58. Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Modeling and Risk Assessment	Vol-4-536
Introduction	Vol-4-538
PBPK Modeling Fundamentals	Vol-4-539
Elements of PBPK Model Development	Vol-4-540
PBPK Model Implementation	Vol-4-551
Application of PBPK Modeling in Risk Assessment	Vol-4-558
The Ratio Concept in Risk Assessment	Vol-4-559
Impact of Pharmacokinetics in Risk Assessment	Vol-4-560
Example of the Use of PBPK Modeling in Risk Assessment: Vinyl Chloride	Vol-4-565
Future Directions	Vol-4-565
Further Reading	Vol-4-569
Chapter 59. Plants as a Tool for the Environmental Health Assessment	Vol-4-571
Introduction	Vol-4-571
Basic Principles of the Environmental Health Assessment with Plants	Vol-4-571
Different End Points Used in Plant Bioassays	Vol-4-572
Use of Plant Bioassays for the Environmental Health Assessment	Vol-4-575
Comparison of Results of Plant Bioassays with Other Test Systems	Vol-4-578
Concluding Remarks	Vol-4-578
Further Reading	Vol-4-579
Chapter 60. Platinum: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-4-580
Introduction	Vol-4-580
Sources and Applications	Vol-4-580
Platinum Emission by Automotive Catalytic Converters	Vol-4-581
Platinum Emission from Hospitals	Vol-4-582
Platinum in Air and Airborne Particulate Matter	Vol-4-582
Platinum in Soil, Dust, and Vegetation	Vol-4-583
Platinum in the Aquatic Ecosystem	Vol-4-587
Transformation of Platinum in the Environment	Vol-4-587
Bioaccumulation and Biological Availability	Vol-4-589
Health Effects	Vol-4-592
Acknowledgment	Vol-4-594
Further Reading	Vol-4-594
Chapter 61. Plutonium: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-4-596
Introduction	Vol-4-596
The Distribution and Concentrations of Plutonium in the Environment	Vol-4-597
Plutonium in the Air	Vol-4-597
Movement of Plutonium from Surface and Sediment Deposits	Vol-4-600
Human Exposure to Environmental Plutonium	Vol-4-601
Potential Health Effects of Environmental Plutonium	Vol-4-603
Further Reading	Vol-4-605
Chapter 62. PM2.5 Sources and Their Effects on Human Health in China: Case Report	Vol-4-606
Introduction	Vol-4-606
Conclusions	Vol-4-613
Further Reading	Vol-4-613
Chapter 60. Policy Responses to Climate Change	Vol-4-614
Managing the Risks of Climate Change	Vol-4-614
Lessons Learned on the Process of Adaptation and Mitigation	Vol-4-616
Actors and Their Roles and Responsibilities	Vol-4-616
Adaptation Measures to Manage the Health Risks of Climate Change	Vol-4-617
Mitigation Measures to Reduce Future Climate Change	Vol-4-620
Conclusions	Vol-4-620
Further Reading	Vol-4-622
Chapter 63. Political and Social Violence: Health Effects	Vol-4-623
Typology of Violence	Vol-4-623
Violent Environments	Vol-4-625
Typology of Political Violence	Vol-4-626
Aftermath of Political and Social Violence	Vol-4-628
Moderating Political and Social Violence	Vol-4-629
Further Reading	Vol-4-630
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-630
Chapter 64. Polymorphism and Gene–Environment Interactions in Environmental Cancer	Vol-4-631
Definition of Genetic Variations and Polymorphisms	Vol-4-631
Gene–Environment Interactions in Relation to Cancer Risk	Vol-4-631
Functional Polymorphisms	Vol-4-631
Gene–Environment Interactions in Relation to Environmental Cancers	Vol-4-632
Further Reading	Vol-4-639
Chapter 65. Power Generation and Human Health	Vol-4-640
Introduction	Vol-4-640
Overview of Health Impacts	Vol-4-640
Health Effects of Power Plant Emissions	Vol-4-642
Sources of Contaminants	Vol-4-646
Conclusions	Vol-4-646
Further Reading	Vol-4-647
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-647
Chapter 66. Prenatal Exposure to Industrial Chemicals and Pesticides and Effects on Neurodevelopment	Vol-4-648
Introduction	Vol-4-648
Methylmercury	Vol-4-649
The Dirty Dozen: PCB, Dioxins, and Organochlorine Pesticides	Vol-4-650
Dioxins and Furans: Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins and Dibenzofurans	Vol-4-652
Polychlorinated Biphenyls	Vol-4-652
DDE, DDT, and HCB	Vol-4-653
Emerging Chemicals and Endocrine Disruptors	Vol-4-654
Conclusion	Vol-4-657
Further Reading	Vol-4-658
Chapter 67. Prenatal Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)	Vol-4-659
Introduction	Vol-4-659
A Special Case of Susceptibility: The Fetus	Vol-4-660
Exposure Assessment	Vol-4-661
Intermediate Biomarkers on the Molecular Epidemiological Continuum (PAH-Related Examples)	Vol-4-662
Clinical Outcomes: Disease Outcomes Associated with Prenatal Exposure to PAHs	Vol-4-663
Controlling for Covariates	Vol-4-664
Conclusion	Vol-4-665
Further Reading	Vol-4-665
Chapter 68. Principles of Medical Geology	Vol-4-669
The Link between Geology and Medicine	Vol-4-669
Medical Geology: An Old and New Discipline	Vol-4-670
Biology and Essentiality	Vol-4-671
Global Examples of Medical Geology	Vol-4-672
Conclusion	Vol-4-675
Further Reading	Vol-4-676
Chapter 69. Prioritizing Community Environmental and Health Needs: Novel Approaches and Methods	Vol-4-677
Introduction	Vol-4-677
Common Community Environmental and Health Problems and Needs	Vol-4-677
Community Environmental and Health Needs Prioritization Approaches and Methods	Vol-4-679
Improving Assessment and Prioritization of Community Environmental Health Needs	Vol-4-681
Other Important Practical Issues and Considerations	Vol-4-686
Further Reading	Vol-4-686
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-687
Chapter 70. Productivity and Health Effects of High Indoor Air Quality	Vol-4-688
Introduction	Vol-4-688
Sources of Costs Related to Indoor Environments	Vol-4-688
Health and Productivity Benefits	Vol-4-689
Concluding Remarks	Vol-4-692
Further Reading	Vol-4-693
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-693
Chapter 71. Psychobiological Factors in Environmental Health	Vol-4-694
Introduction	Vol-4-694
Genes or Environment	Vol-4-694
Recent Discoveries on the Environment and the Brain	Vol-4-695
Basic Concepts Related to Stress	Vol-4-696
