BOOK
Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, Volume 1
Larry R. Squire | Floyd E. Bloom | Nicholas C. Spitzer | Fred Gage | Tom Albright
(2009)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
The Encyclopedia of the Neuroscience explores all areas of the discipline in its focused entries on a wide variety of topics in neurology, neurosurgery, psychiatry and other related areas of neuroscience. Each article is written by an expert in that specific domain and peer reviewed by the advisory board before acceptance into the encyclopedia. Each article contains a glossary, introduction, a reference section, and cross-references to other related encyclopedia articles. Written at a level suitable for university undergraduates, the breadth and depth of coverage will appeal beyond undergraduates to professionals and academics in related fields.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| e9780080446172v1 | 1 | ||
| Associate Editors | 8 | ||
| Subject Classification | 14 | ||
| Table of Contents | 48 | ||
| Foreword | 94 | ||
| Preface | 96 | ||
| Volume 1 | 98 | ||
| A | 98 | ||
| Acetylcholine Neurotransmission in CNS | 98 | ||
| Introduction | 98 | ||
| ACh Neurotransmission | 98 | ||
| Anatomy of the Nucleus Basalis | 98 | ||
| Inputs and Neurotransmitter Circuitry of the Nucleus Basalis | 98 | ||
| Topography and Distribution of Cortical Cholinergic Projections | 99 | ||
| Trajectory of Cholinergic Pathways from the Nucleus Basalis to the Cerebral Cortex | 99 | ||
| Cholinergic Synapses in the Cerebral Cortex | 99 | ||
| Cholinergic Receptors in the Cerebral Cortex | 99 | ||
| Cholinoceptive Neurons of the Cerebral Cortex | 99 | ||
| Functionality of Cortical Cholinergic Innervation | 99 | ||
| Memory and Cortical Cholinergic Innervation | 100 | ||
| Attentional State and Cortical Cholinergic Innervation | 100 | ||
| Cortical ACh and Plasticity | 100 | ||
| Cortical Cholinergic Innervation and AD | 100 | ||
| Further Reading | 101 | ||
| Acetylcholinesterase | 102 | ||
| Introduction | 102 | ||
| Genes Encoding the Cholinesterases | 102 | ||
| Structure of the Cholinesterases | 103 | ||
| Inhibitor Interactions | 104 | ||
| Reactivating Agents and Antidotes | 104 | ||
| Further Reading | 104 | ||
| Relevant Website | 104 | ||
| Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors and Alzheimer's Disease | 106 | ||
| Introduction | 106 | ||
| Preclinical Testing | 106 | ||
| Clinical Efficacy | 106 | ||
| Selection of Relevant Studies | 106 | ||
| Identification of the Methodological Quality of the Studies | 107 | ||
| Assessment of the Relevance of the Methodological Quality for the Results | 108 | ||
| Discussion of the External Validity of the Trials | 108 | ||
| Determination of the Clinical Relevance of Effects and Side Effects as Measured in the Trials | 108 | ||
| Comprehension of the Clinical Experience of Patients, Caregivers, and Health Personnel | 109 | ||
| Consequences of Unclear Clinical Benefit | 109 | ||
| Imprecise Cost Estimates | 109 | ||
| Summary | 109 | ||
| Further Reading | 110 | ||
| Actin Cytoskeleton in Growth Cones, Nerve Terminals, and Dendritic Spines | 112 | ||
| Introduction | 112 | ||
| Early Development | 112 | ||
| Actin Nucleation and Control of Actin Polymerization Rates in Growth Cones | 112 | ||
| Substrate Adhesion and Generation of Traction in Axon Outgrowth and Guidance | 113 | ||
| Roles for Actin-Microtubule Interactions in Early Neurite Development | 115 | ||
| Control of Actin Depolymerization and Turnover in Early Neuromorphogenesis | 115 | ||
| Late Development | 115 | ||
| Actin Organization and Function during the Development of Synapses | 115 | ||
| Actin Dynamics and Spine Morphogenesis | 116 | ||
| Effects of Synaptic Activity on Actin Polymerization in Dendritic Spines | 117 | ||
| Comparing Growth Cones, Dendritic Spines, and Nerve Terminals | 117 | ||
| Further Reading | 118 | ||
| Action Potential Initiation and Conduction in Axons | 120 | ||
| Introduction | 120 | ||
| Ionic Basis of the Action Potential in Axons | 120 | ||
| Sodium and Potassium Channels | 120 | ||
| Sodium-Potassium Pump | 120 | ||
| Structural and Functional Differences of Vertebrate Axons | 121 | ||
| Initiation of the Action Potential | 121 | ||
| Stimulation Required for Electrogenesis | 121 | ||
| Site of Initiation | 121 | ||
| Unmyelinated axons | 121 | ||
| Myelinated axons | 122 | ||
| Conduction in Unmyelinated and Myelinated Axons | 122 | ||
| Unmyelinated Axons | 122 | ||
| Channel subtypes | 123 | ||
| Myelinated Axons | 124 | ||
| Channel subtypes | 124 | ||
| Summary | 125 | ||
| Further Reading | 125 | ||
| Active Perception | 128 | ||
| Perception Is Active Perception | 128 | ||
| Early Vision | 128 | ||
| Active Perception Avoids Marr's 'Ill-Posed Problem' | 128 | ||
| Dynamic Frames of Reference | 129 | ||
| Modeling Active Perception with Robots | 129 | ||
| The Quantal Nature of Data Acquisition | 129 | ||
| Bayes' Rule | 131 | ||
| Virtual Environments | 131 | ||
| Tasks with Sequential Steps | 132 | ||
| Conclusion | 133 | ||
| Further Reading | 134 | ||
| Active Zone | 136 | ||
| Introduction | 136 | ||
| Definition of Active Zones and Functional Participation in the Synaptic Vesicle Cycle | 136 | ||
| Morphology of the Active Zone | 136 | ||
| Molecular Components of the Active Zone | 138 | ||
| Conclusion | 141 | ||
| Further Reading | 142 | ||
| Activity in Visual Development | 144 | ||
| Introduction | 144 | ||
| Sources of Activity in the Developing Visual System | 144 | ||
| Retinotopic Maps in Tectum/Superior Colliculus | 145 | ||
| Eye-Specific Maps in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus | 145 | ||
| Ocular Dominance Column Formation and Plasticity | 146 | ||
| Molecular Mechanisms of Plasticity | 147 | ||
| Further Reading | 148 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Metabolism in Glia and Neurons | 150 | ||
| Introduction | 150 | ||
| The Glutamate-Glutamine Cycle as the Axis of Metabolic Neuron-Glia Coupling | 150 | ||
| Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of the Glutamate-Glutamine Cycle and Resulting Quantitative Models of Neuronal-Glial Energetics | 151 | ||
| Nonlinear Coupling between Glucose and Oxygen Utilization in the Activated Brain | 152 | ||
| The Astrocyte-Neuron Lactate Shuttle Hypothesis | 153 | ||
| Subcellular Differentiation of Energy Metabolism within Neurons and Astrocytes | 153 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Metabolic Transitions in Neurons and Astrocytes | 156 | ||
| Further Reading | 156 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Regulation of Glucose Transporters | 158 | ||
| Introduction | 158 | ||
| Temporal Fluctuations in Local Glucose Demand | 158 | ||
| Rate Limitation and Control of Glucose Flux into Brain Cells | 159 | ||
| Mechanisms of Glucose Permeation into the Brain | 159 | ||
| Acute Regulation of Glucose Transport | 160 | ||
| Slower Regulation of Glucose Transport | 160 | ||
| Choice of Functional Probes for the Study of Glucose Transporters | 162 | ||
| Further Reading | 162 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Remodeling of Presynaptic Boutons | 164 | ||
| Introduction | 164 | ||
| Learning-Induced Remodeling and Growth of Sensory Neuron Presynaptic Varicosities during Long-Term Sensitization in Aplysia | 164 | ||
| Long-Term Facilitation Is Associated with Presynaptic Activation of Silent Varicosities and Growth of New Functional Synaptic V | 165 | ||
| 5-HT-Induced Regulation of the Presynaptic Actin Network Is a Nodal Point for Learning-Related Synapse Remodeling and Growth | 167 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Modulation of Cell Adhesion Molecules and the Initiation of Learning-Related Presynaptic Growth | 167 | ||
| The Presynaptic Remodeling and Growth of New Synapses Induced by Learning in the Adult Brain May Reutilize Mechanisms That Gove | 168 | ||
| Conclusions | 170 | ||
| Further Reading | 171 | ||
| Addiction: Neurobiological Mechanism | 172 | ||
| Neurocircuitry of Drug Reward, Dependence, and 'Craving' | 172 | ||
| Molecular and Cellular Targets within the Brain Circuits Associated with Addiction | 175 | ||
| Brain Imaging Circuits Involved in Human Addiction | 177 | ||
| Conclusions | 177 | ||
| Further Reading | 177 | ||
| Adenosine | 180 | ||
| Introduction | 180 | ||
| Sources of Adenosine, Its Transport Mechanisms, and Metabolism | 181 | ||
| Receptor Structure, Signaling Pathways, and AR Regulation | 182 | ||
| Receptor Structure | 182 | ||
| Signaling Pathways | 182 | ||
| Regulation | 182 | ||
| Novel and Definitive Ligands | 183 | ||
| Adenosine Agonists | 183 | ||
| Adenosine Antagonists | 183 | ||
| Radioligands | 186 | ||
| Allosteric Modulation | 187 | ||
| Role of ARs in Autonomic Nervous System Disorders | 189 | ||
| Distribution | 189 | ||
| Functions of ARs in the Autonomic and Enteric Systems | 189 | ||
| Genetic Deletion of ARs | 191 | ||
| Further Reading | 191 | ||
| Adenosine Receptor Mediated Functions | 194 | ||
| Introduction | 194 | ||
| Ado Metabolism and Extracellular Ado Concentration | 194 | ||
| Adenosine Receptor Activation | 194 | ||
| A1 Receptor Electrophysiological Postsynaptic Effects | 196 | ||
| A1 Receptor Presynaptic Effects | 196 | ||
| Adenosine-Mediated Homeostasis of Synaptic Glutamate Release | 197 | ||
| Adenosine and Glia | 198 | ||
| Adenosine and Slow-Wave Sleep | 198 | ||
| Further Reading | 199 | ||
| Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) | 202 | ||
| Early History | 202 | ||
| Purinergic Cotransmission | 202 | ||
| Receptors for Purines and Pyrimidines | 203 | ||
| ATP Release and Degradation | 204 | ||
| Physiology of Purinergic Neurotransmission | 205 | ||
| CNS Control of Autonomic Function | 206 | ||
| Neuron-Glia Interactions | 206 | ||
| Purine Transmitter and Receptor Plasticity | 206 | ||
| Neuroprotection | 206 | ||
| Dual Purinergic Neural and Endothelial Control of Vascular Tone and Angiogenesis | 207 | ||
| Pain and Purinergic Mechanosensory Transduction | 207 | ||
| Special Senses | 209 | ||
| Eye | 209 | ||
| Ear | 209 | ||
| Nasal Organs | 209 | ||
| Further Reading | 209 | ||
| Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) as a Neurotransmitter | 212 | ||
| Historic Remarks | 212 | ||
| ATP-Mediated Transmission in the Peripheral Nervous System | 212 | ||
| Peripheral Nerves | 212 | ||
| Sensory Neurons | 213 | ||
| Autonomic Neurons | 213 | ||
| ATP-Mediated Synaptic Transmission in the Central Nervous System | 214 | ||
| P2X-Mediated Synaptic Currents | 214 | ||
| Mechanisms of ATP Release | 218 | ||
| ATP Mediates Neuronal-Glial Signaling | 218 | ||
| Conclusions | 219 | ||
| Further Reading | 219 | ||
| Adolescent Brain Development and the Risk of Psychiatric Disorders | 222 | ||
| Introduction | 222 | ||
| Neurobiological Changes of Adolescence | 222 | ||
| Postmortem Data | 222 | ||
| Human | 222 | ||
| Primate | 222 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Systems | 222 | ||
| Structural Neuroimaging | 223 | ||
| Functional Neuroimaging | 223 | ||
| Electroencephalography | 223 | ||
| Positron emission tomography | 223 | ||
| Functional magnetic resonance imaging | 223 | ||
| Summary of Adolescent Brain Changes | 224 | ||
| Relationship to Psychopathology | 224 | ||
| Schizophrenia | 224 | ||
| Substance Abuse | 224 | ||
| Affective and Anxiety Disorders | 225 | ||
| Discussion | 225 | ||
| Future Directions | 225 | ||
| Longitudinal Studies | 225 | ||
| Genetics | 226 | ||
| Sex Differences | 226 | ||
| Multimodal Imaging | 226 | ||
| Translational Research | 226 | ||
| Integration with Social and Educational Science | 226 | ||
| Summary | 227 | ||
| Further Reading | 227 | ||
| Adrenal Steroids: Biphasic Effects on Neurons | 228 | ||
| Introduction | 228 | ||
| Corticosteroid Hormones Affect Some but Not All Properties | 228 | ||
| Biphasic Effects on Neural Properties | 228 | ||
| Two Receptor Types Contribute to the Biphasic Responses in CA1 Neurons | 230 | ||
| Do Corticosteroids Always Induce Biphasic Responses? | 230 | ||
| Further Reading | 230 | ||
| Adrenergic Receptors | 232 | ||
| Introduction | 232 | ||
| alpha1-Adrenoceptors | 232 | ||
| alpha2-Adrenoceptors | 234 | ||
| beta-Adrenoceptors | 235 | ||
| Conclusions | 236 | ||
| Further Reading | 236 | ||
| Adult Cortical Plasticity | 238 | ||
| Introduction | 238 | ||
| Transition from Visual Cortical Development into Adult Cortical Plasticity | 238 | ||
| Use-Dependent Adult Visual Cortical Plasticity | 239 | ||
| Lesion-Induced Cortical Plasticity | 239 | ||
| Plasticity in the Primary Visual Cortex after Cortical Lesions | 240 | ||
| Reorganization of the Primary Visual Cortex Following Retinal Lesions | 240 | ||
| Mechanisms of Lesion-Induced Cortical Plasticity | 242 | ||
| Hyperactivity after Cortical and Retinal Lesions | 242 | ||
| Enhanced LTP-Like Effects | 242 | ||
| Growth Factors and Morphological Correlates of RF Plasticity | 243 | ||
| Further Reading | 243 | ||
| Aggression: Hormonal Basis | 246 | ||
| Hormonal Regulation: Shared Features in Males and Females | 246 | ||
| Hormonal Regulation in the Adult CNS | 246 | ||
| Males | 246 | ||
| Hormonal substrates | 246 | ||
| Neural steroid receptors | 247 | ||
| Neurochemical targets | 248 | ||
| Hormonal modulation of serotonin function | 248 | ||
| Arginine vasopressin | 249 | ||
| Females | 249 | ||
| DHEA: Anti-aggressive mechanism of action | 250 | ||
| Neuroanatomical Substrates | 250 | ||
| Males | 250 | ||
| Females | 252 | ||
| Human Aggression and Aversive Emotional States | 252 | ||
| Males | 252 | ||
| Females | 253 | ||
| Conclusion | 254 | ||
| Further Reading | 254 | ||
| Aggression: Neurochemical and Molecular Mechanisms | 256 | ||
| Overview - Models of Aggressive Behavior | 256 | ||
| Regions and Pathways Mediating Defensive Rage and Predatory Attack | 256 | ||
| Defensive Rage Behavior | 256 | ||
| Predatory Attack Behavior | 257 | ||
| Anatomical and functional relationship between the medial and lateral hypothalamus | 257 | ||
| Limbic Structure-Associated Pathways Modulating Aggression and Rage | 257 | ||
| Amygdala | 258 | ||
| Hippocampal Formation and Septal Area | 259 | ||
| Prefrontal Cortex and Anterior Cingulate Cortex | 259 | ||
| Neurochemical and Molecular Mechanisms of Aggression | 260 | ||
| Neurotransmitters | 260 | ||
| Excitatory neurotransmitters | 260 | ||
| Inhibitory neurotransmitters | 260 | ||
| Substances of abuse and psychotropic drugs | 260 | ||
| Genes and Cytokines | 261 | ||
| Evidence from genetic studies | 261 | ||
| Cytokines and aggression | 261 | ||
| Conclusion | 262 | ||
| Further Reading | 262 | ||
| Aging and Memory in Animals | 264 | ||
| Introduction | 264 | ||
| Cognitive Aging - A Neuropsychological Framework | 264 | ||