Can Arousal and Regeneration be Followed by Means of Simple Physiological Assessments?	Vol-4-697
What is the Relative Importance to Health of Environmentally Induced Neurobiological Reactions?	Vol-4-699
Further Reading	Vol-4-700
Chapter 72. Pyrethroids	Vol-4-702
Introduction	Vol-4-702
Pyrethroids: Chemistry and Role in Pest Control and Public Health	Vol-4-702
Pharmacokinetics and Biotransformation of Pyrethroids	Vol-4-704
Pyrethroids: Ligands for Liver-Enriched Nuclear Receptors	Vol-4-705
Modern ‘Omic’ Approaches to Study Pyrethroids	Vol-4-705
Human Exposure to Pyrethroids	Vol-4-705
Biomonitoring and Environmental Monitoring of Pyrethroids	Vol-4-706
Concluding Remarks	Vol-4-706
Further Reading	Vol-4-707
Chapter 73. Radiation Exposures Due to the Chernobyl Accident	Vol-4-709
Part 4: R	Vol-4-709
Chapter 74. Radiation Exposures Due to the Chernobyl Accident	Vol-4-709
Introduction	Vol-4-709
Environmental Radioactive Contamination	Vol-4-711
Exposure Levels of Emergency and Recovery Operation Workers	Vol-4-712
Exposure Levels of the Public Residing in ‘Radio-Contaminated Areas’	Vol-4-714
Exposure Levels of the European Public	Vol-4-717
Conclusions	Vol-4-717
Further Reading	Vol-4-720
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-720
Chapter 75. Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: Health Effects	Vol-4-721
Introduction	Vol-4-721
Existing Public Exposure Standards	Vol-4-722
Cancer	Vol-4-722
Human Subjective Effects	Vol-4-724
Conclusion	Vol-4-725
Nervous System Effects	Vol-4-725
Miscellaneous Effects	Vol-4-726
General Conclusion	Vol-4-726
Further Reading	Vol-4-727
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-727
Chapter 76. Radiological and Depleted Uranium Weapons: Environmental and Health Consequences	Vol-4-728
Description of Nuclear, Radiological, and Depleted Uranium Weapons	Vol-4-728
Environmental and Health Effects of Nuclear Weapons	Vol-4-730
Environmental and Health Effects of Radiological Dispersion Devices	Vol-4-741
Environmental and Health Effects of Depleted Uranium Weapons	Vol-4-742
Further Reading	Vol-4-744
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-744
Chapter 77. Radon: An Overview of Health Effects	Vol-4-745
Introduction	Vol-4-745
Radon-222 Characteristics	Vol-4-745
Radon Health Effects	Vol-4-749
Further Reading	Vol-4-752
Relevant Webs	Vol-4-752
Chapter 78. Radon Measurement	Vol-4-754
Introduction	Vol-4-754
Radon Gas Measurement Devices	Vol-4-754
Radon Decay Product Measurement Device	Vol-4-759
Measurement of Waterborne Radon	Vol-4-760
Measurement Protocols	Vol-4-761
Quality Assurance of Radon Measurements	Vol-4-762
Continuous Device Methods	Vol-4-764
Integrating and Equilibrating Device Methods	Vol-4-765
Further Reading	Vol-4-767
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-767
Chapter 79. REACH and Human Health in Lithuania	Vol-4-768
Introduction	Vol-4-768
The Main Elements of REACH and Their Possible Impact on Health	Vol-4-768
Registration	Vol-4-768
Evaluation	Vol-4-770
Authorization	Vol-4-770
Restrictions	Vol-4-770
Diseases Included in the Study	Vol-4-770
Approach to the Study	Vol-4-771
Chemical-Related Occupational Diseases	Vol-4-771
Occupational Cancer	Vol-4-771
Mortality from Cancer	Vol-4-771
Occupational Respiratory and Skin Diseases	Vol-4-773
Conclusions	Vol-4-774
Cases that May Be Avoided through the Implementation of REACH	Vol-4-774
Further Reading	Vol-4-775
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-775
Chapter 80. Recreational Exposure to Cyanobacteria	Vol-4-776
Introduction	Vol-4-776
Major Cyanotoxin Groups	Vol-4-777
Public Health Concerns Relating to Cyanotoxins	Vol-4-778
Recreational Exposure to Cyanobacteria	Vol-4-779
Possible Fatality from Recreational Exposure to Cyanobacteria	Vol-4-781
Epidemiology of Recreational Exposure to Cyanobacteria	Vol-4-781
Recreational Fishing and Dietary Transfer of Cyanotoxins	Vol-4-783
Management Responses to Cyanobacteria in Recreational Waters	Vol-4-784
Occupational Exposure to Cyanobacteria; Chronic Exposure to Cyanobacteria in Untreated Waters	Vol-4-785
Future Research Directions	Vol-4-786
Conclusions	Vol-4-787
Acknowledgments	Vol-4-787
Further Reading	Vol-4-788
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-788
Chapter 81. Remediation of Aquatic Post-Industrial Inorganic Pollutants	Vol-4-789
Introduction	Vol-4-789
Sources, Pathways, and Receptors	Vol-4-789
Pathways	Vol-4-790
Impacts and Receptors	Vol-4-790
Remediation Planning	Vol-4-791
Case Study: Approaches to Remediation Planning for Pollution from Abandoned Noncoal Mines in England and Wales	Vol-4-792
Remediation Tools	Vol-4-794
Future Directions	Vol-4-799
Further Reading	Vol-4-800
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-800
Chapter 82. Renal and Neurological Effects Heavy Metals in the Environment	Vol-4-801
Introduction	Vol-4-801
Cadmium	Vol-4-801
Lead	Vol-4-803
Mercury	Vol-4-804
Other Metals	Vol-4-805
Further Reading	Vol-4-805
Chapter 83. Reproductive and Developmental Effects of Exposure to Disinfection Byproducts in Humans	Vol-4-806
Introduction	Vol-4-806
Exposure Assessment for Epidemiological Studies of Reproductive and Developmental Effects	Vol-4-806
Evaluation of Exposure to DBPs on Reproductive and Developmental Outcomes	Vol-4-808
Fetal Viability	Vol-4-809
Preterm Delivery	Vol-4-815
Fetal Growth	Vol-4-815
Birth Defects	Vol-4-816
Summary	Vol-4-817
Further Reading	Vol-4-817
Chapter 84. Residential and Non-Residential Biomass Combustion: Impacts on Air Quality	Vol-4-819
Introduction	Vol-4-819
Different Types of Biomass Combustions	Vol-4-819
Chemical and Physical Characterization of Emissions from Biomass Combustions	Vol-4-820
Air Quality Impacts from Biomass Combustion	Vol-4-821
Impacts from Changes in Air Quality	Vol-4-825
Conclusions	Vol-4-826
Further Reading	Vol-4-826
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-827
Chapter 85. Residential Radon Levels Around the World	Vol-4-828
Introduction	Vol-4-828
World Health Organization International Radon Project	Vol-4-829
UNSCEAR Radon Surveys	Vol-4-829
Average Population Radon Level	Vol-4-835
Database of National Residential Radon Levels	Vol-4-835
Mapping National Residential Radon Levels around the World	Vol-4-837
Conclusions	Vol-4-838
Further Reading	Vol-4-839
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-839
Chapter 86. Respiratory and Cardiovascular Effects of NO2 in Epidemiological Studies	Vol-4-840
Introduction	Vol-4-840
Effect of Short-term NO2 Exposure	Vol-4-841
NO2 in the Environment: Regulations and Recommendations	Vol-4-842
Conclusion	Vol-4-843
Further Reading	Vol-4-843
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-844
Chapter 87. Respiratory Effects of Chlorination Products	Vol-4-845
Introduction	Vol-4-845
Disinfection of Swimming Pool Water by Chlorination	Vol-4-845
Respiratory Toxicity of Chlorination Products in Swimming Pools	Vol-4-846
Observational Studies	Vol-4-846
Experimental Studies	Vol-4-848
Animal Studies	Vol-4-849
Mechanisms of the Respiratory Toxicity of Chlorination Products in Swimming Pools	Vol-4-849
Further Reading	Vol-4-850
Chapter 88. Respiratory Effects of Short Term Peak Exposures to Sulfur Dioxide	Vol-4-852
Introduction	Vol-4-852
Sources, Monitoring, and Exposure	Vol-4-852
SO2 Airway Deposition	Vol-4-854
Human Clinical Studies	Vol-4-854
Epidemiologic Evidence	Vol-4-857
Further Reading	Vol-4-859
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-859
Chapter 89. Retrospective Dosimetry and Dose Reconstruction of Ionizing Radiation	Vol-4-860
Definition	Vol-4-860
Introduction	Vol-4-860
Review of Retrospective Dosimetry Methods	Vol-4-861
Practical Considerations on Applicability of Various Retrospective Dosimetry Methods	Vol-4-863
Validation of Retrospective Dosimetry	Vol-4-865
Examples of Retrospective Dosimetry	Vol-4-865
Recommendations	Vol-4-866
Further Reading	Vol-4-866
Chapter 90. Risk Management in Environmental Health Decision	Vol-4-868
Introduction	Vol-4-868
Risk Management Frameworks	Vol-4-868
Risk Management Options	Vol-4-869
Decision-Making Principles	Vol-4-870
Options Evaluation Framework	Vol-4-872
Risk Perception	Vol-4-873
Risk Acceptability	Vol-4-874
Risk Communication	Vol-4-875
Conclusion	Vol-4-876
Further Reading	Vol-4-876
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-877
Chapter 91. Risk of Radiation Exposure to Children and Their Mothers	Vol-4-878
Introduction	Vol-4-878
Recommendations for Reproductive-Age Women Regarding Risk of Radiation Exposure	Vol-4-885
Further Reading	Vol-4-886
Chapter 92. Risk to Populations Exposed from Atmospheric Testing and Those Risk to Populations Exposed from Atmospheric Testing and Those	Vol-4-887
Introduction	Vol-4-887
Risk of Populations Exposed from Atmospheric Testing	Vol-4-887
Risk to Populations Residing Near	Vol-4-889
Conclusion	Vol-4-890
Further Reading	Vol-4-890
Chapter 93. Road Traffic Injuries	Vol-4-892
Introduction	Vol-4-892
World Statistics	Vol-4-892
Road Traffic Crashes and Economic Development	Vol-4-893
Road Traffic Crashes in Developing Countries	Vol-4-893
Epidemiology	Vol-4-895
Human Factors	Vol-4-896
User Protection	Vol-4-897
Factors Associated with Roadway	Vol-4-898
Driving Assistance for Safety	Vol-4-898
Transportation and Emergency Medicine	Vol-4-898
Surveillance and Intervention	Vol-4-899
The Future of Road Traffic Crashes	Vol-4-899
Further Reading	Vol-4-900
Relevant Websites	Vol-4-900
Volume 5	Vol-5-iii
Front Cover	Vol-5-Cover
Encyclopedia of Environmental Health	Vol-5-iii
Copyright Page	Vol-5-iv
EDITORS	Vol-5-v
SECTION EDITORS	Vol-5-vi
CONTRIBUTORS	Vol-5-vii
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA	Vol-5-xiii
SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION	Vol-5-xv
CONTENTS	Vol-5-xxv
PREFACE	Vol-5-xxix
PERMISSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS	Vol-5-xxxiii
Part 1: S	Vol-5-1
Chapter 1. SARS	Vol-5-1
A New Infectious Disease Emerges	Vol-5-1
Identifying the Etiological Agent	Vol-5-1
Controlling the Outbreak	Vol-5-2
Finding Its Source	Vol-5-3
Laboratory Testing	Vol-5-3
Clinical Symptoms	Vol-5-5
Treatment and Prevention	Vol-5-6
Re´sume´ and Lessons to be Learnt from SARS	Vol-5-7
Further Reading	Vol-5-8
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-9
Chapter 2. Schistosomiasis	Vol-5-10
Schistosomiasis: A Brief Portrait	Vol-5-10
Environmental Risk Factors	Vol-5-13
Concluding Remarks	Vol-5-18
Acknowledgments	Vol-5-18
Further Reading	Vol-5-19
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-19
Chapter 3. Sense of Coherence and Social Structure	Vol-5-20
Introduction	Vol-5-20
The Wider Conceptual Framework: Social Determinants and Resources	Vol-5-20
Sense of Coherence and its Social Origins	Vol-5-20
Sense of Coherence: A Critical Appraisal	Vol-5-24
Further Reading	Vol-5-25
Chapter 4. Shigellosis	Vol-5-26
Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Clinical Features of Shigellosis	Vol-5-26
Global Incidence and Mortality Rates	Vol-5-26
Water Supply and Sanitation	Vol-5-29
Handwashing and Hygiene Behaviors	Vol-5-30
Breast-Feeding, Weaning Practice, and Anthropometric Status	Vol-5-30
School/Day Care Attendance and Social Gathering	Vol-5-31
Fly Species and Density	Vol-5-31
Further Reading	Vol-5-32
Chapter 5. Shipping and Maritime Transport	Vol-5-33
Introduction	Vol-5-33
Ship Pollution	Vol-5-33
Further Reading	Vol-5-40
Chapter 6. Shooting Ranges: Environmental Contamination	Vol-5-41
Introduction	Vol-5-41
Shooting Types	Vol-5-41
Contaminants and Their Toxicity	Vol-5-42
Magnitude and Scale of Contamination	Vol-5-44
Further Reading	Vol-5-50
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-50
Chapter 7. Short-Term Effects of Air Pollution on Health	Vol-5-51
Introduction and Background	Vol-5-51
Objective and Scope of this Review	Vol-5-52
Ambient Particulate Matter and Traf.c-Related Pollution	Vol-5-52
Further Reading	Vol-5-59
Chapter 8. Sick Building Syndrome	Vol-5-61
Introduction	Vol-5-61