| Individual Variability in Cognitive Aging | 265 | ||
| Neurophysiology of Cognitive Aging | 266 | ||
| Horizons in Research on Cognitive Aging | 269 | ||
| Aging beyond the Hippocampus | 269 | ||
| Intervention | 270 | ||
| Further Reading | 270 | ||
| Aging and Memory in Humans | 272 | ||
| Memory Systems | 272 | ||
| Long-Term Memory | 272 | ||
| Declarative Memory | 272 | ||
| Semantic memory | 272 | ||
| Episodic memory | 273 | ||
| Source memory | 273 | ||
| Nondeclarative Memory | 274 | ||
| Procedural memory | 274 | ||
| Priming | 274 | ||
| Short-Term Memory | 275 | ||
| Summary and Course | 275 | ||
| Moderators and Mediators of Cognitive Aging | 276 | ||
| Further Reading | 276 | ||
| Aging of the Brain | 278 | ||
| Possible Causal Factors | 278 | ||
| Structural Changes | 278 | ||
| Biochemical and Metabolic Changes | 281 | ||
| Further Reading | 282 | ||
| Aging of the Brain and Alzheimer's Disease | 284 | ||
| Introduction | 284 | ||
| Cognitive and Memory Impairments in the Elderly | 284 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease: Clinical Features, Diagnostic Studies, Neuropathology and Biochemistry, and Current Treatments | 284 | ||
| Genetic Causes and Risk Factors for AD | 286 | ||
| Biochemistry of Amyloidosis: APP and the Secretases | 287 | ||
| Animal Models of Aging and AD | 287 | ||
| Genetic Models of Abeta Amyloidosis | 288 | ||
| Models of Tau Abnormalities | 288 | ||
| Targeting of Genes in the Amyloidogenic Pathway | 289 | ||
| BACE1-/-Mice | 289 | ||
| PSEN1-/- Mice | 289 | ||
| Nct-/- Mice | 289 | ||
| Aph-1a-/-Mice | 289 | ||
| Experimental Therapeutics | 289 | ||
| Reductions in BACE1 Activity | 289 | ||
| Inhibition of gamma-Secretase Activity | 290 | ||
| gamma-Secretase Modulation by Nonsteroidal Anti- inflammatory Compounds | 290 | ||
| Abeta Immunotherapy | 290 | ||
| Conclusions | 291 | ||
| Further Reading | 291 | ||
| Aging: Brain Potential Measures and Reaction Time Studies | 294 | ||
| Brain and Cognitive Aging | 294 | ||
| EEG and ERP methods | 294 | ||
| Processing Speed and Reaction Time | 294 | ||
| Sensory Memory | 295 | ||
| Working Memory | 295 | ||
| Declarative: Episodic Memory | 296 | ||
| Conclusions | 298 | ||
| Further Reading | 298 | ||
| Aging: Extracellular Space | 300 | ||
| Gross Anatomic Aging Changes: Extracellular Space | 300 | ||
| Diffusion and Extrasynaptic Transmission | 300 | ||
| Measurements of the Diffusion Parameters of the ECS | 300 | ||
| ECS Diffusion Parameters during Aging | 302 | ||
| Changes in ECS Diffusion Parameters in an APP23 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease | 306 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 307 | ||
| Further Reading | 307 | ||
| Aging: Invertebrate Models of Normal Brain Aging | 308 | ||
| Introduction | 308 | ||
| Neuronal Insulin-Like Signaling | 308 | ||
| DAF-2 Insulin Receptor Function in the Nervous System | 309 | ||
| DAF-16 Targets | 310 | ||
| Sensory Input and Neuroendocrine Signaling | 313 | ||
| Other Neuroendocrine Mechanisms | 313 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 314 | ||
| Further Reading | 314 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 315 | ||
| Agnosia | 316 | ||
| Further Reading | 317 | ||
| Agonistic and Affiliative Signals: Resolutions of Conflict | 320 | ||
| Vocal Displays | 320 | ||
| Vocalizations as Aggressive Signals | 320 | ||
| The Resolution of Ambiguity | 321 | ||
| Testing the Reconciliatory Hypothesis | 321 | ||
| The Cognitive Mechanisms Underlying Reconciliation | 322 | ||
| Further Reading | 323 | ||
| Agraphia | 324 | ||
| Further Reading | 325 | ||
| Alcoholism | 328 | ||
| Introduction | 328 | ||
| Diagnosis | 328 | ||
| Epidemiology | 328 | ||
| Clinical Subtypes and Comorbidity | 328 | ||
| Clinical Course and Treatment of Alcoholism | 329 | ||
| Alcoholism-Associated Toxicity | 329 | ||
| Alcoholism and Neural Development | 329 | ||
| Genetic and Environmental Influences on Alcoholism | 330 | ||
| Alcohol Effects on the Central Nervous System | 331 | ||
| Preclinical Models of Alcoholism | 331 | ||
| Genetic Animal Models | 331 | ||
| Models of Alcohol Interactions with Stress and Hormones | 332 | ||
| Models of Alcohol-Induced Toxicity | 332 | ||
| Models of Alcohol Therapeutics | 333 | ||
| Further Reading | 333 | ||
| Relevant Website | 333 | ||
| Alexia | 334 | ||
| Further Reading | 335 | ||
| Allometric Analysis of Brain Size | 336 | ||
| Quantitative Analysis: Convex Polygons | 336 | ||
| Birds and Dinosaurs | 337 | ||
| Mammals | 339 | ||
| Conclusions | 341 | ||
| Further Reading | 341 | ||
| Alternative Splicing in the Nervous System | 342 | ||
| Overview | 342 | ||
| Pre-mRNA Splicing and Alternative Splicing | 342 | ||
| Molecular Mechanisms Regulating Alternative Splicing | 342 | ||
| Neuron-Specific Splicing Regulators | 343 | ||
| Role of Alternative Splicing in the Nervous System | 345 | ||
| Neurological Disorders Associated with Dysregulation and Abnormalities of Pre-mRNA Splicing | 345 | ||
| Neurological Diseases Caused by cis-Acting Splicing Mutations | 346 | ||
| Dementia | 346 | ||
| Muscular dystrophy | 346 | ||
| Ataxia-telangiectasia and neurofibromatosis | 346 | ||
| Spinal muscular atrophy | 346 | ||
| Neurological Diseases Caused by trans-Acting Splicing Defects | 346 | ||
| Retinitis pigmentosa | 346 | ||
| Myotonic dystrophy | 347 | ||
| Prader-Willi syndrome | 347 | ||
| Ataxias | 347 | ||
| Paraneoplastic neurologic disorders | 347 | ||
| Conclusions and Future Perspective | 347 | ||
| Further Reading | 348 | ||
| Aluminum | 350 | ||
| Introduction | 350 | ||
| Background and Chemistry | 350 | ||
| Aluminum Prevalence in the Human Environment | 350 | ||
| Aluminum Entry into Nervous Tissues | 350 | ||
| Aluminum and Neurological Disease | 351 | ||
| Dialysis Encephalopathy | 351 | ||
| Evidence of Aluminum Neurotoxicity following Occupational Exposures | 351 | ||
| Other Studies Suggesting that Aluminum Salts Can Be Neurotoxic, and the Safety of Alum-Containing Vaccines | 351 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease | 351 | ||
| Mechanisms of Neurotoxicity | 352 | ||
| Oxidative Stress | 352 | ||
| Inflammation | 352 | ||
| Conclusions | 353 | ||
| Further Reading | 354 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease: An Overview | 356 | ||
| Major Neuropathologic Hallmarks | 356 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Deficits | 356 | ||
| Genetics | 357 | ||
| Abeta and Its Protein Precursor | 358 | ||
| Cytoskeletal Abnormalities | 358 | ||
| Oxidative Stress in AD | 359 | ||
| Conclusions | 359 | ||
| Further Reading | 360 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 360 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease: Molecular Genetics | 362 | ||
| Introduction | 362 | ||
| beta-Amyloid Precursor Protein | 362 | ||
| The APOE Gene | 363 | ||
| The PS Genes | 363 | ||
| Other AD Genes | 363 | ||
| Animal Models | 364 | ||
| Further Reading | 364 | ||
| Relevant Website | 364 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease: MRI Studies | 366 | ||
| Introduction | 366 | ||
| Impact | 366 | ||
| Brain Tissue Loss and Cognitive Decline | 366 | ||
| Gray Matter Deficits | 367 | ||
| Maps of Disease Progression | 368 | ||
| What Is Gray Matter Atrophy? | 369 | ||
| Abeta and Neurofibrillary Tangle Maps | 369 | ||
| Conclusion | 369 | ||
| Further Reading | 369 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease: Neurodegeneration | 372 | ||
| Neuropathology | 372 | ||
| The Abeta Cascade Hypothesis | 375 | ||
| The Tau Hypothesis | 376 | ||
| Timeline of Neurodegenerative Changes in AD | 376 | ||
| Conclusions | 377 | ||
| Further Reading | 377 | ||
| Relevant Website | 378 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease: Transgenic Mouse Models | 380 | ||
| Creation of Transgenic Mouse Models | 380 | ||
| Biological Foundation | 380 | ||
| Technical Methodology | 380 | ||
| Characteristics of Transgenic Mouse Models | 380 | ||
| APP Transgenic Mice | 380 | ||
| Tau Transgenic Mice | 381 | ||
| Other Types of Transgenic Mice | 382 | ||
| Utility of Transgenic Mouse Models | 382 | ||
| Validity of Transgenic Mouse Models | 382 | ||
| Relevance of Transgenic Mouse Models | 383 | ||
| Testing Experimental Therapies in Transgenic Mouse Models | 383 | ||
| Mechanism of Memory Loss in Transgenic Mouse Models | 383 | ||
| Further Reading | 384 | ||
| Amnesia: Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory | 386 | ||
| Introduction | 386 | ||
| Functional Amnesia | 386 | ||
| Etiology of Neurological Amnesia | 386 | ||
| Anatomy | 386 | ||
| The Nature of Amnesia | 387 | ||
| Anterograde Amnesia | 388 | ||
| Retrograde Amnesia | 388 | ||
| Spatial Memory | 388 | ||
| Nondeclarative Memory | 389 | ||
| Summary | 390 | ||
| Further Reading | 390 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 391 | ||
| AMPA Receptor Cell Biology/Trafficking | 392 | ||
| Subunit Composition of AMPARs | 392 | ||
| AMPAR Trafficking | 392 | ||
| Endoplasmic Reticulum to Synapse Trafficking Pathway | 392 | ||
| Roles of Short and Long AMPAR Subunits | 394 | ||
| Constitutive Cycling of AMPARs Is N-Ethyl Maleimide-Sensitive Factor-Dependent | 394 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Insertion of AMPARs | 394 | ||
| Maintenance of Increased Synaptic AMPARs Requires Slot Proteins | 394 | ||
| AMPARs Interact with a Complex Network of Scaffold Proteins | 395 | ||
| PSD-95 Regulates Synaptic AMPAR Content | 395 | ||
| Transmembrane AMPAR Interacting Proteins Are Required to Anchor AMPARs to PSD-95 | 395 | ||
| GRIP and ABP Anchor Short AMPAR Subunits | 395 | ||
| Neuronal Activity Regulated Pentraxin-Induced Clustering of AMPARs | 395 | ||
| AMPAR Endocytosis | 396 | ||
| Lateral Diffusion to Extrasynaptic Clathrin- Mediated Endocytosis Sites | 396 | ||
| Protein Interacting with C Kinase 1 Releases AMPARs from the Synapse | 396 | ||
| Degradation of Synaptic Scaffolds Accompanies AMPAR Internalization | 396 | ||
| Small GTPase Signaling Triggers AMPAR Endocytosis in LTD | 397 | ||
| Fate of Internalized AMPARs Is Subunit Specific | 397 | ||
| Summary | 398 | ||
| Further Reading | 398 | ||
| AMPA Receptors: Disease | 400 | ||
| Introduction | 400 | ||
| GluR2-Lacking AMPARs in Neuronal Death | 400 | ||
| Ischemia | 400 | ||
| Epilepsy | 403 | ||
| ALS | 403 | ||
| Neuronal Injury | 404 | ||
| Mechanisms of Neuronal Death via GluR2- Lacking AMPARs | 404 | ||
| Calcium | 404 | ||
| Zinc | 406 | ||
| Summary | 407 | ||
| Further Reading | 407 | ||
| AMPA Receptors: Molecular Biology and Pharmacology | 408 | ||
| Introduction | 408 | ||
| Expression of AMPA Receptors | 408 | ||
| Topology and Assembly of AMPA Receptor Subunits | 408 | ||
| AMPA Receptor Function | 409 | ||
| Posttranscriptional Modification of AMPA Receptors | 411 | ||
| Alternative RNA Splicing | 411 | ||
| RNA Editing | 411 | ||
| Posttranslational Modification | 412 | ||
| Phosphorylation of AMPA Receptors | 412 | ||
| Pharmacology of AMPA Receptors | 412 | ||
| AMPA Receptor Agonists | 412 | ||
| AMPA Receptor Competitive Antagonists | 412 | ||
| AMPA Receptor Noncompetitive Antagonists | 413 | ||
| Positive Allosteric Modulators | 413 | ||
| Pore-Blocking Molecules | 414 | ||
| Further Reading | 415 | ||
| Relevant Website | 415 | ||
| Amphetamines | 416 | ||
| Molecular Mechanisms | 416 | ||
| Behavioral Effects | 418 | ||
| Acute Administration | 418 | ||
| Chronic Administration | 419 | ||
| Sensitization | 419 | ||
| Tolerance | 419 | ||
| Psychosis | 419 | ||
| Neurotoxicity | 420 | ||
| Further Reading | 420 | ||
| Amphibian Peptides | 422 | ||
| Amphibian Skin Opioids | 422 | ||
| Origin of the Amphibian Skin Opioids | 422 | ||
| Amphibian Opioids and Opioid Receptors | 424 | ||
| Bv8-Prokineticins | 427 | ||
| Bv8-Related Neuropeptides | 427 | ||
| Bv8-Prokineticin Receptors | 428 | ||
| Further Reading | 429 | ||
| Amygdala: Contributions to Fear | 432 | ||
| History | 432 | ||
| Anatomy of Fear | 432 | ||
| Innate Fear | 434 | ||
| Learned Fear | 435 | ||
| Pathological Fear | 436 | ||
| Further Reading | 437 | ||
| Amygdala: Structure and Circuitry in Primates | 438 | ||
| Introduction | 438 | ||
| Structure | 438 | ||
| Intrinsic Connections | 438 | ||
| Cortical Connections | 438 | ||
| Sensory Cortex | 438 | ||
| Perirhinal and Parahippocampal Cortex | 439 | ||
| Entorhinal Cortex | 440 | ||
| Prefrontal Cortex | 440 | ||
| Subcortical Connections | 440 | ||
| Basal Forebrain | 440 | ||
| Striatum | 440 | ||
| Thalamus | 440 | ||
| Hypothalamus | 441 | ||
| Brain Stem | 441 | ||
| Chemoarchitecture | 441 | ||
| Function | 441 | ||
| Further Reading | 441 | ||
| Amygdala: Structure and Circuitry in Rodents and Felines | 444 | ||
| Introduction | 444 | ||
| Main Components of the Amygdala: Structure, Cell Types, and Connectivity | 444 | ||
| Cortex-Like Nuclei of the Amygdala | 444 | ||
| Basolateral Complex | 444 | ||
| Central Nucleus | 445 | ||
| Intercalated Cell Masses | 446 | ||
| Electroresponsive Properties of Amygdala Neurons | 446 | ||
| Basolateral Complex | 446 | ||
| Central Nucleus | 447 | ||
| Intercalated Cell Masses | 447 | ||
| Neuronal Interactions between the Basolateral Amygdala and Central Nucleus | 447 | ||
| Intrinsic Control of Neuronal Excitability and Plasticity within the Basolateral Amygdala | 447 | ||
| Transfer of Sensory Inputs from the BLA to the CE | 448 | ||
| Gating of BLA Projections to the CE by Intercalated Neurons | 448 | ||
| The Amygdala Mediates the Facilitation of Memory by Emotions | 449 | ||
| Further Reading | 450 | ||
| Amyloid: Vascular and Parenchymal | 452 | ||
| Introduction | 452 | ||
| Aging of the Brain and Cerebral Arteries | 452 | ||
| Changes in the Brain Associated with Dementia | 452 | ||
| Intracellular Protein Deposits | 452 | ||
| Accumulation of Tau Protein | 452 | ||
| Accumulation of Synuclein | 453 | ||
| Accumulation of Huntingtin | 453 | ||
| Deposition of Amyloid in the Extracellular Spaces of the Brain | 453 | ||
| Accumulation of Amyloid Proteins in the Brain in Alzheimer's Disease | 454 | ||
| Elimination of Abeta from the Brain | 454 | ||
| Perivascular Route for the Elimination of Interstitial Fluid and Abeta from the Brain | 454 | ||
| Pathways for the Drainage of CSF | 455 | ||
| Failure of Elimination of Abeta from the Brain with Advancing Age and Alzheimer's Disease | 455 | ||
| Consequences of Amyloid Deposition in the Brain and Vessel Walls | 456 | ||
| Intracerebral Hemorrhage | 456 | ||
| Dementia | 457 | ||
| Fluid in Subcortical White Matter | 457 | ||
| Genetic Factors in Alzheimer's Disease and Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy | 457 | ||
| Immunotherapy for Alzheimer's Disease | 458 | ||
| Conclusions | 458 | ||
| Further Reading | 458 | ||
| Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) | 460 | ||
| Introduction | 460 | ||
| Epidemiology | 460 | ||
| ALS-P arkinsonism-Dementia Complex | 460 | ||
| Familial or Hereditary ALS | 461 | ||
| Histopathology | 461 | ||
| Pathogenic Mechanisms | 461 | ||
| Clinical Features and Clinical Course | 463 | ||
| Management | 464 | ||
| Clinical Trials and Emerging Therapies | 464 | ||
| Further Reading | 465 | ||
| Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): Disease Mechanisms | 466 | ||
| Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis | 466 | ||
| Mechanisms of Motor Neuron Degeneration | 466 | ||
| Excitotoxicity | 466 | ||
| Mitochondrial Dysfunction | 466 | ||
| Protein Aggregation | 468 | ||
| Neurofilaments and Axonal Transport | 468 | ||
| Growth Factor Signaling | 469 | ||
| Neuroinflammation/Glial Activation | 469 | ||
| Summary | 470 | ||
| Further Reading | 470 | ||
| Relevant Website | 470 | ||
| Angelman Syndrome | 472 | ||
| Introduction | 472 | ||
| Clinical Background | 472 | ||
| Molecular Genetics of AS | 472 | ||
| Deletion | 472 | ||
| Uniparental Disomy | 473 | ||
| Imprinting Defect | 473 | ||
| UBE3A Mutation | 473 | ||
| Negative Molecular Studies | 473 | ||
| Molecular Biology of AS | 473 | ||
| Clinical Difference in Classes of AS | 474 | ||
| Mechanisms of Genetic Imprinting | 474 | ||
| Imprinting of the Prader-Willi Syndrome/AS Region | 475 | ||
| Gene Repression of UBE3A | 476 | ||
| Tissue-Specific Imprinting | 476 | ||
| Summary | 476 | ||
| Further Reading | 477 | ||
| Angiotensin Actions on and within Brain | 478 | ||
| Overview | 478 | ||
| Circulating Angiotensin and Its Actions on the Brain | 478 | ||
| Generation of Circulating Angiotensin | 478 | ||
| Centrally Mediated Cardiovascular Effects of Circulating Angiotensin | 480 | ||
| Thirst | 480 | ||
| Salt Appetite | 481 | ||
| Vasopressin Secretion | 481 | ||
| Renal Sympathetic Nerve Activity | 482 | ||
| Actions of Centrally Generated Angiotensin on the Brain | 482 | ||
| Generation of Angiotensin in the CNS | 482 | ||
| Angiotensin Receptors within the CNS | 482 | ||
| Effects of Centrally Administered Angiotensin II | 483 | ||
| Thirst and Vasopressin Secretion | 483 | ||
| Sodium Appetite | 484 | ||
| Arterial Pressure | 484 | ||
| Natriuresis | 484 | ||
| ACTH Secretion | 484 | ||
| Body Temperature | 484 | ||
| Memory | 485 | ||
| Cerebral Blood Flow | 485 | ||
| Further Reading | 485 | ||
| Angiotensin II | 486 | ||
| Introduction | 486 | ||
| Generation of Systemic Angiotensin II | 486 | ||
| Stimuli for Renin Secretion and Angiotensin Generation | 487 | ||
| Angiotensin Receptors | 487 | ||
| Subtypes and Structure | 487 | ||
| Location of AT1 Receptors in the CNS | 488 | ||
| Intracellular Signaling | 488 | ||
| Central Actions of Circulating Angiotensin | 489 | ||
| Thirst | 489 | ||
| Salt Appetite | 489 | ||
| Vasopressin Secretion | 490 | ||
| Renal Sympathetic Nerve Activity | 490 | ||
| Brain-Derived Angiotensin | 490 | ||
| Angiotensin Generation in the Brain | 490 | ||
| Actions of Brain-Derived Angiotensin Peptides on Fluid and Electrolyte Balance | 491 | ||
| Further Reading | 492 | ||
| Animal Communication: Honesty and Deception | 494 | ||
| Definitions | 494 | ||
| Context of Deception | 494 | ||
| A Brief History | 495 | ||
| Classifying Signals Based on the Type of Cost That Guarantees Honesty | 495 | ||
| Handicap Signals | 496 | ||
| Index Signals | 497 | ||
| Conventional Signals | 500 | ||
| Do Animals Cheat? | 501 | ||
| Further Reading | 502 | ||
| Animal Intelligence: The Search for Animal Intelligence | 504 | ||
| Introduction | 504 | ||
| Stimulus-Bound Concepts | 504 | ||
| Abstract Concept Learning | 506 | ||
| Memory | 507 | ||
| Further Reading | 511 | ||
| Animal Models of Alzheimer's Disease | 512 | ||
| Introduction | 512 | ||
| Genetically Modified Animal Models | 512 | ||
| APP Mouse Models and Abeta-Related Pathology | 512 | ||
| Mouse Models with Mutations in the Abeta Region | 514 | ||
| ApoE Mouse Models | 515 | ||
| Tau Mouse Models | 515 | ||
| Other Mouse Models | 516 | ||
| Conclusions | 517 | ||
| Further Reading | 517 | ||
| Relevant Website | 518 | ||
| Animal Models of Amnesia | 520 | ||
| Early Contributions to the Study of Memory: The Pioneers | 520 | ||
| Amnesia: The Paradox and Animal Models | 520 | ||
| Rodent Models of Memory Function | 520 | ||
| Nonhuman Primate Models of Memory Function: Medial Temporal Lobe | 522 | ||
| Nonhuman Primate Models of Memory Function: Prefrontal Cortices | 524 | ||
| Medical Temporal and Prefrontal Interactions? | 524 | ||
| Conclusion | 524 | ||
| Further Reading | 525 | ||
| Animal Models of Huntington's Disease | 526 | ||
| N-Terminal Exon-1 Transgenic Mouse Models | 527 | ||
| Full-Length Transgenic Mouse Models | 529 | ||
| Knockin Models | 532 | ||
| Conclusion | 532 | ||
| Further Reading | 532 | ||
| Relevant Website | 533 | ||
| Animal Models of Inherited Retinal Degenerations | 534 | ||
| Introduction | 534 | ||
| Organization of the Retina | 534 | ||
| Interaction of Genetically Induced Photoreceptor Death with Normal Photoreceptor Death | 535 | ||
| Insights into the Diversity of Genetically Induced Photoreceptor Death | 536 | ||
| Why Are Photoreceptors Selectively Vulnerable to Mutations in Ubiquitously Expressed Genes? | 536 | ||
| Interactions with Retinal Cell Biology | 537 | ||
| Rod-Cone Interdependence | 537 | ||
| Pathways to Therapy | 538 | ||
| Gene replacement therapy | 538 | ||
| Stem cell or progenitor cell therapies | 538 | ||
| Retinal transplantation | 539 | ||
| Pharmaceutical interventions | 539 | ||
| Light restriction | 540 | ||
| Antioxidant therapy | 540 | ||
| Near-infrared radiation | 540 | ||
| The Range of Animal Models of Human Diseases | 540 | ||
| Further Reading | 543 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 544 | ||
| Animal Models of Motor and Sensory Neuron Disease | 546 | ||
| Motor and Sensory Tracts | 546 | ||
| Gene Deletion ('Knockout') and Transgenic Mouse Models | 546 | ||
| Neurodegeneration in Human | 546 | ||
| Motor Disease | 546 | ||
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis | 546 | ||
| Spinal muscular atrophy | 550 | ||
| Motor and Sensory Disease | 550 | ||
| Charcot-Marie -Tooth | 550 | ||
| Giant axonal neuropathy | 551 | ||
| Conclusion | 551 | ||
| Further Reading | 551 | ||
| Animal Models of Parkinson's Disease | 552 | ||
| Introduction | 552 | ||
| PD | 552 | ||
| DA Depletion | 552 | ||
| Reserpine | 552 | ||
| Nigral Cell Loss | 553 | ||
| 6-Hydroxydopamine | 553 | ||
| 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine | 554 | ||
| The MPTP mouse model | 554 | ||
| The MPTP primate model | 555 | ||
| Environmental Toxin Models | 556 | ||
| Rotenone | 557 | ||
| Paraquat and maneb | 557 | ||
| Protein Aggregation | 557 | ||
| Transgenic Animals | 557 | ||
| Alpha-synuclein transgenic models | 557 | ||
| Parkin and ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase L1 transgenic models | 558 | ||
| Viral Vector-Delivered alpha-Synuclein | 558 | ||
| Other PD Models | 558 | ||
| Lipopolysaccharide | 558 | ||
| Aged Animals | 558 | ||
| Animal Models of Dyskinesia | 558 | ||
| Conclusions | 559 | ||
| Further Reading | 559 | ||
| Animal Models of Stroke | 562 | ||
| Introduction | 562 | ||
| Can Animal Models Mimic Human Stroke? | 562 | ||
| Cerebral Ischemia Models: Global versus Focal Ischemia | 563 | ||
| Global Cerebral Ischemia | 563 | ||
| Complete global ischemia | 563 | ||
| Incomplete global ischemia | 564 | ||
| Focal Cerebral Ischemia | 565 | ||
| Middle cerebral artery occlusion | 565 | ||
| Common carotid artery occlusion | 567 | ||
| Pial strip | 568 | ||
| Photothrombosis | 568 | ||
| Embolic | 568 | ||
| Endothelin | 568 | ||
| Hemorrhagic Stroke Models | 569 | ||
| Conclusion | 569 | ||
| Further Reading | 569 | ||
| Animals and the Biology of Music | 570 | ||
| Introduction | 570 | ||
| Terms and Definitions | 570 | ||
| Animal Song | 571 | ||
| Mechanisms Underlying Complex Learned Vocalizations | 572 | ||
| Animal Drumming | 573 | ||
| Ape Drumming | 574 | ||
| Conclusions | 574 | ||
| Further Reading | 575 | ||
| Anterior-Posterior Spinal Cord Patterning of the Motor Pool | 576 | ||
| Introduction | 576 | ||
| Anatomical Organization of Motor Neuron Cell Bodies and Their Axonal Projections | 576 | ||
| Classical Studies on Motor Neuron Development in the Chick | 576 | ||
| Positional Information and Cell Type Specification in the Spinal Cord | 577 | ||
| Establishing Patterns of Hox Gene Expression along the Rostrocaudal Axis | 578 | ||
| Hox Proteins Function in the Specification of Segmentally Restricted Motor Columns | 579 | ||
| Hox Transcription Factors and Motor Pool Identity | 580 | ||
| Identification of Motor Pools at Early Stages by Transcription Factor Expression | 580 | ||
| Hox Proteins and Motor Pool Rostrocaudal Positional Specification | 581 | ||
| Hox Proteins and the Intrasegmental Diversification of Motor Pool Identities | 581 | ||
| Conclusions | 582 | ||
| Further Reading | 583 | ||
| Antipsychotic Drugs | 584 | ||
| Introduction | 584 | ||
| Conventional Neuroleptics | 584 | ||
| Treatment of Acute Psychotic Exacerbations | 584 | ||
| Preventing Psychotic Relapse | 585 | ||
| Long-Acting Injectable Preparations | 585 | ||
| Tardive Dyskinesia | 586 | ||
| Clozapine | 586 | ||
| Newer Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs | 587 | ||
| Large Comparative Trials | 587 | ||
| Summary | 588 | ||
| Further Reading | 589 | ||
| Anxiety Disorders | 590 | ||
| Introduction | 590 | ||
| Phenomenology | 590 | ||
| Epidemiology | 590 | ||
| Diagnosis and Evaluation | 590 | ||
| DSM-IV and ICD-10 | 590 | ||
| Categorical and Dimensional Approaches | 591 | ||
| Rating Scales | 591 | ||
| Neurobiology | 591 | ||
| Neurocircuitry | 591 | ||
| Neurochemistry | 592 | ||
| Neurogenetics | 592 | ||
| Treatment | 593 | ||
| Pharmacotherapy | 593 | ||
| Psychotherapy | 593 | ||
| Novel Treatments | 593 | ||
| Conclusion | 593 | ||
| Further Reading | 594 | ||
| Anxiety: Drug Therapy | 596 | ||
| Introduction | 596 | ||
| Mechanisms of Drug Action | 596 | ||
| Serotonergic Mechanisms | 596 | ||
| Noradrenergic Mechanisms | 597 | ||
| GABAergic and Glutamatergic Mechanisms | 598 | ||
| GABA | 598 | ||
| Glutamate | 598 | ||
| Corticotropin Releasing Hormone and Peptidergic Systems | 599 | ||
| Pharmacotherapeutic Strategies | 599 | ||
| GAD | 599 | ||
| Panic Disorder | 601 | ||
| SAD | 602 | ||
| OCD | 603 | ||
| PTSD | 604 | ||
| Further Reading | 605 | ||
| Apelin | 606 | ||
| Discovery | 606 | ||
| Structure and Processing of the Apelin Precursor | 606 | ||
| Apelin Receptor Internalization and Signaling Cascades | 606 | ||
| Distribution of Apelin and Its Receptor in Adult Rat Brain | 607 | ||
| Topographical Distribution of Apelin Immunoreactivity | 607 | ||
| Expression of Apelin Receptor mRNA | 607 | ||
| Apelin: Physiological Actions within the Brain and Anterior Pituitary Gland | 608 | ||
| Involvement of Central Apelin in the Regulation of Food Intake | 608 | ||
| Role of Peripheral Apelin in Feeding and Digestion | 608 | ||
| Involvement of Apelin in Regulation of the Hypothalamic-Adrenal-Pituitary Axis | 609 | ||
| Involvement of Apelin in Maintenance of Body Fluid Homeostasis | 610 | ||
| Peripheral Cardiovascular Actions | 613 | ||
| Conclusions and Pathophysiological Implications | 613 | ||
| Further Reading | 613 | ||
| Aphasia: Sudden and Progressive | 614 | ||
| Introduction | 614 | ||
| Clinical Examination | 614 | ||
| Aphasias of Cerebrovascular Origin | 615 | ||
| Wernicke's Aphasia | 615 | ||
| Broca's Aphasia | 615 | ||
| Global Aphasia | 615 | ||
| Conduction Aphasia | 615 | ||
| Nonfluent Transcortical Aphasia (Transcortical Motor Aphasia) | 616 | ||
| Fluent Transcortical Aphasia (Transcortical Sensory Aphasia) | 616 | ||
| Isolation Aphasia | 616 | ||
| Anomic Aphasia | 616 | ||
| Pure Word Deafness | 616 | ||
| Pure Alexia without Agraphia | 616 | ||
| Neurodegenerative Aphasia | 616 | ||
| Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis | 617 | ||
| Language in PPA | 617 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 617 | ||
| Neuropathology | 617 | ||
| Further Reading | 618 | ||
| Apoptosis in Nervous System Injury | 620 | ||
| CNS Injury - Overview | 620 | ||
| Apoptosis - Introduction | 620 | ||
| Molecular Mechanisms of Apoptosis in CNS Injury | 621 | ||
| Neuronal Apoptosis in CNS Injury | 622 | ||
| Oligodendrocyte Apoptosis in CNS Injury | 623 | ||
| Role of Microglia in Neuronal and Oligodendrocyte Apoptosis | 623 | ||
| Role of Astrocytes in Apoptosis after CNS Injury | 624 | ||
| Summary | 625 | ||
| Further Reading | 625 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 626 | ||
| Apoptosis in Neurodegenerative Disease | 628 | ||
| Apoptosis | 628 | ||
| Molecular Regulation of Apoptosis | 628 | ||
| Caspases | 628 | ||
| Bcl-2 Family | 628 | ||
| Extrinsic versus Intrinsic Death Pathway | 629 | ||
| Apoptosis and Neurodegeneration | 630 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease | 630 | ||
| Parkinson's Disease | 631 | ||
| Huntington's Disease | 632 | ||
| Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis | 633 | ||
| Nonapoptotic Neurodegeneration | 633 | ||
| Summary | 634 | ||
| Further Reading | 634 | ||
| Appetitive Systems: Amygdala and Striatum | 636 | ||
| Introduction | 636 | ||
| Anatomical Routes for Amygdalar-Striatal Interactions | 636 | ||
| Corticostriatal Circuitry | 636 | ||
| Extended Amygdala | 637 | ||
| Function of Amygdala-Striata Interactions | 637 | ||
| Overview | 637 | ||
| The Basolateral Amygdala and Stimulus-Affect Learning | 639 | ||
| The Central Amygdala and Conditioned Anticipatory Arousal | 639 | ||
| The Striatum as a Site of Integration and Selection | 640 | ||
| Mesolimbic Dopamine Contributes to Both Motivational Learning and Performance | 640 | ||
| Amygdalar-Striatal Interactions and Drug Addiction | 641 | ||
| Summary | 641 | ||
| Further Reading | 642 | ||
| Apraxia: Disease | 644 | ||
| Introduction | 644 | ||
| Imitation of Gestures | 644 | ||
| Production of Communicative Gestures on Command | 646 | ||
| Use of Single Tools | 646 | ||
| Multistep Actions with Multiple Tools and Objects | 647 | ||
| The Praxis System | 648 | ||
| Further Reading | 648 | ||
| Apraxia: Sensory System | 650 | ||
| Historical Background | 650 | ||
| Limb Apraxia Subtypes | 650 | ||
| LKA | 650 | ||
| IA | 650 | ||
| Conceptual Apraxia | 650 | ||
| IMA | 651 | ||
| Disconnection and Dissociation Apraxias | 652 | ||
| Outstanding Issues in Diagnosis of Apraxia Subtype | 653 | ||
| Relevance of Recognition and Imitation Deficits for Diagnosis of IMA versus IA or Conceptual Apraxia | 653 | ||
| Relationship of Object Knowledge to Gesture Representations | 653 | ||