Symptoms and Perceptions Related to Indoor Air Quality	Vol-5-61
Discussion	Vol-5-65
Further Reading	Vol-5-66
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-67
Chapter 9. Sierra Leone: Environmental Health Concerns	Vol-5-68
Introduction	Vol-5-68
Causes of Environmental Pollution in Sierra Leone	Vol-5-68
Government’s Stance	Vol-5-69
The National Environmental Policy	Vol-5-70
The National Environmental Action Plan	Vol-5-70
Protective Measures	Vol-5-71
Further Reading	Vol-5-73
Chapter 10. Singapore: Exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants and Human Health Risks	Vol-5-74
POPs in Singapore	Vol-5-74
Introduction	Vol-5-74
POPs in Typical Seafood Consumed in Singapore	Vol-5-75
POPs in House Dust of Singapore	Vol-5-77
POPs in General Population and Maternal Tissue of Singapore	Vol-5-79
Health Risks of Exposure to POPs in Singapore	Vol-5-80
Further Reading	Vol-5-82
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-82
Chapter 11. Sleep Disturbance in Adults by Noise	Vol-5-83
Introduction	Vol-5-83
Noise and Sleep	Vol-5-83
Predicting the Effects due to a Given Noise Exposure	Vol-5-85
Possible Effects of Sleep Disturbance due to Noise on Health	Vol-5-86
Further Reading	Vol-5-87
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-87
Sleep Disturbance in Children by Noise	Vol-5-88
Introduction	Vol-5-88
Effects of Noise on Children’s Sleep	Vol-5-88
Effect of Noise on Sleep Parameters	Vol-5-89
Effect of Noise during Sleep on Hormones Secretion	Vol-5-92
Sleep Disturbance in Pediatric Intensive Care Units	Vol-5-92
Further Reading	Vol-5-93
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-94
Chapter 12. Small Scale Industries and Informal Sector Activity Premises: Environmental and Occupational Health Issues	Vol-5-95
Introduction	Vol-5-95
Roles and Characteristics of Small-Scale Industries and the Informal Sector	Vol-5-95
Characterization of SSIs	Vol-5-96
Characterization of ISAPs	Vol-5-96
Environmental Health Issues in SSIs and ISAPs	Vol-5-98
Occupational Health and Safety Issues in SSIs and ISAPs	Vol-5-100
Characterization of Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety Issues in SSIs	Vol-5-101
Improving Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety in SSIs	Vol-5-103
Characterization of Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety Issues in ISAPs	Vol-5-103
Improving Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety in ISAPs	Vol-5-105
Further Reading	Vol-5-105
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-105
Social Capital and its Links to Health	Vol-5-106
Introduction	Vol-5-106
Issues of Definition	Vol-5-106
Social Capital as a Multicomponent Concept	Vol-5-106
Where Next for Social Capital?	Vol-5-109
Further Reading	Vol-5-109
Chapter 13. Social Environment: Overview	Vol-5-111
Introduction	Vol-5-111
The Social Environment as Causal in Disease	Vol-5-111
Levels and Pathways of Social Environmental Factors	Vol-5-111
The Social Environment at the Individual Level	Vol-5-113
The Social Environment at the Community Level	Vol-5-115
The Societal Level	Vol-5-117
Further Reading	Vol-5-118
Chapter 14. Social Support and Social Networks	Vol-5-119
Introduction	Vol-5-119
Defining Social Support	Vol-5-119
Evidence for the Effects of Social Support on Health	Vol-5-119
Social Position and Social Support	Vol-5-120
The Physical Environment and Social Support	Vol-5-120
Proximity between Individuals, Social Support, and Mental Health	Vol-5-121
Environmental In.uences on Social Networks	Vol-5-121
The Neighborhood Social Environment	Vol-5-122
Social Support and Social Networks as Moderators of Environmental Health	Vol-5-123
Further Reading	Vol-5-123
Chapter 15. Soil Quality Criteria for Environmental Pollutants	Vol-5-124
Introduction	Vol-5-124
Quality Standards for Ecosystem Protection	Vol-5-125
Setting Environmental Soil Quality Standards for Chemicals	Vol-5-125
Application of SQSs to Soil Characterization	Vol-5-138
Complementary Biological Tools for Setting Soil Quality	Vol-5-139
Conclusions	Vol-5-141
Further Reading	Vol-5-142
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-142
Chapter 16. Solid Fuel: Health Effects	Vol-5-143
Introduction	Vol-5-143
Characteristics of Solid Fuel Smoke	Vol-5-143
Indoor Air Pollution Levels in Solid Fuel Using Households Concentrations and Exposures	Vol-5-145
Health Effects Associated with Solid Fuel Smoke	Vol-5-146
Toward Guidelines and Standards for Indoor Air Pollution Related to Solid Fuel Use	Vol-5-148
Further Reading	Vol-5-149
Chapter 17. Solid Fuel Use: Health Effect	Vol-5-150
Introduction	Vol-5-150
Solid Fuel Use and Household Energy Practices	Vol-5-150
Pollutant Concentrations and Personal Exposure	Vol-5-153
Health Outcomes Associated with Indoor Air Pollution	Vol-5-156
Burden of Disease Attributable to Indoor Air Pollution	Vol-5-158
Broader Health and Socioeconomic Impacts of Solid Fuel Use	Vol-5-159
Further Reading	Vol-5-160
Chapter 18. Solid Waste Incinerators: Health Impacts	Vol-5-162
Introduction	Vol-5-170
Hazards Associated with Solid Waste Incinerators	Vol-5-171
Human Exposure to MSW Incineration Airborne Pollutants	Vol-5-180
Assessment of Potential Health Effects Associated with Airborne Pollutants	Vol-5-187
Conclusions	Vol-5-202
Further Reading	Vol-5-216
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-217
Chapter 19. Spain: Natural Hazards in the Country	Vol-5-218
Introduction	Vol-5-218
Landslide	Vol-5-219
Closing Remarks	Vol-5-226
Further Reading	Vol-5-227
Chapter 20. Spatial Mapping and Environmental Risk Identi.cation	Vol-5-228
Why Spatial Mapping (Geographic Heterogeneity)	Vol-5-228
Different Types of Mapping	Vol-5-228
The Challenge of MAUP	Vol-5-230
Further Reading	Vol-5-235
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-235
Chapter 21. Splenic Toxicology	Vol-5-236
Introduction	Vol-5-236
Spleen and its Functions	Vol-5-236
Environmental Agents and Toxic Responses of the Spleen	Vol-5-236