| Functional Implications of Limb Apraxia | 653 | ||
| IMA in View of Recent Developments in the Motor Control Literature | 654 | ||
| Imitation | 654 | ||
| Object-Related Action | 654 | ||
| Spatiomotor Frames of Reference for Action | 654 | ||
| Feedforward and Feedback-Driven Processes in IMA | 655 | ||
| Treatment of Limb Apraxia | 655 | ||
| Testing for Limb Apraxia | 655 | ||
| Conclusions | 655 | ||
| Further Reading | 656 | ||
| Artificial Intelligence | 658 | ||
| Overview | 658 | ||
| Shared Origins in the Postwar Cognitive Revolution | 658 | ||
| Domain-Focused Research That Cuts Across AI and Cognitive Science | 658 | ||
| Role of Formal Logic in AI and Cognitive Science | 659 | ||
| Learning and the Connectionist Approach to Cognitive Science | 659 | ||
| Nature and Nurture: Rules versus Connections | 660 | ||
| Current and Future Trends | 661 | ||
| Further Reading | 661 | ||
| Astrocyte: Calcium Signaling | 662 | ||
| Introduction | 662 | ||
| Identification of Astrocytes by Ca2+ Signals | 662 | ||
| Spontaneous Ca2+ Transients and Oscillations | 663 | ||
| Molecular Mechanisms of Ca2+ Signaling | 664 | ||
| Intra- and Intercellular Ca2+ Signaling | 666 | ||
| Ca2+ Responses to Transmitters and Other Signaling Molecules | 667 | ||
| Ca2+ Responses to Neuronal Activity | 667 | ||
| Functional Significance of Ca2+ Signaling | 668 | ||
| Summary | 668 | ||
| Further Reading | 669 | ||
| Astrocyte: Identification Methods | 670 | ||
| Introduction | 670 | ||
| Astroglial Structure | 670 | ||
| Cell-Type-Specific Gene Expression | 670 | ||
| Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein: The Main Constituent of Astroglial Intermediate Filaments | 670 | ||
| S100beta and Glutamine Synthetase as Cytosolic Markers of Astrocytes | 672 | ||
| Glutamate Transporters GLAST and GLT-1: The Most Abundant Membrane Proteins of Astrocytes | 672 | ||
| Transgenic Labeling of Astrocytes | 672 | ||
| Electrophysiological Membrane Properties | 673 | ||
| Conclusion | 674 | ||
| Further Reading | 674 | ||
| Astrocyte: Neurotransmitter and Hormone Receptors | 676 | ||
| Background | 676 | ||
| Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors | 676 | ||
| mGluRs | 677 | ||
| gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Receptors | 678 | ||
| GABAB Receptors | 678 | ||
| Purinergic Receptors | 678 | ||
| Glycine Receptors | 679 | ||
| Acetylcholine Receptors | 679 | ||
| Adrenergic Receptors | 679 | ||
| Dopamine Receptors | 680 | ||
| Histamine Receptors | 680 | ||
| Serotonin Receptors | 680 | ||
| Angiotensin Receptors | 680 | ||
| Atrial Natriuretic Peptide Receptors | 680 | ||
| Bradykinin Receptors | 681 | ||
| Endothelin Receptors | 681 | ||
| Opioid Receptors | 681 | ||
| Oxytocin and Vasopressin Receptors | 681 | ||
| Somatostatin Receptors | 681 | ||
| Tachykinin Receptors | 681 | ||
| Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors | 682 | ||
| Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide Receptors | 682 | ||
| Further Reading | 682 | ||
| Astrocyte: Response to Injury | 684 | ||
| Introduction | 684 | ||
| How Do Astrocytes Fare in the Face of Ischemic-Like Insults? | 684 | ||
| Hypoxia | 684 | ||
| OGD (In Vitro Ischemia) | 684 | ||
| In Vivo Studies ('True' Ischemia) | 684 | ||
| Astrocytic Responses to Ischemic-Like Insults | 685 | ||
| Mitochondrial Dysfunction | 685 | ||
| Reactive Oxygen Species | 685 | ||
| Glutamate Uptake | 686 | ||
| Cell Swelling | 687 | ||
| Apoptosis | 688 | ||
| Conclusions | 690 | ||
| Further Reading | 690 | ||
| Atomic Force Microscopy Methodologies | 692 | ||
| Introduction | 692 | ||
| Atomic Forces and Their Measurement | 692 | ||
| Scanning Modes | 693 | ||
| Image Collection | 693 | ||
| Quantitative Data | 694 | ||
| Limitations and Drawbacks | 694 | ||
| Further Reading | 695 | ||
| Atrial Natriuretic Peptide: Fluid/Mineral Balance | 696 | ||
| Introduction | 696 | ||
| Discovery of the Natriuretic Peptides | 696 | ||
| Control of Natriuretic Peptide Production and Release | 696 | ||
| CNS Localization of NPs and NP Receptors | 697 | ||
| Pharmacologic Effects of the NPs in Brain | 698 | ||
| NPs and Vasopressin Secretion | 698 | ||
| ANF and Thirst | 699 | ||
| ANF and Salt Appetite | 699 | ||
| ANF and Central Autonomic Control | 700 | ||
| Summary | 700 | ||
| Further Reading | 700 | ||
| Attention and Eye Movements | 702 | ||
| What Is Attention? | 702 | ||
| Attention and Gaze Stabilization | 703 | ||
| The Role of Attention in Perception versus the Role of Attention in Smooth Eye Movements | 705 | ||
| Summary: Attention and Gaze Stabilization | 706 | ||
| Attention and Saccadic Shifts of Gaze | 706 | ||
| Eye Position as an Overt Marker of the Locus of Attention | 706 | ||
| Decisions, Attention, and Saliency Maps | 708 | ||
| Saccades and Attention | 710 | ||
| Summary: Attention and Saccades | 712 | ||
| OveralSummary and Conclusion | 713 | ||
| Further Reading | 713 | ||
| Relevant Website | 713 | ||
| Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder | 714 | ||
| Introduction | 714 | ||
| Diagnosis | 714 | ||
| Prevalence | 714 | ||
| Neurobiology | 716 | ||
| Etiology | 716 | ||
| Environmental Agents | 716 | ||
| Food and Food Additives | 716 | ||
| Genetics | 716 | ||
| Treatment | 717 | ||
| Stimulant Medication | 717 | ||
| Side effects | 718 | ||
| Nonstimulant Medication | 718 | ||
| Nonmedication Interventions | 718 | ||
| Treatment sequencing | 718 | ||
| Behavioral parent training | 719 | ||
| Behavioral classroom interventions | 719 | ||
| Social skills training | 719 | ||
| Alternative therapies | 719 | ||
| Further Reading | 720 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 721 | ||
| Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Methylphenidate (Ritalin) and Dopamine | 722 | ||
| Behavioral Profile of ADHD | 722 | ||
| Clinical Characteristics | 722 | ||
| Cognitive Characteristics | 722 | ||
| Summary | 724 | ||
| Evidence for Dopaminergic Dysfunction in ADHD | 724 | ||
| Therapeutic Action of MPH | 724 | ||
| Hyper- and hypodopaminergic status in ADHD | 724 | ||
| Working hypothesis of dopaminergic dysfunction in ADHD | 724 | ||
| Variability in MPH response | 725 | ||
| Candidate Dopaminergic Genes | 725 | ||
| Variability in ADHD symptoms and MPH response | 725 | ||
| Functional Brain Imaging of MPH Effects | 726 | ||
| Summary | 727 | ||
| Future Direction: Endophenotypes for ADHD | 727 | ||
| Further Reading | 727 | ||
| Attention: Models | 730 | ||
| Introduction | 730 | ||
| Parametric Models for Stimulus Response Properties of Early Visual Neurons | 730 | ||
| Parametric Models for Attentional Modulation of Early Visual Responses | 731 | ||
| Biophysical Models for Attentional Response Modulation | 733 | ||
| Discussion | 733 | ||
| Further Reading | 733 | ||
| Attentional Functions in Learning and Memory | 736 | ||
| Attention and Memory: Conceptual Issues | 736 | ||
| Neuronal Macrosystems Mediating Attentional Functions and Capacities: Major Research Themes | 736 | ||
| Neurotransmitter-Specific Projection Systems in Attention and Learning | 737 | ||
| Ascending Modulatory Systems Mediating Attention: Involvement in Learning | 739 | ||
| Attention and Learning: Relevance for Aging and Neurodegenerative and Neuropsychiatric Disorders | 740 | ||
| Further Reading | 742 | ||
| Attentional Mechanisms in Ventral Pathway | 744 | ||
| Introduction | 744 | ||
| Studying the Manifestations versus the Control | 744 | ||
| Enhanced Processing of Attended Objects: The Beneficial Effects of Spatially Directed Attention | 745 | ||
| Top-Down Control: Biases and Baseline Shifts | 746 | ||
| Coherent Firing at the Population Level | 746 | ||
| Competitive Interactions among Multiple Visual Stimuli | 746 | ||
| Resolving the Competition: Selection and Filtering | 747 | ||
| Top-Down versus Bottom-Up in Selective Attention | 748 | ||
| Feature-Based Attention | 749 | ||
| Gating-Feature Information, or Feature-Selective Attention | 749 | ||
| Conclusions | 749 | ||
| Further Reading | 750 | ||
| Attentional Networks | 752 | ||
| Principles of the Human Attention System | 752 | ||
| Alerting | 752 | ||
| Shifting Selective Attention: Cue Interpretation and Orienting | 753 | ||
| Executive Control | 754 | ||
| Integration of Attentional Processes | 756 | ||
| Further Reading | 757 | ||
| Attentional Networks in the Parietal Cortex | 758 | ||
| Introduction | 758 | ||
| Organization and Connectivity | 758 | ||
| Function | 760 | ||
| Lesions | 762 | ||
| Conclusion | 763 | ||
| Further Reading | 763 | ||
| Attractor Network Models | 764 | ||
| Introduction | 764 | ||
| The Neuron Is a Dynamical System | 764 | ||
| Synaptic Plasticity and Associative Memory | 766 | ||
| Persistent Activity and Working Memory | 768 | ||
| Winner-Take-All and Vector Averaging | 772 | ||
| Time Integration and Categorical Decision Making | 772 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 775 | ||
| See also | 776 | ||
| Further Reading | 776 | ||
| Audiovocal Communication in Bats | 778 | ||
| Introduction | 778 | ||
| Echolocation versus Communication | 778 | ||
| Eavesdropping | 779 | ||
| Mother-Infant Interactions | 779 | ||
| Acoustic Structure of Social Calls | 780 | ||
| Syllables and Syntax | 781 | ||
| Call Variability | 782 | ||
| Geographic Dialects and Vocal Learning | 782 | ||
| Social Communication Behavior | 784 | ||
| Singing and Babbling | 785 | ||
| Motivational Basis of Call Structure | 785 | ||
| Conclusion | 786 | ||
| Further Reading | 786 | ||
| Auditory/Somatosensory Interactions | 788 | ||
| Introduction | 788 | ||
| Somatosensory Influences on Auditory Cortex | 788 | ||
| Connections between Auditory and Somatosensory Cortex | 788 | ||
| Auditory cortex receives input from somatosensory cortex | 788 | ||
| Responses of bimodal neurons in auditory cortex | 788 | ||
| Activity-dependent plasticity in cortical auditory-somatosensory interactions | 789 | ||
| Somatosensory Influences on IC | 790 | ||
| Connections between IC and Somatosensory Nuclei | 791 | ||
| Inputs from the trigeminal nuclei | 791 | ||
| Bimodal Responses of Neurons in ICX | 792 | ||
| Somatosensory Influences on the CN | 792 | ||
| Connections between CN and Somatosensory Nuclei | 792 | ||
| Inputs from the trigeminal system | 792 | ||
| Projections from other somatosensory structures to the CN | 793 | ||
| Responses of CN Neurons to Stimulation of Somatosensory Pathways | 794 | ||
| Responses of CN neurons to somatosensory stimulation in the absence of sound | 795 | ||
| Multisensory integration in the CN: responses to combined somatosensory and acoustic stimulation | 795 | ||
| Significance of bimodal integration in the CN and beyond | 795 | ||
| Further Reading | 796 | ||
| Auditory Cortex Structure and Circuitry | 798 | ||
| Introduction | 798 | ||
| Organization of Auditory Cortex | 798 | ||
| Thalamic Input | 798 | ||
| Area Parcellation | 799 | ||
| Connections of Auditory Cortex | 799 | ||
| Local Structure of Primary Auditory Cortex | 799 | ||
| Interconnections between Areas of Auditory Cortex | 800 | ||
| Cortical Projections Beyond Auditory Cortex | 801 | ||
| Projections to Subcortical Nuclei | 802 | ||
| Other Circuitry | 802 | ||
| Organization of Specialized Auditory Cortex: Echolocating Bats | 802 | ||
| Physiology of Unspecialized Auditory Cortex | 803 | ||
| Outstanding Questions | 804 | ||
| Further Reading | 804 | ||
| Auditory Cortex: Models | 806 | ||
| Introduction | 806 | ||
| Auditory Cortical Fields | 806 | ||
| General Cortical Mechanisms | 806 | ||
| Encoding of Timbre | 807 | ||
| Pitch Representation in the Cortex | 808 | ||
| Models of Sound Localization | 808 | ||
| Neural Correlates Auditory Scene Analysis | 809 | ||
| Emerging Functional Views of the Cortex | 810 | ||
| The Chameleon Brain | 810 | ||
| Multimodal Influences | 811 | ||
| Feedback and Top-Down and Cognitive Influences | 811 | ||
| Further Reading | 811 | ||
| Auditory Evoked Potentials | 812 | ||
| Introduction | 812 | ||
| AEPs Produced by Brief Stimuli | 812 | ||
| Dependencies on Stimulus Parameters | 812 | ||
| Dependencies on Arousal and Attention | 812 | ||
| Neural Generators of AEPs | 813 | ||
| Magnetic Analog of the AEP | 814 | ||
| Other, Specialized AEPs | 814 | ||
| AEP Correlates of Auditory Perception | 815 | ||
| Further Reading | 816 | ||
| Auditory Localization | 818 | ||
| Basic Concepts and Terms | 818 | ||
| Behavioral Studies of Auditory Localization | 818 | ||
| Parallel Brain Pathways for Processing ITD and ILD | 820 | ||
| Detection and Coding of the ITD | 820 | ||
| Resolution of Phase Ambiguity | 822 | ||
| Processing of ILDs | 823 | ||
| Convergence of Time and Intensity Pathways | 823 | ||
| A Map of Auditory Space | 823 | ||
| A Motor Map for Sound Localization | 823 | ||
| Further Reading | 825 | ||
| Auditory Scene Analysis | 826 | ||
| The Scene Analysis Problem | 826 | ||
| Primitive and Schema-Based Processes | 826 | ||
| ASA as Grouping | 827 | ||
| Sequential Integration and Segregation | 827 | ||
| Factors Contributing to Sequential Segregation | 828 | ||
| Cumulative Effects | 828 | ||
| Van Noorden's Two Boundaries | 828 | ||
| Effects of Sequential Grouping | 829 | ||
| Simultaneous Integration | 829 | ||
| Cues Favoring the Grouping of Simultaneous Components | 829 | ||
| Achievement of Stability in the Face of Unreliable Acoustic Evidence | 830 | ||
| Competition between Sequential and Simultaneous Grouping | 830 | ||
| The Old-Plus-New Heuristic | 831 | ||
| Explanations | 831 | ||
| ASA in Other Animals | 832 | ||
| Computational Auditory Scene Analysis | 833 | ||
| Conclusions | 833 | ||
| Further Reading | 833 | ||
| Auditory System: Central Pathway Plasticity | 834 | ||
| Introduction | 834 | ||
| Developmental Plasticity | 834 | ||
| Effects of Neonatal Cochlear Ablation | 834 | ||
| Changes in Maps of Auditory Space | 834 | ||
| Adult Plasticity | 835 | ||
| Plasticity Induced by Restricted Cochlear Damage | 835 | ||
| Plastic Effects of Cochlear Electrical Stimulation in Profoundly Deaf Animals | 837 | ||
| Plasticity Associated with Various Forms of Learning | 838 | ||
| Plasticity Associated with Environmental Enrichment | 838 | ||
| Plasticity Induced by Microstimulation | 839 | ||
| Plasticity Induced by Direct Activation of Neuromodulatory Systems | 839 | ||
| Cellular Mechanisms of CAS Plasticity | 840 | ||
| Functional Significance of Central Auditory System Plasticity | 840 | ||
| Further Reading | 841 | ||
| Auditory System: Central Pathways | 842 | ||
| Introduction | 842 | ||
| Auditory Brain Stem | 842 | ||
| Cochlear Nucleus | 842 | ||
| Superior Olivary Complex | 845 | ||
| Nuclei of the Lateral Leminiscus | 845 | ||
| Midbrain | 846 | ||
| Auditory Thalamus and Cortex | 847 | ||
| Further Reading | 848 | ||
| Auditory System: Efferent Systems to the Auditory Periphery | 850 | ||
| Olivocochlear Neurons | 850 | ||
| Middle Ear Muscles | 851 | ||
| Olivocochlear and Middle Ear Muscle Reflexes | 853 | ||
| Further Reading | 854 | ||
| Auditory System: Giant Synaptic Terminals, Endbulbs, and Calyces | 856 | ||
| Introduction | 856 | ||
| Endbulbs of Held: Morphology | 856 | ||
| Synapses: Presynaptic Endings | 856 | ||
| Synapses: Postsynaptic Targets | 857 | ||
| Physiology | 858 | ||
| Plasticity | 858 | ||
| Calyces of Held | 859 | ||
| Internal Structure | 862 | ||
| Development | 863 | ||
| Short-Term Synaptic Plasticity | 865 | ||
| Conclusion | 866 | ||
| Further Reading | 866 | ||
| Auditory Systems in Insects | 868 | ||
| The Physical Properties of Sound Waves | 868 | ||
| Diversity of Auditory Mechanisms Within the Class Insecta | 868 | ||
| Diversity of ear location | 868 | ||
| Diversity of ears | 869 | ||
| Purposes of Audition in Insects | 869 | ||
| Central Processing of Auditory Information in Insects | 871 | ||
| Frequency Coding | 872 | ||
| Loudness Coding | 873 | ||
| Encoding Temporal Patterns | 873 | ||
| Sound Localization | 873 | ||
| Cues for Sound Localization | 874 | ||
| Further Reading | 875 | ||
| Autism | 876 | ||
| Autism Spectrum Disorder | 876 | ||
| Prevalence and Etiology | 876 | ||
| Genetic Influences | 876 | ||
| Brain Development | 877 | ||
| Cerebral Enlargement | 877 | ||
| Structural Findings | 878 | ||
| Neurochemical Imaging | 879 | ||
| Autopsy Findings | 879 | ||
| Functional Brain Imaging Studies | 879 | ||
| Social Brain Circuitry | 879 | ||
| Functional Connectivity | 880 | ||
| Summary and Future Directions | 880 | ||
| Further Reading | 880 | ||
| e9780080446172v2 | 1314 | ||
| Front Cover | 1314 | ||
| Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | 1315 | ||
| Copyright Page | 1318 | ||
| Senior Editors | 1319 | ||
| Associate Editors | 1321 | ||
| Table of Contents | 1325 | ||
| Foreword | 1331 | ||
| Preface | 1333 | ||
| Volume 2 | 1335 | ||
| B | 1335 | ||
| Babinski's Reflex/Sign | 1335 | ||
| Further Reading | 1336 | ||
| BAC Transgenesis: Cell-Type Specific Expression in the Nervous System | 1337 | ||
| What Is a BAC? | 1337 | ||
| Why Are BACs Useful? | 1337 | ||
| How Do We Identify a BAC That Contains a Gene of Interest? | 1338 | ||
| How Do We Obtain BAC Clones? | 1339 | ||
| How Do We Modify These Very Large DNAs? | 1339 | ||
| BAC Transfection into Mammalian Cells | 1342 | ||
| BACs | 1343 | ||
| Further Reading | 1344 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1345 | ||
| BAC Use in the Study of the CNS | 1347 | ||
| Advantages of Bacterial Artificial Chromosome Transgenic Mice | 1347 | ||
| Generation of the BAC Transgenic Mice | 1347 | ||
| Selection of BACs for Transgenic Studies | 1347 | ||
| Basic BAC Transgenic Construct Design | 1348 | ||
| Engineering BACs by Homologous Recombination in E. coli | 1348 | ||
| Characterization and Preparation of BAC for Transgenic Microinjections | 1350 | ||
| Applications of the BAC Transgenic Approach in Neuroscience Research | 1350 | ||
| Applications to Study Gene Expression and Gene Function | 1350 | ||
| Gene expression and regulation | 1350 | ||
| Dominant genetic studies | 1351 | ||
| BAC rescue of the loss-of-function mutants | 1351 | ||
| Protein tagging for in vivo proteomics | 1351 | ||
| Applications of BAC Transgenesis to Study Neurons and Neural Circuits | 1351 | ||
| Developing Cre/Flp recombinase mice | 1351 | ||
| In vivo electrophysiology and imaging | 1352 | ||
| Cell type-specific expression profiling | 1352 | ||
| Transsynaptic genetic tracing of a neural circuit | 1352 | ||
| Inducible and/or reversible manipulation of neuronal function | 1353 | ||
| Applications to Model Dominant Human Disorders and Study Disease Pathogenesis | 1353 | ||
| Summary | 1354 | ||
| Further Reading | 1354 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1354 | ||
| Balance and Posture Control | 1355 | ||
| Balance: Definition | 1355 | ||
| Concepts for Understanding Gaze and Posture | 1355 | ||
| Gaze System | 1355 | ||
| Eye Movement Controls | 1355 | ||
| Posture System | 1356 | ||
| Biomechanics of Posture | 1356 | ||
| Postural Movement Patterns | 1357 | ||
| Movement Control Theory | 1358 | ||
| Sensory Inputs to Posture | 1358 | ||
| Organization of Senses | 1359 | ||
| Sensory Organization Theory | 1359 | ||
| Clinical Applications | 1359 | ||
| Medical Necessity | 1359 | ||
| Historical Perspective | 1360 | ||
| Impairment Reduction | 1361 | ||
| Diagnosis | 1361 | ||
| Pathology | 1361 | ||
| Impairment | 1361 | ||
| Applications of Impairment Information | 1362 | ||
| Uncompensated vestibular deficit | 1362 | ||
| Intermittent imbalance of unknown origin | 1362 | ||
| Controlled-outcome studies | 1362 | ||
| Further Reading | 1363 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1363 | ||
| Balance and Posture Control: Human | 1365 | ||
| Posture as a Fundamental Human Activity | 1365 | ||
| Introduction | 1365 | ||
| Sources of Information for Postural Control | 1365 | ||
| Neural Basis for Multisensory Sources of Balance | 1365 | ||
| Virtual Time to Contact | 1366 | ||
| Upright Posture Control | 1366 | ||
| Quiet Stance Domain | 1366 | ||
| Models | 1366 | ||
| Preprogrammed Reactions | 1367 | ||
| Anticipatory Posture Adjustments | 1367 | ||
| Cortical Control of Human Postural Responses | 1367 | ||
| Behavioral Studies | 1367 | ||
| Brain Imaging Studies | 1368 | ||
| Concluding Comments | 1368 | ||
| Further Reading | 1369 | ||
| Balint Syndrome | 1371 | ||
| Further Reading | 1372 | ||
| Barrel Cortex Circuits | 1375 | ||
| From Whisker to Cortex | 1375 | ||
| Projections to the Primary Somatosensory Barrel Cortex | 1376 | ||
| Local Circuits in the Primary Somatosensory Barrel Cortex | 1377 | ||
| Functional Activation of the Barrel Cortex | 1377 | ||
| Physiological Role of the Barrel Cortex | 1378 | ||
| Perspective | 1379 | ||
| Further Reading | 1379 | ||
| Basal Forebrain and Memory | 1381 | ||
| Introduction | 1381 | ||
| Anatomy and Connections of the Basal Forebrain | 1381 | ||
| The Basal Forebrain and Memory | 1382 | ||
| The Basal Forebrain and Attention | 1384 | ||
| Conclusions | 1386 | ||
| Further Reading | 1386 | ||
| Basal Ganglia and Oculomotor Control | 1387 | ||
| Oculomotor Control by the Basal Ganglia | 1387 | ||
| Neural Circuits in the Basal Ganglia for Oculomotor Control | 1387 | ||
| Caudate Nucleus | 1388 | ||
| Substantia Nigra Pars Reticulata | 1390 | ||
| Role of the Basal Ganglia in Reward-Oriented Eye Movement | 1391 | ||
| Dopaminergic Modulation of Information Processing in the Caudate Nucleus | 1392 | ||
| Further Reading | 1395 | ||
| Basal Ganglia: Acetylcholine Interactions and Behavior | 1397 | ||
| Introduction: Cholinergic Neuromodulation in the Striatum | 1397 | ||
| Physiological Studies of Striatal Cholinergic Cells | 1398 | ||
| TAN Encoding of Behavioral Events | 1398 | ||
| Network Properties of TANs | 1399 | ||
| The Functional Organization of TANs' Synaptic Inputs | 1399 | ||
| TANs' Effects in the Striatum | 1399 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 1399 | ||
| Further Reading | 1400 | ||
| Basal Ganglia: Evolution | 1401 | ||
| Basal Ganglia Divisions and Organization in Mammals | 1401 | ||
| Striatum and Pallidum Develop from Distinct Histogenetic Subdivisions of the Subpallium | 1401 | ||
| Dorsolateral versus Ventromedial Parts of the Basal Ganglia: A Gradient from Motor to Cognitive and to Motivational/Emotional F | 1401 | ||
| Cell Types, Neurotransmitter Organization, and Connections | 1405 | ||
| Functional Circuits | 1407 | ||
| Parallel cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops for control of motor, cognitive-executive, and emotional/motivati | 1407 | ||
| Direct, indirect, and hyperdirect pathways for release and inhibition of movement | 1408 | ||
| Basal ganglia pathways to the brain stem | 1408 | ||
| Modulation of basal ganglia activity | 1409 | ||
| The Basal Ganglia in Nonmammals | 1409 | ||
| Conservative Evolution of the Basal Ganglia in Tetrapods | 1409 | ||
| Developmental evidence supports basal ganglia homology | 1409 | ||
| Comparable cell types, neurotransmitter organization, and connections | 1410 | ||
| Functional circuits: Evidence for conservation and divergence | 1412 | ||
| Divergence and Novelties of the Basal Ganglia in Tetrapods | 1414 | ||
| Expansion of thalamus and cortex/pallium drove the evolution of basal ganglia-thalamocortical pathways | 1414 | ||
| The medial striatum of songbirds and budgerigars: Specialization in song/vocalization learning and plasticity | 1414 | ||
| Limbic versus motor parts of the basal ganglia: Evidence suggests that the limbic part is prevalent in amphibians, reptiles, an | 1415 | ||
| The Basal Ganglia of the First Vertebrates: Evidence from Fish | 1416 | ||
| The pallidum: A novelty of jawed vertebrates | 1417 | ||
| No pallidum, no immigrant interneurons in the striatum? | 1417 | ||
| The case of TH+ cells in the striatum of fish: Do they come from a dLGE-like subdivision? | 1418 | ||
| Further Reading | 1419 | ||
| Basal Ganglia: Functional Models of Normal and Disease States | 1421 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia | 1421 | ||
| General Circuit Overview | 1421 | ||
| Motor Circuit | 1421 | ||
| Direct and Indirect Basal Ganglia Pathways | 1421 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Motor Hypo- and Hyperkinetic Movement Disorders | 1423 | ||
| Hypokinetic Disorders | 1423 | ||
| Hyperkinetic Disorders | 1425 | ||
| Surgical Treatments | 1425 | ||
| Nonmotor Symptoms Related to Basal Ganglia Dysfunction | 1425 | ||
| Conclusion | 1426 | ||
| Further Reading | 1426 | ||
| Basal Ganglia: Habit | 1427 | ||
| Introduction | 1427 | ||
| Definitions of Habit in Cognitive Neuroscience | 1427 | ||
| Definitions of Habits in Psychology | 1427 | ||
| Procedural Learning and Skill Learning | 1428 | ||
| Emotional Habits, Social Habits, and Rituals | 1428 | ||
| Lesion Studies and Attempts to Define a 'Habit Circuit' in the Brain | 1428 | ||
| Computational Framework for Studies of Habit Learning | 1429 | ||
| Addictions as Habits | 1429 | ||
| Chunking of Action Repertoires | 1430 | ||
| Further Reading | 1430 | ||
| Basal Ganglia: Internal Organization | 1431 | ||
| Introduction | 1431 | ||
| Striatum | 1432 | ||
| GPe | 1433 | ||
| STN | 1434 | ||
| SNr and GPi | 1435 | ||
| SNc | 1437 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 1437 | ||
| Further Reading | 1438 | ||
| Basal Ganglia: Motor Functions | 1439 | ||
| Anatomical Circuits: Skeletomotor and Oculomotor Systems | 1439 | ||
| The Basal Ganglia Act by Varying Tonic Inhibition | 1439 | ||
| Activity of Output Neurons in the Absence of Movement | 1439 | ||
| Basal Ganglia Inhibition Changes During Movement | 1440 | ||
| Basal Ganglia Output Reflects Both Kinematic Variables and Movement Conditions | 1441 | ||
| Basal Ganglia Output and Kinematic Variables | 1441 | ||
| Task-Dependence of Motor-Related Changes in Basal Ganglia Activity | 1441 | ||
| Basal ganglia involvement in internally versus externally guided movements | 1442 | ||
| The basal ganglia and movement sequences | 1442 | ||
| The basal ganglia and automatic movements or habits | 1442 | ||
| The Influence of Dopamine on the Basal Ganglia and Movement | 1442 | ||
| Parkinson's Disease and Movement | 1443 | ||
| Involuntary Movements after Levodopa Treatment | 1443 | ||
| Summary | 1444 | ||
| Further Reading | 1444 | ||
| Basal Ganglia: Physiological Circuits | 1445 | ||
| Composition of the Basal Ganglia | 1445 | ||
| Circuitry of the Basal Ganglia | 1445 | ||
| Striatum: One of the Input Nuclei of the Basal Ganglia | 1446 | ||
| GPe and STN: Two Strongly Interconnected Nuclei of the Basal Ganglia | 1448 | ||
| GPi and SNr: Output Nuclei of the Basal Ganglia | 1449 | ||
| SNc: Modulatory Nucleus of the Basal Ganglia | 1449 | ||
| Functions of the Basal Ganglia | 1449 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 1450 | ||
| Further Reading | 1451 | ||
| Bayesian Cortical Models | 1453 | ||
| Introduction | 1453 | ||
| Bayesian Inference | 1453 | ||
| Log Probability Models | 1454 | ||
| Population Coding Models | 1455 | ||
| Hierarchical Models | 1457 | ||
| Conclusion | 1459 | ||
| Further Reading | 1460 | ||
| Bayesian Models of Motor Control | 1461 | ||
| Bayesian Integration | 1461 | ||
| Combining Prior Knowledge with New Evidence | 1461 | ||
| Cue Combination | 1462 | ||
| Bayesian Integration over Time | 1463 | ||
| Bayesian Inference of Structure | 1464 | ||
| Future Directions for Bayesian Inference | 1464 | ||
| Discussion | 1465 | ||
| Further Reading | 1466 | ||
| BDNF in Synaptic Plasticity and Memory | 1469 | ||
| Introduction | 1469 | ||
| Cell Biology of BDNF | 1469 | ||
| Signal Transduction | 1469 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Controls | 1471 | ||
| Transcription | 1471 | ||
| Processing and trafficking | 1471 | ||
| Secretion | 1473 | ||
| Roles of BDNF in Synaptic Plasticity | 1473 | ||
| Input Specificity | 1474 | ||
| Early Phase Long-Term Potentiation | 1474 | ||
| Late Phase Long-Term Potentiation | 1475 | ||
| Long-Term Depression | 1475 | ||
| Learning, Memory, and Other Cognitive Functions | 1476 | ||
| Conclusion | 1477 | ||
| Further Reading | 1477 | ||
| Behavioral Hierarchies | 1479 | ||
| Introduction | 1479 | ||
| Early Neural Models of Behavioral Choice | 1479 | ||
| Evolving Perspectives of Behavioral Choice | 1480 | ||
| Neuronal Bases of Behavioral Hierarchies | 1481 | ||
| Plasticity in Behavioral Hierarchy: Reconfiguration of a Feeding Motor Network | 1482 | ||
| Suppression of a Subordinate by a Dominant Behavior: Network Reconfiguration | 1484 | ||
| Suppression of Turning by Swimming: Recruitment of Essential Elements | 1485 | ||
| Reversing Motor Output: Reconfiguring the Network | 1485 | ||
| Behavioral Switching With Large Differences in Timescale: Network Reconfiguration | 1486 | ||
| No Central Role for Command Neurons in Decision? | 1487 | ||
| Conclusion | 1488 | ||
| Further Reading | 1488 | ||
| Bell's Palsy | 1489 | ||
| Introduction | 1489 | ||
| Background | 1489 | ||
| Clinical | 1490 | ||
| Epidemiology | 1491 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 1491 | ||
| Diagnostic Approach | 1493 | ||
| Treatment | 1493 | ||
| Further Reading | 1494 | ||
| Bergmann Glial Cells | 1495 | ||
| Morphology | 1495 | ||
| Physiology | 1495 | ||
| Membrane Conductance | 1495 | ||
| Gap Junctions | 1495 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Receptors | 1496 | ||
| Glutamate receptors | 1496 | ||
| GABA receptors | 1498 | ||
| Purinoreceptors | 1499 | ||
| Adrenoreceptors | 1499 | ||
| Histamine receptors | 1499 | ||
| Endothelin receptors | 1500 | ||