Splenotoxic Response of Aniline and Structurally Related Compounds	Vol-5-236
DNA Oxidation	Vol-5-239
Conclusions	Vol-5-239
Acknowledgments	Vol-5-240
Further Reading	Vol-5-240
Chapter 22. Sri Lanka: Acute Poisoning by Pesticides in the Country	Vol-5-241
Epidemiology of Fatal and Nonfatal Pesticide Self-Poisoning in Sri Lanka	Vol-5-241
Risk Factors for Pesticide Self-Poisoning in Sri Lanka	Vol-5-242
Clinical Consequences of Poisoning with Commonly Ingested Pesticides	Vol-5-243
Standard of Care Delivered to Patients with Pesticide Poisoning	Vol-5-244
Preventing Deaths from Pesticide Poisoning in Sri Lanka	Vol-5-246
Acknowledgments	Vol-5-248
Further Reading	Vol-5-248
Chapter 23. Stratospheric Ozone	Vol-5-249
Introduction	Vol-5-249
Ultraviolet Radiation	Vol-5-249
The Origins of Stratospheric Ozone	Vol-5-251
Human Health Effects of Stratospheric Ozone	Vol-5-255
Future Considerations	Vol-5-261
Interaction with Other Global Changes	Vol-5-261
Health Consequences of Ozone Depletion Mitigation	Vol-5-262
Conclusion	Vol-5-263
Further Reading	Vol-5-263
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-263
Chapter 24. Stress Axis as the Locus of Gene-Environment Interactions in Major Depressive Disorder	Vol-5-264
Introduction	Vol-5-264
Family Studies and Gene–Environment Interaction	Vol-5-264
Key Determinants of Genetic Vulnerability and Environmental Interference	Vol-5-265
The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis as Central Integrator of Stress and Distal Mediator of Gene–Environment Interactions	Vol-5-265
Conclusion	Vol-5-266
Further Reading	Vol-5-267
Chapter 25. Strontium in the Environment and Possible Human Health Effects	Vol-5-268
Introduction	Vol-5-268
Strontium in the Environment	Vol-5-268
Strontium Metabolism in Humans	Vol-5-269
Applications of Strontium	Vol-5-270
Possible Health Effects of Strontium in Humans	Vol-5-273
Further Reading	Vol-5-274
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-275
Chapter 26. Substandard Housing: The Social Dimension of Environmental Health	Vol-5-276
Introduction: Housing as a Basic Existential Need	Vol-5-276
Cultural Differences in Living Standards: Housing across the Globe	Vol-5-276
Living Conditions as Indicators of Socioeconomically Mediated Health Inequalities	Vol-5-277
Substandard Housing and Its Influence on Health	Vol-5-278
Indoor Air Pollution	Vol-5-278
Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Secondhand Smoke (Passive Smoking)	Vol-5-281
Household Products as a Source of Chemical Indoor Pollution	Vol-5-281
Dampness and Mould	Vol-5-282
Housing Deficiencies and Health Inequality due to Fuel Poverty	Vol-5-282
Substandard Housing: The In.uence of the Made Environment	Vol-5-284
The Influence of Living Conditions and Quality on Well-Being and Mental Health	Vol-5-284
Mobility and the Neighborhood Context	Vol-5-285
Nature and Natural Neighborhoods as a Health Resource	Vol-5-286
Substandard Housing and Health: Gaps in the Evidence Base	Vol-5-286
Implications for Addressing Socially Determined Correlations between Health and Housing in Prevention Programs	Vol-5-287
Living as a Setting for Interventions: Selected Program Approaches	Vol-5-287
Further Reading	Vol-5-288
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-289
Chapter 27. Sulfur Oxides: Sources, Exposures and Health Effects	Vol-5-290
Introduction	Vol-5-290
Sources of Sulfur Oxides	Vol-5-290
Occurrence in Ambient/Outdoor Air	Vol-5-292
Health Effects of Sulfur Oxides	Vol-5-292
Routes of Exposure and Conversion Factors	Vol-5-292
Further Reading	Vol-5-296
Chapter 28. Sustainable Management of Agricultural Systems: Physical and Biological Aspects of Soil Health	Vol-5-297
Introduction	Vol-5-297
Soil Sustainability	Vol-5-297
Physical Sustainability in Crop Production	Vol-5-298
Biological Sustainability	Vol-5-298
Soil Biological Parameters as Soil Health Indicators	Vol-5-299
Soil Microbial Biodiversity and Crop Diseases	Vol-5-300
Biological Sustainability in Crop Production	Vol-5-301
Further Reading	Vol-5-301
Chapter 29. Taiwan: Environmental Health Concerns	Vol-5-303
Taiwan: An Island with Rapid Socioeconomic Development	Vol-5-303
Health Hazards of Arsenic in Well Water	Vol-5-303
Arsenic-Related Health Hazards in Southwestern Taiwan	Vol-5-303
Arsenic-Related Health Hazards in Northeastern Taiwan	Vol-5-306
Poisoning from Rice-Bran Oil Contaminated by PCBs/PCDFs	Vol-5-307
Health Effects of PCB/PCDFContaminated Rice-Bran Oil	Vol-5-308
Health Effects of Intrauterine Exposure to PCBs/PCDFs	Vol-5-308
Health Hazards of Living in 60Cobalt-Contaminated Buildings	Vol-5-309
Further Reading	Vol-5-311
Chapter 30. Take-Home Route of Pesticide Exposure	Vol-5-312
Introduction	Vol-5-312
Methods	Vol-5-313
Conclusions	Vol-5-323
Further Reading	Vol-5-323
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-324
Chapter 31. Thallium: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-5-325
Introduction	Vol-5-325
Thallium in the Environment	Vol-5-325
Thallium in Natural Waters	Vol-5-326
Thallium in Great Lakes	Vol-5-327
Thallium in Soils and Crop Plants	Vol-5-327
Aquatic Toxicity and Impact of Thallium	Vol-5-329
Mechanism of Toxic Action	Vol-5-329
Environmental Standards for Thallium	Vol-5-331
Removal Technologies	Vol-5-331
Summary and Recommendations	Vol-5-332
Further Reading	Vol-5-332
Chapter 32. Thermal Stress	Vol-5-334
Introduction	Vol-5-334
Heat Transfer Mechanisms	Vol-5-334
Core Temperature Regulation	Vol-5-335
Mechanisms of Heat Dissipation during Thermal Stress	Vol-5-335
The Heat Illness Continuum	Vol-5-337
Heat stroke Risk Factors	Vol-5-338
Prevention and Treatment Strategies	Vol-5-339
Further Reading	Vol-5-339
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-339
Chapter 33. Thyroid Cancer Associated with the Chernobyl Accident	Vol-5-340
Overview of Thyroid Function	Vol-5-340
Physiologic Need for Iodine and Sources of Iodine	Vol-5-340
Types of Thyroid Cancer	Vol-5-340
Pre-Chernobyl Studies	Vol-5-341