| Bergmann glial cells in situ express a defined set of neurotransmitter receptors | 1500 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Transporters | 1500 | ||
| Glutamate transporters | 1500 | ||
| GABA transporters | 1502 | ||
| Glycine transporters | 1502 | ||
| Taurine transporters | 1503 | ||
| Responses of Bergmann Glial Cells to Neuronal Activity | 1503 | ||
| Electrical responses | 1503 | ||
| Cytoplasmic calcium responses | 1503 | ||
| Development and Morphogenesis of Cerebellar Structures | 1503 | ||
| Conclusions | 1504 | ||
| Further Reading | 1505 | ||
| Bilingualism | 1507 | ||
| Introduction | 1507 | ||
| Societal Characteristics | 1507 | ||
| Social Status | 1507 | ||
| Compartmentalization | 1507 | ||
| Literacy | 1507 | ||
| Immigrant Generation | 1508 | ||
| Historical Circumstances Other Than Immigration | 1508 | ||
| Individual Considerations | 1508 | ||
| Age of Acquisition | 1508 | ||
| Language Proficiency | 1509 | ||
| Active versus Passive Bilingualism | 1509 | ||
| Linguistic Considerations | 1510 | ||
| Psycholinguistic Perspectives | 1510 | ||
| Brain Localization | 1511 | ||
| Conclusion | 1511 | ||
| Further Reading | 1511 | ||
| Binocular Rivalry | 1513 | ||
| History of Binocular Rivalry | 1513 | ||
| What Instigates Binocular Rivalry | 1513 | ||
| How to Measure Binocular Rivalry | 1515 | ||
| What One Experiences during Binocular Rivalry | 1515 | ||
| Relevance of Binocular Rivalry to Visual Neuroscience | 1516 | ||
| Neural Bases of Binocular Rivalry | 1517 | ||
| Neural Models of Binocular Rivalry | 1518 | ||
| Eye versus Object Rivalry | 1519 | ||
| Binocular Rivalry as a Distributed Process | 1520 | ||
| Further Reading | 1521 | ||
| Biomechanics: Hydroskeletal | 1523 | ||
| Type of Skeletal Systems | 1523 | ||
| Basic Structure of Hydrostatic Skeletons | 1523 | ||
| Fluid-Filled Cavity Skeletons | 1523 | ||
| Muscular Hydrostat Skeletons | 1524 | ||
| Biomechanics of Hydrostatic Skeletons and Comparison to Rigid Skeletons | 1525 | ||
| Constant Volume and Muscle Antagonism | 1525 | ||
| Leverages | 1526 | ||
| Bending | 1526 | ||
| Helical Fibers | 1526 | ||
| Stiffness | 1526 | ||
| Localization of Movement | 1527 | ||
| Mechanical Degrees of Freedom | 1527 | ||
| Variation on a Theme | 1528 | ||
| Peristalsis and Burrowing | 1528 | ||
| Specialized and Generalized Muscular Hydrostats | 1528 | ||
| Motor Control of Hydrostatic Skeletons | 1529 | ||
| The Octopus Arm | 1529 | ||
| Tongue Protrusion in Frogs | 1532 | ||
| Leech Motor Control | 1532 | ||
| The Role of Modeling | 1534 | ||
| Further Reading | 1534 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1534 | ||
| Bipolar Disorder | 1535 | ||
| Epidemiology and Clinical Characteristics | 1535 | ||
| Bipolar Disorders | 1535 | ||
| Epidemiology and Prevalence | 1535 | ||
| Outcome | 1535 | ||
| Neuropsychological Characteristics | 1536 | ||
| Neuroimaging Findings | 1536 | ||
| Neurostructural Findings | 1537 | ||
| Neurofunctional Findings | 1538 | ||
| Neurochemical Findings | 1538 | ||
| Heritability and Genetics of Bipolar Disorder | 1539 | ||
| Family, Twin, and Adoption Studies | 1539 | ||
| Genetic Studies | 1539 | ||
| Treatment | 1540 | ||
| Conclusion | 1540 | ||
| Further Reading | 1541 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1541 | ||
| Bird Brain: Evolution | 1543 | ||
| The Classical View | 1543 | ||
| The Modern View | 1545 | ||
| Some Anatomical and Molecular Parallels | 1545 | ||
| A Modern View of Telencephalic Evolution | 1546 | ||
| Detailed Views That Need Further Testing | 1547 | ||
| Nuclear-to-Layered Hypotheses | 1547 | ||
| Nuclear-to-Claustrum/Amygdala Hypotheses | 1547 | ||
| Avian Cognition and Brain Function | 1548 | ||
| Conclusion | 1549 | ||
| Further Reading | 1549 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1549 | ||
| Bird Song Systems: Evolution | 1551 | ||
| Introduction | 1551 | ||
| Vocal Learning Behavior | 1551 | ||
| Vocal Learning Song Systems | 1551 | ||
| Cerebral Auditory Pathway | 1553 | ||
| Evolution of Vocal Learning Pathways | 1554 | ||
| Evolution of the Auditory Pathway | 1556 | ||
| Evolution of Vocal Learning Behavior | 1557 | ||
| Further Reading | 1559 | ||
| Birdsong Learning | 1561 | ||
| Introduction | 1561 | ||
| Basic Functional Anatomy of the Song Pathway | 1561 | ||
| Sequence Generation | 1562 | ||
| The Synaptic Chain Model | 1562 | ||
| The role of intrinsic bursting | 1563 | ||
| Directionality of excitatory connectivity | 1564 | ||
| The role of inhibition | 1565 | ||
| Sequence Learning | 1565 | ||
| Sensorimotor Learning of the Motor Map | 1566 | ||
| Premotor Codes and Representations | 1571 | ||
| Conclusions | 1573 | ||
| Further Reading | 1573 | ||
| Birdsong Learning: Evolutionary, Behavioral, and Hormonal Issues | 1575 | ||
| Birdsong: Definitions and Functions | 1575 | ||
| Birdsong Learning: Behavioral and Comparative Perspectives | 1575 | ||
| The Behavioral Development of Song | 1575 | ||
| The Song-Learning Process | 1576 | ||
| Sensitive Periods for Song Learning; The Effects of Isolation and Deafness; Learning Preferences | 1576 | ||
| Species Variation in Song Learning: Evolutionary Considerations | 1577 | ||
| Hormones and Song Learning and Production | 1578 | ||
| Further Reading | 1580 | ||
| Birdsong: The Neurobiology of Avian Vocal Learning | 1581 | ||
| Song Behavior | 1581 | ||
| The Structure of Song | 1581 | ||
| The Function of Song | 1581 | ||
| Learning/Sensitive Periods | 1581 | ||
| Mechanisms of Singing and Song Learning | 1582 | ||
| Peripheral Mechanisms | 1582 | ||
| Central Mechanisms for Singing | 1582 | ||
| Neural Circuits for Song Learning | 1584 | ||
| Conclusions | 1584 | ||
| Further Reading | 1585 | ||
| Blindsight: Residual Vision | 1587 | ||
| Introduction | 1587 | ||
| Background | 1587 | ||
| Helen the Monkey | 1587 | ||
| D.B., G.Y., and Other Hemianopes | 1588 | ||
| Types of Blindsight and Neural Pathways | 1588 | ||
| Clinical Implications: Visual Restitution Training | 1590 | ||
| Conclusions | 1590 | ||
| Further Reading | 1590 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1591 | ||
| Blood Pressure: Baroreceptors | 1593 | ||
| Introduction | 1593 | ||
| Arterial Baroreceptors | 1593 | ||
| Effector Systems of Arterial Baroreceptor Reflexes | 1594 | ||
| Central Pathways and Processing | 1596 | ||
| Role of Arterial Baroreceptors in Cardiovascular Regulation | 1597 | ||
| Cardiopulmonary Baroreceptors | 1598 | ||
| Further Reading | 1598 | ||
| Blood-Brain Barrier and Neurovascular Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration and Injury | 1599 | ||
| Neurovascular System - Functional Hierarchy | 1599 | ||
| Brain Capillary Unit in Healthy Brain | 1599 | ||
| Blood-Brain Barrier | 1599 | ||
| Basement Membrane | 1599 | ||
| Pericytes | 1599 | ||
| Monocytes and Microglia | 1600 | ||
| Astrocytes | 1600 | ||
| Passive Transport of Molecules in Brain Fluids | 1601 | ||
| Brain Capillary Unit in Disorders of the Aging Nervous System | 1601 | ||
| Parkinson's Disease | 1601 | ||
| Familial Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis | 1601 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease | 1601 | ||
| Blood-Brain Barrier in Disorders of the Nervous System | 1602 | ||
| Multiple Sclerosis | 1602 | ||
| Autoimmune Disease Syndrome Dementia | 1602 | ||
| Parkinson's Disease | 1602 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease | 1603 | ||
| Transvascular Transport of Abeta | 1603 | ||
| Small and Large Cerebral Arteries in AD | 1604 | ||
| Neurovascular Model(s) of Neurodegeneration | 1604 | ||
| Further Reading | 1605 | ||
| Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) Signaling in the Neuroectoderm | 1607 | ||
| Introduction | 1607 | ||
| Evolutionary Conservation of BMP Inhibition during Neural Induction | 1607 | ||
| Opposing Graded BMP and Hh Signals Pattern the Vertebrate Neuroectoderm | 1608 | ||
| Graded BMP-Mediated Repression of Neural Genes in Drosophila | 1610 | ||
| Neural Patterning in Other Groups of Organisms | 1612 | ||
| DV Inversion in Vertebrates? | 1614 | ||
| Conclusion | 1616 | ||
| Further Reading | 1616 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1616 | ||
| Borderline Personality Disorder | 1617 | ||
| Introduction | 1617 | ||
| The Neurobiology of Impulsive Aggression in BPD | 1617 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Dysregulations | 1617 | ||
| Serotonin | 1617 | ||
| Other neurotransmitter systems | 1618 | ||
| The Neuroanatomy of Impulsive Aggression | 1618 | ||
| Genetic Contributions | 1618 | ||
| The Neurobiology of Affective Instability in BPD | 1619 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Dysregulations | 1619 | ||
| Cholinergic systems | 1619 | ||
| Other neurotransmitter systems | 1619 | ||
| The Neuroanatomy of Affective Instability | 1620 | ||
| Summary | 1620 | ||
| Further Reading | 1620 | ||
| Botulinum and Tetanus Toxins | 1623 | ||
| Introduction | 1623 | ||
| Clostridial Neurotoxins | 1623 | ||
| CNTs Domain Composition | 1623 | ||
| Mechanisms of Intoxication | 1624 | ||
| Binding | 1624 | ||
| Internalization | 1625 | ||
| Translocation | 1625 | ||
| Proteolysis | 1625 | ||
| Motor Neuronal Intoxication and Regeneration | 1627 | ||
| Pathologies | 1627 | ||
| Pharmacocosmetics Utility | 1628 | ||
| Further Reading | 1628 | ||
| Brain Adrenergic Neurons | 1629 | ||
| Introduction | 1629 | ||
| Neuroanatomical Organization of Adrenergic Neurons | 1629 | ||
| Location and Architecture of PNMT-Containing Neurons | 1629 | ||
| Distribution of PNMT-Containing Afferents | 1631 | ||
| Circuit Organization of the PNMT-Containing Neuronal Cell Groups | 1632 | ||
| Cellular and Molecular Biology of Adrenergic Neurons | 1633 | ||
| Functional Aspects of Adrenergic Neurons | 1635 | ||
| Summary | 1635 | ||
| Further Reading | 1636 | ||
| Brain Asymmetry: Evolution | 1637 | ||
| Behavioral Traits: Language and Handedness | 1637 | ||
| Structural Asymmetries | 1637 | ||
| Petalias and Related Asymmetries | 1637 | ||
| Sylvian Fissure and Related Asymmetries | 1638 | ||
| Central Sulcus and Related Asymmetries | 1638 | ||
| Ventricular Asymmetries | 1639 | ||
| Tissue Component Asymmetries | 1639 | ||
| Determining Factors of Brain Asymmetries | 1640 | ||
| Heredity versus Environment | 1640 | ||
| Fetal Orientation | 1641 | ||
| Hormones | 1641 | ||
| Gender-Specific Asymmetries | 1641 | ||
| Functional Adaptation | 1642 | ||
| Aberrant Asymmetries and Disease | 1642 | ||
| Evolutionary Origins of Anatomical Asymmetries | 1643 | ||
| Brain Size Expansion | 1643 | ||
| Left-Hemispheric Dominance for Language | 1644 | ||
| Left-Hemispheric Dominance for Handedness | 1644 | ||
| Brain Asymmetries in Nonhuman Species | 1645 | ||
| See also | 1645 | ||
| Further Reading | 1645 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1645 | ||
| Brain Composition: Age-Related Changes | 1647 | ||
| Lipids | 1647 | ||
| Metals and Oxidations | 1648 | ||
| Racemization | 1649 | ||
| Conclusions | 1650 | ||
| Further Reading | 1650 | ||
| Brain Connectivity and Brain Size | 1651 | ||
| Types of Connectivity in the Brain | 1651 | ||
| Brain Size and Number of Neurons | 1651 | ||
| Cerebral Cortex | 1651 | ||
| Basic Connectivity | 1651 | ||
| Functional Implications | 1651 | ||
| Number of Cortical Neurons and Connectedness | 1652 | ||
| Horizontal Connectivity of the Cortex and Brain Size | 1654 | ||
| Fiber Thickness and Conduction Time | 1656 | ||
| Cerebellar Cortex | 1656 | ||
| Cerebellar Connectivity | 1656 | ||
| Functional Implications of Cerebellar Microcircuitry | 1656 | ||
| Scaling of the Cerebellum with Brain Size | 1657 | ||
| Summary of Cerebral and Cerebellar Scaling | 1658 | ||
| Further Reading | 1659 | ||
| Brain Damage: Functional Reorganization | 1661 | ||
| Introduction | 1661 | ||
| Homologous Area Adaptation | 1661 | ||
| Cross-Modal Reassignment | 1662 | ||
| Potentiation of Topographic Representations | 1662 | ||
| Compensatory Masquerade | 1663 | ||
| Discussion | 1663 | ||
| Further Reading | 1664 | ||
| Brain Development: The Generation of Large Brains | 1667 | ||
| What Larger Brains Are Made Of | 1667 | ||
| More Neurons | 1667 | ||
| More Surface | 1667 | ||
| More Glia | 1667 | ||
| Neurons First, Glia Later | 1667 | ||
| How to Add More Neurons | 1667 | ||
| More Progenitors Expand the Cortical Surface | 1668 | ||
| More Neurons per Progenitor Thicken the Cortical Surface | 1668 | ||
| Decreased Cell Death Enlarges the Brain | 1668 | ||
| Natural Mechanisms Are Still Unknown | 1668 | ||
| More Glia Follow | 1669 | ||
| Genetic Regulation of Brain Size | 1669 | ||
| Further Reading | 1669 | ||
| Brain Evolution: Developmental Constraints and Relative Developmental Growth | 1671 | ||
| Introduction | 1671 | ||
| Brain Scaling | 1671 | ||
| Brain versus Body | 1671 | ||
| Brain Component Scaling | 1672 | ||
| The Limbic Factor | 1672 | ||
| The Developmental Structure of the Observed Species Differences | 1673 | ||
| Limbic System Reduction and Amplification | 1674 | ||
| Developmental Constraint, or a Useful Reservoir of Variation for Brain Evolution? | 1675 | ||
| Employment of 'Late Equals Large' to Gracefully Scale the Retina | 1675 | ||
| Using Continuing Neurogenesis to Permit Rapid Memory Acquisition and Loss in the Hippocampus | 1677 | ||
| Why Does the Cortex Get Big and the Spinal Cord and Sensory Thalamus Stay Small? A Network Hypothesis | 1678 | ||
| Further Reading | 1679 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1679 | ||
| Brain Evolution: The Radiator Theory | 1681 | ||
| Evolutionary Changes in Posture Altered Human Vascular Systems | 1681 | ||
| Emissary Veins Facilitate Selective Brain Cooling in Homo sapiens | 1681 | ||
| Cranial Blood Flow in Early Hominins | 1683 | ||
| The Evolution of Brain Size and Cranial Blood Flow | 1683 | ||
| The Impact of Environment and Behavior on SBC in Hominins | 1683 | ||
| Summary | 1685 | ||
| Further Reading | 1686 | ||
| Brain Fossils: Endocasts | 1687 | ||
| Introduction | 1687 | ||
| Evolutionary Approaches | 1687 | ||
| Paleoneurology, the Direct Evidence | 1687 | ||
| Comparative Neurology, Indirect Evidence | 1687 | ||
| Molecular Neurogenetics | 1688 | ||
| Data Provided by Endocasts | 1689 | ||
| Conclusions | 1694 | ||
| Further Reading | 1695 | ||
| Brain Glucose Metabolism: Age, Alzheimer's Disease, and ApoE Allele Effects | 1697 | ||
| Technical Issues in Brain Glucose Metabolic Imaging in Aging and Degeneration | 1697 | ||
| Molecular and Cellular Factors Involved with Glucose Hypometabolism in the Aging Brain and Alzheimer's Dementia | 1698 | ||
| Brain Glucose Metabolism Changes with Aging | 1700 | ||
| Brain Glucose Metabolic Alterations in AD: Pathophysiology | 1701 | ||
| Brain Glucose Metabolic Alterations: Operating Characteristics in AD and Mild Cognitive Impairment | 1702 | ||
| FDG-PET: Work in Progress | 1702 | ||
| Genetic Factors in Relation with Brain Metabolism Changes in Aging, Mild Cognitive Impairment, and AD | 1705 | ||
| Further Reading | 1707 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1707 | ||
| Brain Injury: Functional Recovery After | 1709 | ||
| Conceptual Issues | 1709 | ||
| Injury-Induced Reorganization of Cerebral Maps | 1710 | ||
| Therapies for Brain Injury | 1711 | ||
| Neuroprotective Agents | 1711 | ||
| Neural Regeneration | 1712 | ||
| Behavioral Rehabilitation Therapies | 1713 | ||
| Conclusion | 1713 | ||
| Further Reading | 1713 | ||
| Brain Injury: Magnetic Resonance Studies of Metabolic Aspects | 1715 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance | 1715 | ||
| Phosphorus MRS | 1715 | ||
| Proton MRS | 1715 | ||
| Proton MRI | 1716 | ||
| MRS in Brain Injury | 1716 | ||
| Noninjured Brain | 1716 | ||
| Ischemia | 1717 | ||
| Trauma | 1718 | ||
| MRI in Brain Injury | 1719 | ||
| Future Directions | 1721 | ||
| Further Reading | 1721 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1721 | ||
| Brain Modules: Mosaic Evolution | 1723 | ||
| Brains Evolved | 1723 | ||
| Using Extant Species to Study Brain Evolution | 1723 | ||
| Modularity and Brain Evolution | 1724 | ||
| Comparative Evidence for Mosaic Evolution of Brain Structure | 1725 | ||
| Relative Size Change in Major Brain Structures | 1725 | ||
| Correlated Evolution between Components of Functional Systems | 1726 | ||
| Comparative Studies Inform Systems Neuroscience | 1726 | ||
| Correlated Evolution between Brain Structure and Ecology | 1727 | ||
| Neural System Evolution and Brain Size | 1728 | ||
| Conclusions | 1728 | ||
| Further Reading | 1728 | ||
| Brain Na,K-ATPase | 1729 | ||
| Introduction | 1729 | ||
| Na,K-ATPase: Genes, Subunits, and Isoforms | 1729 | ||
| Na,K-ATPase Isoform Distribution in the Central Nervous System | 1729 | ||
| alpha Subunit | 1729 | ||
| beta Subunit | 1730 | ||
| FXYD Proteins | 1730 | ||
| Functional Role of Na,K-ATPase in the Brain | 1731 | ||
| Role in Neurons and Glia | 1731 | ||
| Information from Animals Models | 1732 | ||
| Human Diseases Associated with Genetic Alterations of Na,K-ATPase Genes | 1732 | ||
| Familial Hemiplegic Migraine Type 2 | 1733 | ||
| Rapid Onset Dystonia Parkinsonism | 1733 | ||
| Further Reading | 1733 | ||
| Brain Scaling Laws | 1735 | ||
| Introduction | 1735 | ||
| Number of Neurons and Neural Connectivity | 1735 | ||
| Convolutedness and Thickness | 1736 | ||
| Axon Caliber and White Matter | 1737 | ||
| Areas and Area-Area Connectivity | 1738 | ||
| Economical Well-Connectedness | 1738 | ||
| Conclusion | 1739 | ||
| Further Reading | 1740 | ||
| Brain Trauma | 1741 | ||
| Introduction | 1741 | ||
| Assessment and Classification of Traumatic Brain Injury | 1741 | ||
| Glasgow Coma Score | 1741 | ||
| Primary and Secondary Traumatic Brain Injury | 1742 | ||
| Primary Brain Injury | 1742 | ||
| Hemorrhages | 1743 | ||
| Skull fractures | 1744 | ||
| Secondary Brain Injury | 1744 | ||
| Intracranial hypertension | 1744 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 1744 | ||
| Cerebral ischemia | 1745 | ||
| Monitoring | 1746 | ||
| Management of Raised Intracranial Pressure | 1746 | ||
| Physical Positioning | 1746 | ||
| Avoidance of Hypoventilation: CO2 Reactivity | 1747 | ||
| Adequate Sedation and Analgesia; Neuromuscular Paralysis | 1747 | ||
| CSF Drainage by Ventriculostomy | 1747 | ||
| Osmotherapy | 1747 | ||
| Hypertonic Saline Solutions | 1748 | ||
| Intracranial Hypertension Refractory to Standard Treatment: Other Measures to Consider | 1748 | ||
| Barbiturates | 1748 | ||
| Hyperventilation | 1748 | ||
| Decompressive Hemicraniectomy | 1748 | ||
| Management Paradigms | 1749 | ||
| Hypothermia, Neuroprotection, and Restorative Therapies | 1749 | ||
| Further Reading | 1750 | ||
| Brain Volume: Age-Related Changes | 1751 | ||
| Introduction | 1751 | ||
| The Myelin Model of the Human Brain | 1751 | ||
| Functional Implications of the Myelin Model | 1754 | ||
| Brain Development during Childhood to Adolescence | 1755 | ||
| Brain Development Continues during Adulthood until Middle Age | 1755 | ||
| Aging and Myelin Breakdown | 1758 | ||
| Functional Implications of Age-Related Myelin Breakdown | 1759 | ||
| Conclusions | 1760 | ||
| Further Reading | 1761 | ||
| Brain-Computer Interface | 1763 | ||
| Introduction | 1763 | ||
| Definition of a BCI | 1763 | ||
| Brain Signals That Could Be Used in a BCI | 1764 | ||
| Present-Day BCIs | 1765 | ||
| Signal Processing | 1767 | ||
| Potential Users | 1769 | ||
| Applications | 1770 | ||
| Nature and Needs of BCI Research and Development | 1770 | ||
| Further Reading | 1771 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1771 | ||
| Brains of Primitive Chordates | 1773 | ||
| Introduction | 1773 | ||
| Phylogenetic Relationships | 1773 | ||
| Comparative Appearance of Brains, Spinal Cords, and Nerves | 1773 | ||
| Primitive Craniates (Cyclostomes) | 1773 | ||
| Cephalochordates | 1776 | ||
| Urochordates | 1779 | ||
| Hemichordates | 1779 | ||
| Molecular Patterning of the Neuraxis during Development | 1780 | ||
| Neural Crest, Placodes, and Their Derivatives | 1781 | ||
| Further Reading | 1782 | ||
| Brainstem and Cranial Nerves | 1783 | ||
| Introduction | 1783 | ||
| Efferent System of the Spinal Cord | 1783 | ||
| Function, Position, and Form | 1783 | ||
| Genetic Profile | 1784 | ||
| Efferent System of the Brain Stem | 1785 | ||
| Dorsomedial Column | 1785 | ||
| Movement of the tongue: The hypoglossal nucleus (12th nucleus) | 1785 | ||
| Coordinated movements of the eyeball (6th, 4th, and 3rd nuclei) | 1785 | ||
| Genetic profile | 1786 | ||
| Ventrolateral (Branchiomotor) Column | 1786 | ||
| Control of head movements: The accessory (11th) nucleus | 1786 | ||
| Deglution and phonation: The nucleus ambiguus (9th and 10th nuclei) | 1786 | ||
| Control of jaw movements: The nonmammalian (accessory) facial (7th) and trigeminal (5th) nuclei | 1787 | ||
| Control of mastication and facial expression: The mammalian (main) trigeminal (5th) and facial (7th) nuclei | 1787 | ||
| Satellite neurons to the facial-trigeminal nuclear complex | 1787 | ||
| Vegetative parasympathetic column | 1787 | ||
| Genetic Profile | 1788 | ||
| Afferent System of the Brain Stem | 1788 | ||
| Further Reading | 1789 | ||
| Brainstem Control of Eye Movements | 1791 | ||
| Saccadic Eye Movements and Fixation | 1791 | ||
| Organization of Brain Stem Circuits Involved in Saccades | 1791 | ||
| The Neural Comparator | 1792 | ||
| Saccadic Burst Generator | 1793 | ||
| The Neural Integrator | 1794 | ||
| The Resettable NI | 1794 | ||
| Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements | 1794 | ||
| Target Motion Inputs and the Formation of Retinal Slip Signals | 1794 | ||
| The Pursuit Generator | 1795 | ||
| Brain Stem Elements in the Pursuit System | 1795 | ||
| Saccade/Pursuit Neurons | 1795 | ||
| Further Reading | 1796 | ||
| Brainstem Respiratory Circuits | 1797 | ||
| Introduction | 1797 | ||
| Volition | 1797 | ||
| Emotion | 1797 | ||
| Regulation | 1797 | ||
| One, Perhaps Two, Oscillators for Generation of Respiratory Rhythm | 1798 | ||
| Cellular and Network Bases for Generation of Respiratory Rhythm | 1802 | ||
| Cellular and Network Basis of Burst Pattern Formation | 1804 | ||
| Summary | 1804 | ||
| Further Reading | 1804 | ||
| Broca's Area: Evolution | 1805 | ||
| Morphology and Cytoarchitectonics | 1805 | ||
| Lateralization of Broca's Area | 1806 | ||
| Potential Evolutionary and Functional Correlates of Broca's Area in Primates | 1808 | ||
| Conclusions | 1808 | ||
| Further Reading | 1809 | ||
| Brodmann's Areas | 1811 | ||
| Further Reading | 1813 | ||
| C | 1815 | ||
| CADASIL (Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy with Subcortical Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy) | 1815 | ||
| Introduction | 1815 | ||
| CADASIL | 1815 | ||
| The Notch 3 Receptor | 1815 | ||
| Structure of Notch 3 | 1815 | ||
| Functional Role of Notch 3 in the Vessel | 1816 | ||
| The Notch 3 Signaling Pathway | 1817 | ||
| CADASIL: A Disordered Notch 3 Signaling Pathway? | 1817 | ||
| Mutation Spectrum | 1817 | ||
| Accumulation of Aggregated Notch 3ECD Protein | 1819 | ||
| Impact of CADASIL Mutations on Notch 3 Receptor Activity | 1819 | ||
| Conclusion and Future Prospects | 1819 | ||
| Further Reading | 1820 | ||
| Cadherins and Synapse Organization | 1823 | ||
| Introduction | 1823 | ||
| Classical Cadherins | 1823 | ||
| Seven-Pass (Flamingo-like) Transmembrane Cadherins | 1828 | ||
| Protocadherins | 1829 | ||
| Fat-Related and Other Members of Cadherin Superfamily | 1829 | ||
| Conclusion | 1830 | ||
| Further Reading | 1830 | ||
| Cajal's Place in the History of Neuroscience | 1831 | ||
| Introduction | 1831 | ||
| Summary of the Scientific Career of Cajal | 1831 | ||
| Cajal and the Golgi Method: The Neuron Doctrine and the Commencement of a New Era in Neuroscience | 1834 | ||
| Cajal and the Neuron Doctrine | 1837 | ||
| Law of Dynamic Polarization of Nerve Cells | 1838 | ||
| Further Reading | 1841 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1841 | ||
| Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) and Receptors | 1843 | ||
| Introduction | 1843 | ||
| Discovery of CGRP | 1843 | ||
| Neuroanatomical Localization | 1844 | ||
| CGRP mRNA-Containing Neurons | 1844 | ||
| CGRP-IR Neurons and Axons | 1845 | ||
| CGRP Receptor Binding Sites | 1845 | ||
| Recent Progress in CGRP Receptor Research | 1849 | ||
| Biological Activities | 1850 | ||
| CGRP and Olfaction | 1850 | ||
| CGRP and Audition | 1850 | ||
| CGRP and Vision | 1851 | ||
| CGRP and Taste/Feeding | 1851 | ||
| CGRP and Learning Behavior | 1851 | ||
| CGRP and Autonomic Functions | 1851 | ||
| CGRP and Motor Neurons, Development and Functions | 1852 | ||
| CGRP and Sensory Neurons | 1852 | ||
| CGRP Effects on Inflammation | 1853 | ||
| CGRPalpha Knockout Mice | 1853 | ||
| Conclusion and Perspectives | 1854 | ||
| Further Reading | 1854 | ||
| Calcium and Signal Transduction | 1855 | ||
| Calcium Regulation | 1855 | ||
| Plasma Membrane Regulation of Ca2+ Levels | 1855 | ||
| Plasma membrane Ca2+ pump and exchanger | 1855 | ||
| Plasma membrane Ca2+ channels | 1855 | ||
| The ER | 1857 | ||
| Mitochondria and Ca2+ Regulation | 1857 | ||
| Ca2+ Signal Transduction | 1857 | ||
| Ca2+ and Transcription Regulation | 1857 | ||
| Ca2+-Mediated Regulation of Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation | 1858 | ||
| Ca2+-Dependent Protein Degradation | 1858 | ||
| Ca2+ Regulation and Signal Transduction in Aged Brains | 1859 | ||
| Functional Consequences of Age-Related Changes in Ca2+ Signaling | 1859 | ||
| Conclusions | 1860 | ||
| Further Reading | 1860 | ||
| Calcium Channel and Calcium-Activated Potassium Channel Coupling | 1861 | ||
| Regulating Membrane Excitability by Activation of Ca2+-Activated Potassium Channels | 1861 | ||
| Pharmacological Determination of Ca2+ Channel Subtypes Underlying Activation of Ca2+-Dependent Hyperpolarizations i | 1862 | ||
| Identity of the Ca2+ Channel Subtype Activating Apamin-Sensitive AHPs | 1862 | ||
| Coupling of Ca2+ Channel Subtypes to Activation of Apamin-Sensitive AHPs | 1862 | ||
| CaV1.2 and -1.3 L-type Ca2+ channels | 1862 | ||
| CaV2.2 N-type Ca2+ channels | 1862 | ||
| CaV3 T-type Ca2+ channels | 1862 | ||
| CaV2.1 P/Q-type Ca2+ channels | 1862 | ||
| Identity of the Ca2+ Channel Subtypes Activating Apamin-Insensitive AHPs | 1863 | ||
| Coupling of Ca2+ Channel Subtypes to Activation of Apamin-Insensitive AHPs | 1863 | ||
| CaV1.2 and -1.3 L-type Ca2+ channels | 1863 | ||
| CaV2.2 N- and CaV2.1 P/Q-type Ca2+ channels | 1863 | ||
| Pharmacological Determination of Ca2+ Channel Subtypes Underlying Activation of BK (KCa1.1) Channels in Central Neurons | 1864 | ||
| CaV2.2 N-type Ca2+ Channels | 1864 | ||
| CaV1.2/1.3 L- and CaV2.2 N-type Ca2+ Channels | 1864 | ||
| CaV2.1 P/Q-type Ca2+ Channels | 1864 | ||
| Direct Measurements of Channel Association in Brain | 1865 | ||
| Ca2+ Channels and SK (KCa2) Channels | 1865 | ||
| Ca2+ Channels and BK (KCa1.1) Channels | 1865 | ||
| CaV2.2 N-type Ca2+ channels and BK channels | 1865 | ||
| CaV1.2 and -1.3 L-type Ca2+ channels and BK channels | 1865 | ||
| CaV2.1 P/Q-type Ca2+ channels and BK channels | 1865 | ||
| Conclusion | 1866 | ||
| Further Reading | 1866 | ||
| Calcium Channel Subtypes Involved in Neurotransmitter Release | 1869 | ||
| Ca2+ Channels in Excitation-Response Coupling | 1869 | ||
| Steps in Coupling Excitation to Neurotransmitter Release | 1869 | ||
| Discovery of Multiple Ca2+ Channel Types | 1870 | ||
| In General, Multiple Types of Ca2+ Channels Contribute to Central Nervous System Neurotransmission | 1872 | ||
| Intimate Relationship between Ca2+ Entry and Neurotransmitter Release | 1872 | ||
| Only Ca2+ Channels Close to the Release Machinery Matter | 1872 | ||
| Transmitter Release is Triggered by Ca2+ Entry, whereas Depolarization per se Exerts No Direct Effect | 1872 | ||
| The Ca2+ Sensor for Rapid Vesicle Release Is Synaptotagmin | 1872 | ||
| Transmitter Release is Related to Ca2+ Entry by a Steep Power-Law Function | 1872 | ||
| Multiple Ca2+ Channels (and Channel Types) Provide Input to a Common Ca2+ Sensor | 1873 | ||
| Exceptions to Generalizations about Multiple Ca2+ Channel Types | 1874 | ||
| Not always Multiple Channel Types | 1874 | ||
| Not always CaV2 Channels | 1874 | ||
| Not always the Same Type of Ca2+ Channel throughout Development | 1875 | ||
| What Are Multiple Ca2+ Channels Good for? | 1875 | ||
| Further Reading | 1875 | ||
| Calcium Channels | 1877 | ||
| Introduction | 1877 | ||
| Calcium Currents in Excitable Cells | 1877 | ||
| Calcium Channel Subunits | 1877 | ||
| Calcium Channel Genes | 1877 | ||
| Calcium Channel Structure and Function | 1879 | ||
| Three-Dimensional Structure of Calcium Channels | 1879 | ||
| Physiological Roles of Calcium Channels | 1879 | ||
| Calcium Channel Signaling Complexes | 1881 | ||
| Calcium Channel Molecular Pharmacology | 1881 | ||
| Calcium Channelopathies | 1883 | ||
| Further Reading | 1883 | ||
| Calcium Channels and SNARE Proteins | 1885 | ||
| Introduction | 1885 | ||
| The SNARE Protein Interaction Site on Presynaptic Cav2 Channels | 1885 | ||
| The Synprint Site Is Important for Efficient Release of Neurotransmitter | 1887 | ||
| Regulation of Presynaptic Ca2+ Channels by SNARE Proteins | 1889 | ||
| Modulation of the SNARE-Synprint Interaction | 1890 | ||
| Conclusion | 1890 | ||
| Further Reading | 1891 | ||
| Calcium Homeostasis in Glia | 1893 | ||
| Introduction | 1893 | ||
| Sources of Calcium in Glial Cells | 1893 | ||
| Intracellular Calcium Release | 1893 | ||