Thyroid Cancer in People Exposed as Adults	Vol-5-347
Conclusions	Vol-5-349
Further Readings	Vol-5-349
Chapter 34. Tin: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-5-351
Introduction	Vol-5-351
Environmental Distribution and Biogeochemistry	Vol-5-352
Exposure Routes and Metabolic Pathways	Vol-5-353
Toxicity	Vol-5-355
Epidemiology of Tin Exposure	Vol-5-358
Further Reading	Vol-5-359
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-359
Chapter 35. Toenails for Biomonitoring of Environmental Exposures	Vol-5-360
Introduction	Vol-5-360
Toenail Composition and Growth	Vol-5-360
Toenail Biomarker Validation	Vol-5-360
Elemental Composition of Toenails: Baseline Data	Vol-5-361
Relating Biomarker Concentration to Human Exposure	Vol-5-361
Relating the Toenail Biomarker Concentration to Other Biological Tissues	Vol-5-363
Temporal Variability in Toenail Elemental Concentrations	Vol-5-364
Monitoring of Nonelemental Contaminants Using Toenails	Vol-5-365
Research Needs	Vol-5-365
Further Reading	Vol-5-365
Chapter 36. Toxicokinetics of Disinfection By-Products	Vol-5-367
Introduction	Vol-5-367
Absorption	Vol-5-367
Nonvolatile DBPs: Halogenated Acetic Acids	Vol-5-368
Other DBPs: Haloacetonitriles and Haloacetaldehydes	Vol-5-371
Summary	Vol-5-371
Further Reading	Vol-5-371
Chapter 37. Toxicological Pathways of Relevance to Medical Geology	Vol-5-373
Introduction	Vol-5-373
Exposure Pathways	Vol-5-374
Metabolism and Toxicological Effects of Xenobiotics	Vol-5-378
Toxicological Methods in Medical Geology	Vol-5-381
Further Reading	Vol-5-384
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-384
Chapter 38. Toxicoproteomic Applications to Environmental Health and Diseases	Vol-5-385
Introduction	Vol-5-385
Overview of Toxicoproteomic Technologies and Analysis	Vol-5-385
Recent Toxicoproteomic Applications to Environmental Diseases	Vol-5-391
Conclusion	Vol-5-393
Further Reading	Vol-5-393
Chapter 39. Trade, Trade Agreements and the Environment	Vol-5-394
Introduction	Vol-5-394
Income, Growth, and the Dynamic Gains from Trade	Vol-5-395
The Environmental Kuznets Curve	Vol-5-396
Interlinking Contracts: Trade Agreements	Vol-5-397
Conclusions	Vol-5-399
Further Reading	Vol-5-399
Chapter 40. Transportation and Health: The Impact of Commuting	Vol-5-400
Introduction	Vol-5-400
Brief History	Vol-5-400
Current Status: Levels of Commuting – Numbers and Times	Vol-5-400
Direct and Indirect Health Effects	Vol-5-401
Conclusions	Vol-5-406
Further Reading	Vol-5-406
Chapter 41. Tuberculosis	Vol-5-408
Introduction	Vol-5-408
Epidemiology	Vol-5-408
Pathogenesis	Vol-5-409
Clinical Features and Radiological Findings	Vol-5-410
Diagnosis	Vol-5-411
Treatment of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis	Vol-5-415
MDR-TB	Vol-5-415
Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis	Vol-5-416
Conclusions	Vol-5-416
Further Reading	Vol-5-417
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-417
Chapter 42. Tungsten: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-5-418
Introduction	Vol-5-418
Functions of Tungsten in Biological Systems	Vol-5-418
Human Health Effects of Tungsten	Vol-5-423
Further Reading	Vol-5-426
Chapter 43. Tunisia: Salinization and Sustainability of Agriculture	Vol-5-427
Introduction	Vol-5-427
Soil Salinization: Process, Extension, and Classi.cation	Vol-5-428
Salinity Distribution Within the Root Zone in Drip Irrigated Sandy Soil	Vol-5-429
Management Practices for Soil Salinity Control, Saline Soil Amelioration, and Sustainable Agriculture	Vol-5-431
Long-Term Olive Irrigation with Saline Water: Public Health and Environmental Bene.ts	Vol-5-437
Concluding Remarks	Vol-5-438
Further Reading	Vol-5-438
Part 2: U	Vol-5-439
Chapter 44. Uganda: Environmental Health Concerns	Vol-5-439
Introduction	Vol-5-439
Environmental Health Burden	Vol-5-440
Policies, Responses, and Actions	Vol-5-448
Environmental Health Division of Ministry of Health	Vol-5-449
Challenges	Vol-5-450
Conclusions	Vol-5-450
Further Reading	Vol-5-450
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-451
Chapter 45. Ultraviolet Exposure: Health Effects	Vol-5-452
Introduction	Vol-5-452
Physical Background	Vol-5-452
Sources	Vol-5-454
Photobiology	Vol-5-455
Photoprotection	Vol-5-459
UV Management	Vol-5-460
Further Reading	Vol-5-460
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-460
Chapter 46. Ultraviolet: Ocular Effects	Vol-5-461
Introduction	Vol-5-461
Sources of UVR Exposure	Vol-5-461
Acute Effects	Vol-5-462
Epidemiological Studies	Vol-5-463
Guidelines for Human Exposure	Vol-5-465
Conclusions	Vol-5-467
Further Reading	Vol-5-468
Chapter 47. Ultraviolet Radiation and the Skin	Vol-5-469
Basic Principles (Diffey 2007, Young 1997)	Vol-5-469
Chromophores in the Skin (Garmyn 2007, Young 1997)	Vol-5-470
The Effects of Absorption of UV by Skin Chromophores (Kulms 2002, Matsumura 2002, Young 1997)	Vol-5-470
Responses of Cells to UV (Garmyn 2007, Heck 2004)	Vol-5-471
Short-Term (Acute) Tissue Response of the Skin to UV Radiation (Ho¨ nigsmann 2002, Rhodes 2007)	Vol-5-473
Long-Term Effects of UV in the Skin	Vol-5-475
UV Phototherapy (Ibbotson 2004)	Vol-5-480
Photoprotection (Kullavanijaya 2005, Lautenschlager 2007, Lim 2007, Moloney 2002)	Vol-5-481
Conclusions	Vol-5-481
Acknowledgments	Vol-5-481
Further Reading	Vol-5-482
Chapter 48. Ultraviolet Radiation Protection	Vol-5-483
Introduction	Vol-5-483
Health Effects of UVR	Vol-5-483
Solar UVR	Vol-5-486
Protection against Solar UVR	Vol-5-488
Arti.cial Sources of UVR	Vol-5-493
Further Reading	Vol-5-495
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-495
Chapter 49. UN Convention on Wetlands (RAMSAR): Implications for Human Health	Vol-5-496
Introduction to the Ramsar Convention	Vol-5-496
Wetland Services, Ecosystem, and Human Health: An Overview	Vol-5-497
The Purification Potential of Wetlands	Vol-5-500
The Potential for Recharging of Aquifers	Vol-5-501
The Buffering Potential of Wetlands in Relation to Flooding	Vol-5-501
Carbon Sinks and Buffers against Climate Change Effects	Vol-5-502
Wetlands as a Key Source of Food, Nutrition, and Medicine	Vol-5-502
Further Reading	Vol-5-503
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-503
Chapter 50. UN Convention to Combat Deserti.cation	Vol-5-504
The Definition of ‘Desertification’ and the Background of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification	Vol-5-504
The Causes of Deserti.cation and the Consequences (Its Harm) to Global Climate Change and Environmental Security	Vol-5-505
Worldwide Distribution of Desertification- Prone Land	Vol-5-509
Achievements, Good Practices, and Experience to Combat Desertification	Vol-5-511
Expected Outcomes and Challenges Facing Humans in Combating Desertification	Vol-5-516
Further Reading	Vol-5-517
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-517
Chapter 51. Understanding Environmental Quality Through Quality of Life (QOL) Studies	Vol-5-518
Introduction	Vol-5-518
Definitions and Interpretations	Vol-5-518
Health	Vol-5-519
Determinants of Health	Vol-5-519
Environmental Health	Vol-5-519
Environmental Quality	Vol-5-521
Measuring Environment–Health Interrelations	Vol-5-522
Challenges for Data Collection and Statistical Analysis	Vol-5-524
Conclusion	Vol-5-525
Further Reading	Vol-5-525
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-525
Chapter 52. Uranium: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-5-526
Introduction	Vol-5-526
Uranium in Humans	Vol-5-527
Further Reading	Vol-5-533
Chapter 53. Uranium: Toxicity to Renal Cells and Osteoblasts	Vol-5-534
Introduction	Vol-5-534
Health Effects of Oral Exposure	Vol-5-534
Further Reading	Vol-5-540
Chapter 54. Urban Environmental Quality: Perceptions and Measures	Vol-5-541
Introduction	Vol-5-541
Sources of Environmental Distress	Vol-5-541
Assessing Environmental Quality	Vol-5-543
The Specificity of Contextual Issues in Environmental Quality Assessment	Vol-5-544
Reconstructing the Whole: Toward an Integrative Measurement of Urban Environmental Quality	Vol-5-545
Tailoring the Solution to the Problem	Vol-5-546
Acknowledgments	Vol-5-547
Further Reading	Vol-5-547
Chapter 55. Urban Environments and Health	Vol-5-549
Introduction	Vol-5-549
Urban Environments: Housing, Food Systems, and Transportation Systems	Vol-5-552
Promoting Equitable Urban Environments for Health	Vol-5-554
Further Reading	Vol-5-555
Chapter 56. Urban Health: An Overview	Vol-5-556
Introduction: Defining Urbanization and Urban Health	Vol-5-556
Risks and the Health Status of Urban Populations	Vol-5-557
Health Care and Medical Resources	Vol-5-557
Migration and Urban Population Health	Vol-5-558
Urbanization in the Twenty-First Century: The Challenge of the Global South	Vol-5-559
Climate Change and Urban Health	Vol-5-559
Transportation and Urban Population Health	Vol-5-560
Evolution of ‘Urban Health’	Vol-5-561
Protection against Infectious Diseases	Vol-5-561
Conclusions: The Roles of Local Governments and Local Partners	Vol-5-563
Further Reading	Vol-5-564
Chapter 57. Urban Planning, the Natural Environment, and Public Health	Vol-5-565
Introduction	Vol-5-565
Historical Context	Vol-5-565
Connections between Nature and Health	Vol-5-568
Emerging Trends Linking Planning and Health	Vol-5-573
Conclusion	Vol-5-574
Further Reading	Vol-5-575
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-575
Chapter 58. Urban Social Environment	Vol-5-576
Introduction	Vol-5-576
The Urban Social Environment	Vol-5-576
Social Capital	Vol-5-576
Social Disorder and Social Disorganization	Vol-5-576
Conclusion	Vol-5-577
Further Reading	Vol-5-577
Chapter 59. Urban Transportation and Human Health	Vol-5-578
Introduction	Vol-5-578
Benefits	Vol-5-578
Adverse Effects of Transport on Health	Vol-5-579
Impact of Transport and Other Policies on Health and Inequalities in Health	Vol-5-586
Conclusions	Vol-5-588
Further Reading	Vol-5-589
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-589
Chapter 60. Uruguay: Environmental Conditions in the Coast of Montevideo: Historical Aspects, Present Status and Perspectives of Habitat Degradation and Uses	Vol-5-590
Introduction	Vol-5-590
The Montevideo Coastal Zone within This Context	Vol-5-591
Current Environmental Status of Montevideo Bay and the Adjacent Coastal Area: Present Knowledge about the State of This Aquatic System	Vol-5-592
Perspectives, Priorities, and Future Research	Vol-5-599
Further Reading	Vol-5-600
Chapter 61. Use of Years of Potential Life Lost (YPLL) for Risk Assessment at Hazardous Waste Sites	Vol-5-602
Introduction	Vol-5-602
What Is YPLL?	Vol-5-602
YPLL as a Risk Management Tool	Vol-5-604
Challenges of Using YPLL	Vol-5-605
Further Reading	Vol-5-607
Conclusions	Vol-5-607
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-607
Part 3: V	Vol-5-609
Chapter 62. Valuation of Children’s Health Impacts	Vol-5-609
Introduction	Vol-5-609
Child-Specific Issues in Valuation of Environmental Health Issues	Vol-5-609
Children’s Health Valuation: Empirical Evidence	Vol-5-614
Conclusions	Vol-5-617
Further Reading	Vol-5-618
Chapter 63. Valuing the Health Impacts of Air Emissions	Vol-5-619
Introduction	Vol-5-619
Health-Adjusted Life Year Measures	Vol-5-620
Monetary Measures	Vol-5-623
Further Reading	Vol-5-626
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-627
Chapter 64.Vanadium: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects	Vol-5-628
Vanadium: What is it?	Vol-5-628
Where is Vanadium Found?	Vol-5-628
Industrial Use and Economic Importance of Vanadium	Vol-5-629
Environmental Monitoring Methods	Vol-5-629
The Presence of Vanadium in Living Organisms	Vol-5-630
Vanadium as an Essential Trace Element and Therapeutic Agent	Vol-5-631
No Adverse Effect Levels and Reference Doses for Oral Intake of Vanadium	Vol-5-631
Ambient Air-Quality and Work-Place Standards	Vol-5-632
The Effects of Excessive Vanadium Exposure	Vol-5-632
Treatment of Vanadium Poisoning	Vol-5-634
Comparative Biokinetics of Vanadium	Vol-5-635
Biomarkers for Detecting Vanadium Exposure	Vol-5-635
Further Reading	Vol-5-636
Chapter 65. Vector Borne Disease and Climate Change	Vol-5-637
Introduction	Vol-5-637
Possible Mechanisms of Climate Change and Vectorborne Diseases	Vol-5-639
Existing Evidence of Climate Sensitivity and Vectorborne Diseases	Vol-5-641
Conclusions	Vol-5-643
Further Reading	Vol-5-644
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-644
Chapter 66. Vehicular Exhausts	Vol-5-645
Introduction	Vol-5-645
Exhaust Pollutants	Vol-5-645
Conclusions	Vol-5-652
Further Reading	Vol-5-652
Chapter 67. Ventilation	Vol-5-654
Introduction	Vol-5-654
The Minimum Required Ventilation Rate	Vol-5-655
The Equation of Ventilation	Vol-5-657
Types of Ventilation Systems	Vol-5-659
Ventilation Performance in Buildings	Vol-5-660
Consideration of Isolation Room Ventilation	Vol-5-660
Further Reading	Vol-5-663
Chapter 68. Volcanic and Geothermal Processes: Health Effects	Vol-5-664
Introduction	Vol-5-664
Near-Vent Eruptive Processes	Vol-5-664
Tephra Dispersal	Vol-5-666
Risks from Other Volcanic Processes	Vol-5-668
Indirect Effects of Volcanic Emissions	Vol-5-669
Monitoring and Management of Volcanic Events	Vol-5-670
Further Reading	Vol-5-671
Chapter 69. Volcanoes and Human Health	Vol-5-672
Introduction	Vol-5-672
Volcanism and Human History	Vol-5-672
Types of Eruptions	Vol-5-674
Eruption Hazards – Direct Death and Injury	Vol-5-675
Tephra Falls	Vol-5-675
Health Impacts of Volcanic Emissions	Vol-5-676
Mitigation Measures in Eruptions	Vol-5-679
Displaced Populations in Volcanic Crises	Vol-5-679
Further Reading	Vol-5-680
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-680
Chapter 70. Volcanogenic Contaminants: Chronic Exposure	Vol-5-681
Introduction	Vol-5-681
Volcanic Products and Hazards	Vol-5-681
Health Effects Related to Chronic Exposure to Volcanogenic Contaminants	Vol-5-683
Prevention and Mitigation of the Risks	Vol-5-687
Priorities for Further Research	Vol-5-688
Further Reading	Vol-5-689
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-689
Chapter 71. Vulnerability to Parkinson’s Disease: Towards an Unifying Theory of Disease Etiology	Vol-5-690
Introduction	Vol-5-690
Early-Life Events, Glia, and Parkinson’s Disease	Vol-5-697
Environmental Toxins Factors, Glia, and Parkinson’s disease	Vol-5-699
Further Reading	Vol-5-704
Chapter 72. Vulnerable Populations and Regions	Vol-5-705
Introduction	Vol-5-705
Conceptual Framework and De.nitions	Vol-5-705
Vulnerability Assessment	Vol-5-707
Global Distributions of Vulnerability	Vol-5-708
Natural Disasters, Development, and Vulnerability	Vol-5-709
Prolonged Stress and Vulnerability	Vol-5-712
Further Reading	Vol-5-714
Part 4: W	Vol-5-715
Chapter 73. Waterborne Disease Surveillance	Vol-5-715
Introduction	Vol-5-715
History	Vol-5-716
Designing Surveillance Systems	Vol-5-717
Special Features of Waterborne Disease Surveillance	Vol-5-719
Environment and Waterborne Diseases	Vol-5-720
Assessment of Surveillance Data	Vol-5-722
Further Reading	Vol-5-723
Chapter 74. Water Consumption and Implications for Exposure Assessment	Vol-5-724
Importance and Health Bene.ts of Drinking Water	Vol-5-724
Water Consumption Patterns	Vol-5-724
Water Quality Perception	Vol-5-725
Health Risks Associated with Water Consumption	Vol-5-726
Conclusion	Vol-5-730
Further Reading	Vol-5-730
Chapter 75. Water Hardness and Risk of Death from Coronary Heart Disease	Vol-5-732
Introduction	Vol-5-732
Case–Control Studies	Vol-5-733
Cohort Studies	Vol-5-733
The British Regional Heart Study (BRHS)	Vol-5-734
Critique of Case–Control Studies	Vol-5-736
Magnesium in Cardiovascular Clinical Trials	Vol-5-737
Conclusion	Vol-5-739
Further Reading	Vol-5-739
Water-Related Diseases in the Developing World	Vol-5-741
Introduction and Scope	Vol-5-741
Why Are These Diseases More Prevalent in Developing Countries?	Vol-5-742
Water As a Vehicle for Microbial Contaminants	Vol-5-743
Water As a Habitat for Microbes and Their Intermediate Hosts	Vol-5-748
Chapter 76. Weather, Pollen Concentrations and Allergic Rhenitis	Vol-5-754
Introduction	Vol-5-754
Definition and Classi.cation of Allergic Rhinitis	Vol-5-754
Etiology of Allergic Rhinitis	Vol-5-756
Effects of Climate Change and Air Pollution on Pollen Production and Public Health	Vol-5-757
Public Health Impacts under Future Climate Change Scenarios	Vol-5-758
Further Reading	Vol-5-760
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-760
Chapter 77. West Nile Virus	Vol-5-761
Etiological Agent	Vol-5-761
Ecology	Vol-5-761
Transmission	Vol-5-763
Epidemiology	Vol-5-763
Clinical Presentation, Case Definition, and Laboratory Diagnosis	Vol-5-765
Research and Future Directions	Vol-5-767
Further Reading	Vol-5-768
Chapter 78. WHO-QOL Instrument and Environmental Health Assessment	Vol-5-769
Environmental Quality of Life	Vol-5-769
Environment Facets of WHO-QOL	Vol-5-769
The Importance of the Environment Domain in Assessing Overall Quality of Life	Vol-5-775
Further Reading	Vol-5-776
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-776
Chapter 79. Worldwide Regulatory Strategies and Policies for Drinking Water	Vol-5-777
Foreword	Vol-5-777
Introduction	Vol-5-777
Brief History of the Regulation of Drinking Water and Human Health	Vol-5-777
Key Principles	Vol-5-781
Further Reading	Vol-5-787
Part 5: Z	Vol-5-789
Chapter 80. Zinc Deficiency in Human Health	Vol-5-789
Introduction	Vol-5-789
Etiology of Zinc Deficiency	Vol-5-790
Epidemiological Aspects of Zinc Deficiency	Vol-5-791
Clinical and Behavioral Effects of Zinc Deficiency	Vol-5-793
Further Reading	Vol-5-799
Relevant Websites	Vol-5-800
Chapter 81. Zinc Toxicity in Humans	Vol-5-801
Introduction	Vol-5-801
Functions of Zinc in Humans	Vol-5-801
Epidemiology	Vol-5-802
Chronic and Subchronic Toxicity	Vol-5-805
Potential for Zinc Accumulation	Vol-5-806
Further Reading	Vol-5-806
INDEX	Vol-5-809
Authors	Vol-5-1080

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