| Capacitative Calcium Entry | 1894 | ||
| VGCCs | 1894 | ||
| Transient Receptor Potential Channels | 1895 | ||
| Mitochondria | 1895 | ||
| Ligand-Evoked Calcium Signaling in Glial Cells | 1895 | ||
| Patterns of Calcium Signaling in Individual Cells | 1896 | ||
| Intercellular Calcium Waves | 1896 | ||
| Potential Functions of Glial Intercellular Ca2+ Waves | 1897 | ||
| Release of Signaling Molecules by Glial Calcium Signaling | 1898 | ||
| Calcium Signaling in Astrocyte-Neuron Interaction | 1898 | ||
| Calcium Signaling in Astrocyte-Vascular Interaction | 1898 | ||
| Calcium Signaling in Cortical Spreading Depression and Migraine | 1899 | ||
| Summary | 1899 | ||
| Further Reading | 1899 | ||
| Calcium Waves in Glia | 1901 | ||
| Introduction | 1901 | ||
| Ca2+ Waves Can Be Elicited in Astrocyte Populations by Several Types of Stimuli | 1901 | ||
| Mechanism of Propagation: Involvement of Purinergic Signaling | 1901 | ||
| Mechanism of Propagation: Involvement of Gap Junctions | 1901 | ||
| Interaction between Purinergic Signaling and Gap Junctions | 1902 | ||
| Nitric Oxide Signaling Can Mediate Ca2+ Waves | 1903 | ||
| Intracellular Mechanisms Controlling the Wave | 1903 | ||
| Ca2+ Waves in Intact Tissue | 1903 | ||
| Control of the Wave by Receptors | 1904 | ||
| Disease | 1906 | ||
| Interaction with Other Cells | 1906 | ||
| Ca2+ Waves during Development | 1906 | ||
| Modeling Astrocyte Ca2+ Waves | 1907 | ||
| Further Reading | 1907 | ||
| Calcium Waves: Purinergic Regulation | 1909 | ||
| Introduction | 1909 | ||
| Current Models for the Propagation of Astrocytic Ca2+ Waves | 1909 | ||
| Mechanisms of Purinergic Release: Exocytosis versus Connexin Hemichannels | 1909 | ||
| The P2X7 Pore-Forming Receptor and mCa2+ Signaling | 1910 | ||
| Purinergic Signaling and Ca2+ Waves in Neuronal Physiology | 1911 | ||
| Involvement of Adenosine as Purinergic Mediator of Astrocytic Ca2+ Signaling | 1912 | ||
| Conclusions | 1912 | ||
| Further Reading | 1913 | ||
| Calcium-Calmodulin Kinase II (CaMKII) in Learning and Memory | 1915 | ||
| Introduction | 1915 | ||
| General Characteristics of Calcium/CaM-Kinases | 1915 | ||
| Multifunctional CaM-Kinases | 1915 | ||
| CaM-Kinase Kinase | 1915 | ||
| CaM-Kinase I | 1916 | ||
| CaM-Kinase IV | 1918 | ||
| CaM-Kinase II | 1919 | ||
| Substrate-Specific CaM-Kinases | 1920 | ||
| CaM-Kinase III | 1920 | ||
| Myosin Light-Chain Kinase | 1920 | ||
| Summary | 1921 | ||
| Further Reading | 1921 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1922 | ||
| Canal-Otolith Interactions | 1923 | ||
| Introduction | 1923 | ||
| Background Definitions | 1923 | ||
| Canal Influences on Tilt Responses | 1924 | ||
| Canal Influences on Translation Responses | 1927 | ||
| Otolith Influences on Rotation Responses | 1928 | ||
| Summary | 1930 | ||
| Further Reading | 1931 | ||
| Cardiovascular Function: Central Nervous System Control | 1933 | ||
| Introduction | 1933 | ||
| Autonomic Control of the Cardiovascular System | 1933 | ||
| Sympathetic Vasomotor Tone Is Tonic and Driven from Supraspinal Sites | 1935 | ||
| Neural Control of the Heart Is a Balance between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Influences | 1935 | ||
| Cardiovascular Homeostasis Results Primarily from a Negative Feedback Reflex | 1936 | ||
| Other Reflexes Influence Cardiovascular Homeostasis | 1936 | ||
| A Set Point for Arterial Pressure | 1937 | ||
| The Nervous System and the Long-Term Control of the Cardiovascular System | 1937 | ||
| Hypertension and the Central Neural Control of Cardiovascular Function | 1938 | ||
| Further Reading | 1938 | ||
| Cataplexy | 1939 | ||
| Clinical Features of Cataplexy | 1939 | ||
| Physiological and Pathophysiological Aspects of Cataplexy | 1941 | ||
| Cataplexy and Hypocretin/Orexin Deficiency | 1942 | ||
| Further Reading | 1945 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1945 | ||
| CCK/Gastrin and Receptors | 1947 | ||
| Discovery of Cholecystokinin | 1947 | ||
| Distribution of CCK | 1947 | ||
| CCK Biosynthesis | 1947 | ||
| CCK Receptor Discovery and Distribution | 1947 | ||
| CCK Receptor Structure and Function | 1948 | ||
| Intracellular Mediators of CCK Receptor Activation | 1949 | ||
| Biological Activity of CCK | 1949 | ||
| Further Reading | 1949 | ||
| Cell Adhesion Molecules at Synapses | 1951 | ||
| Introduction | 1951 | ||
| Classical Cadherins | 1951 | ||
| Protocadherins | 1953 | ||
| NCAM | 1954 | ||
| L1-Family CAMs | 1954 | ||
| Other Synaptic Ig Superfamily Members | 1955 | ||
| Neurexins and Neuroligins | 1956 | ||
| ECM-Mediated Interactions | 1957 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 1958 | ||
| Further Reading | 1958 | ||
| Cell Culture: Autonomic and Enteric Neurons | 1959 | ||
| Introduction | 1959 | ||
| Neural Crest Cells | 1959 | ||
| Sympathetic Neurons | 1960 | ||
| Parasympathetic Neurons | 1961 | ||
| Cardiac Ganglia | 1964 | ||
| Tracheal Ganglia | 1964 | ||
| Chick Ciliary Ganglion Neurons | 1964 | ||
| Enteric Neurons | 1964 | ||
| Conclusions | 1965 | ||
| Further Reading | 1965 | ||
| Cell Culture: Primary Neural Cells | 1967 | ||
| Introduction | 1967 | ||
| Primary Cultures versus Cell Lines | 1967 | ||
| Different Types of Primary Neural Cell Culture | 1968 | ||
| Neurons | 1968 | ||
| Brief Protocol: Cortical Neurons | 1969 | ||
| Astrocytes | 1969 | ||
| Brief Protocol: Cortical Astrocytes | 1969 | ||
| Microglia | 1969 | ||
| Brief Protocol: Microglia | 1969 | ||
| Oligodendrocytes | 1970 | ||
| Brief Protocol 1: Forebrain Oligodendrocytes | 1970 | ||
| Brief Protocol 2: Immunopanning | 1970 | ||
| Brain Endothelium | 1970 | ||
| Brief Protocol: Brain Endothelium | 1971 | ||
| Further Reading | 1971 | ||
| Cell Replacement Therapy for Huntington's Disease | 1973 | ||
| Why Neuronal Regeneration Therapeutic Strategies for Huntington's Disease? | 1973 | ||
| Cell Transfer and Stem Cell Approaches for HD | 1973 | ||
| Immunology and Inflammation Issues Specific to Neural Intracerebral Cell Transfer | 1973 | ||
| Deriving and Examining Stem Cells for Functional Experimental Repair in HD Transgenic Models | 1974 | ||
| Clinical Exploratory Trials of Transplanting Fetal Striatal Cell and Neurons to Patients with HD | 1975 | ||
| Further Reading | 1975 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1976 | ||
| Cell Replacement Therapy: Mechanisms of Functional Recovery | 1977 | ||
| Functional Recovery | 1977 | ||
| Mechanisms of Functional Recovery | 1977 | ||
| Nonspecific Mechanisms | 1977 | ||
| Pharmacological Mechanisms | 1978 | ||
| Trophic Mechanisms | 1978 | ||
| Glial Support | 1979 | ||
| Pathway Repair | 1979 | ||
| Neuronal Reinnervation | 1979 | ||
| Circuit Reconstruction | 1980 | ||
| Full Network Repair | 1980 | ||
| Matching Donor Cells, Mechanisms, and Applications | 1980 | ||
| Further Reading | 1981 | ||
| Cell Replacement Therapy: Parkinson's Disease | 1983 | ||
| Introduction | 1983 | ||
| History | 1983 | ||
| Studies in Rodents and Primates | 1983 | ||
| Clinical Trials | 1984 | ||
| Future Cell Replacement Strategies | 1986 | ||
| Further Reading | 1987 | ||
| Cell-Cell Communication Through the Extracellular Space | 1989 | ||
| Introduction | 1989 | ||
| Communication Processes in the Brain: WT versus VT | 1989 | ||
| WT and VT in the Cellular Networks | 1989 | ||
| Characteristics of the channel allow VT to be distinguished from WT | 1989 | ||
| Main features of VT and WT | 1989 | ||
| Functional implications of VT and WT for brain integrative functions | 1990 | ||
| The Concept of RRIs and Receptor Mosaics | 1991 | ||
| Emergence of the Concept of RRIs and RMs | 1991 | ||
| Cross-talk between receptors: The classical view | 1991 | ||
| RRIs: A new integrative mechanism at the membrane level | 1991 | ||
| Implications of the Concept of RRIs and RMs | 1992 | ||
| Biochemical implications | 1992 | ||
| RRIs between synaptic and extrasynaptic receptors integrate WT and VT signals | 1993 | ||
| RRIs: Relevance for Molecular Neuropsychopharmacology | 1993 | ||
| Pathological Implications and Novel Treatments of Parkinson's Disease, Schizophrenia, and Depression | 1994 | ||
| Development of A2A receptor antagonists in the treatment of Parkinson's disease based on the A2A/D2 receptor interaction in the | 1994 | ||
| Development of mGluR5 antagonists for treatment of Parkinson's disease based on multiple mGluR5/A2A/D2 receptor interactions i | 1994 | ||
| Development of agonists with combined A2A agonist/mGluR5 agonist properties for the treatment of schizophrenia based on multip | 1994 | ||
| Development of galanin receptor antagonists for treatment of depressive illness based on galR/5-HT1A receptor interactions | 1994 | ||
| WT and VT in the Molecular Networks: Horizontal versus Vertical Molecular Networks | 1995 | ||
| The Extracellular and Intracellular Molecular Networks: A GMN Enmeshes the Entire CNS | 1995 | ||
| Structure and Function of the Extracellular Part of the GMN | 1995 | ||
| A New Model of Brain Networks: Partially Overlapping Cellular and GMNs with a Nested Organization | 1996 | ||
| Pathological and Therapeutic Implications of the Current View | 1997 | ||
| Further Reading | 1998 | ||
| Cells: 5-Hydroxytryptamine Receptors | 1999 | ||
| Introduction: Background and Scope | 1999 | ||
| Sympathetic Neuron 5-HT Receptors | 2000 | ||
| Preganglionic | 2000 | ||
| Postganglionic | 2001 | ||
| Parasympathetic Neuron 5-HT Receptors | 2001 | ||
| Preganglionic | 2001 | ||
| Postganglionic | 2002 | ||
| ENS Neuron 5-HT Receptors | 2003 | ||
| ANS Sensory Afferent Neuron 5-HT Receptors | 2004 | ||
| 5-HT Receptors on CNS Neurons Regulating the ANS | 2005 | ||
| Autonomic Neuroeffector Cell 5-HT Receptors | 2006 | ||
| Conclusion | 2007 | ||
| Further Reading | 2007 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2008 | ||
| Cellular Dynamics Revealed by Digital Holographic Microscopy | 2009 | ||
| Introduction | 2009 | ||
| Digital Holographic Microscopy | 2010 | ||
| Holography Principle | 2010 | ||
| DHM Setup | 2011 | ||
| Cellular Imaging | 2012 | ||
| Real-Time Visualization of Cellular Dynamics | 2013 | ||
| Nanoscale Cellular Fluctuations | 2015 | ||
| Conclusion | 2016 | ||
| Further Reading | 2017 | ||
| Central Gustatory System and Ingestive Behavior | 2019 | ||
| Introduction | 2019 | ||
| Peripheral Taste Nerves | 2019 | ||
| Central Taste Pathways | 2019 | ||
| Functional Contributions of Taste to Ingestive Behavior | 2021 | ||
| Neural Coding of Taste Quality | 2021 | ||
| Hindbrain versus Forebrain Taste Function | 2022 | ||
| Taste and Sodium Appetite | 2022 | ||
| Conclusion | 2023 | ||
| Further Reading | 2023 | ||
| Central Pattern Generators | 2025 | ||
| Introduction | 2025 | ||
| Cellular and Network Mechanisms of Rhythm Generation | 2025 | ||
| Synaptic Properties | 2025 | ||
| Intrinsic Neuronal Properties | 2026 | ||
| Pacemaker and Network-Based Mechanisms | 2027 | ||
| Activation and Neuromodulation of CPGs | 2028 | ||
| Complement and Source of Neuromodulators | 2028 | ||
| Divergence and Convergence of Neuromodulator Action | 2029 | ||
| Descending Commands and the Activation of Specific Patterns | 2029 | ||
| Coordination of CPGs | 2031 | ||
| Modular Organization of Rhythmic Motor Behaviors | 2031 | ||
| Coordination through Central Coupling or Sensory Feedback | 2031 | ||
| Flexibility of Motor Pattern Coordination | 2033 | ||
| Multifunctional Neurons and Circuits | 2033 | ||
| CPGs as Test Beds for General Principles of Circuit Function and Dynamics | 2034 | ||
| Further Reading | 2034 | ||
| Central Pattern Generators: Sensory Feedback | 2035 | ||
| Introduction | 2035 | ||
| What Is Sensory Feedback? | 2035 | ||
| Why CPGs Are Subject to Sensory Feedback | 2035 | ||
| Unpredictable development | 2035 | ||
| Unpredictable environment | 2036 | ||
| Compensation for morphological alterations | 2036 | ||
| Components of Motor Systems | 2036 | ||
| Experimental Approaches: Techniques and Animal Preparations | 2036 | ||
| Experimental Approaches and Techniques | 2037 | ||
| Comparison of CPG output and movements of intact animals | 2037 | ||
| Sensory entrainment | 2037 | ||
| Animal Preparations | 2037 | ||
| Locust flight | 2038 | ||
| Leech swimming | 2039 | ||
| Lamprey swimming | 2040 | ||
| Crustacean swimmeret beating | 2041 | ||
| Insect and crayfish walking | 2041 | ||
| Conclusion: Beyond Sensory Modulation | 2043 | ||
| Further Reading | 2043 | ||
| Cerebellar Deep Nuclei | 2045 | ||
| Lesion Studies: What Do the Multiple Maps in the Cerebellum Control? | 2045 | ||
| Parallel Fibers and Purkinje Cell Beams Link Deep Nuclear Cells as a Mechanism of Coordination | 2047 | ||
| What Does the Cerebellum Contribute to Cognitive Processes? | 2048 | ||
| Further Reading | 2049 | ||
| Cerebellar Lesions and Effects on Posture, Locomotion and Limb Movement | 2051 | ||
| Cerebellar Motor Disorders | 2051 | ||
| Limb Control | 2051 | ||
| Balance and Posture | 2052 | ||
| Gait | 2053 | ||
| Motor Learning | 2054 | ||
| A Common Mechanism? | 2054 | ||
| Summary | 2055 | ||
| Further Reading | 2056 | ||
| Cerebellar Microcircuitry | 2057 | ||
| Neuronal Elements Constituting Cerebellar Microcircuits | 2057 | ||
| Mossy Fiber Afferents | 2057 | ||
| Granule Cells | 2057 | ||
| Purkinje Cells | 2057 | ||
| Basket Cells | 2057 | ||
| Stellate Cells | 2057 | ||
| Golgi Cells | 2057 | ||
| Lugaro Cells | 2057 | ||
| Unipolar Brush Cells | 2058 | ||
| Climbing Fibers | 2058 | ||
| Third Type of Afferent | 2058 | ||
| Cerebellar Nuclear Neurons | 2058 | ||
| Parvicellular Red Nucleus Neurons | 2058 | ||
| Local Microcircuit Mechanisms | 2058 | ||
| Two-Stepped Divergence and Convergence | 2059 | ||
| Synaptic Plasticity | 2059 | ||
| Feed-Forward Inhibition | 2059 | ||
| Feedback Inhibition | 2059 | ||
| Reciprocal Inhibition | 2059 | ||
| Noise Generator | 2060 | ||
| Modular Structure: Microzone and Microcomplex | 2060 | ||
| Incorporation of Microcomplex into Segmental Circuits | 2060 | ||
| Incorporation of Microcomplex in Cerebral Cortical Circuits: Internal Model for Voluntary Movements | 2061 | ||
| Incorporation of Microcomplex in Cerebral Cortical Circuits: Internal Model for Mental Functions | 2061 | ||
| Conclusion | 2062 | ||
| Further Reading | 2062 | ||
| Cerebellum and Oculomotor Control | 2063 | ||
| Introduction | 2063 | ||
| Anatomical Approach to the Cerebellum and Ocular Motor Control | 2063 | ||
| Vestibulocerebellum: The Flocculus/Paraflocculus | 2063 | ||
| Pursuit | 2063 | ||
| Gaze holding | 2063 | ||
| Spontaneous nystagmus | 2063 | ||
| Postsaccadic drift | 2065 | ||
| Vestibular-ocular reflexes | 2065 | ||
| Vestibulocerebellum: The Nodulus/Ventral Uvula | 2066 | ||
| Functional Differences between the Flocculus/Paraflocculus and the Nodulus/Uvula | 2066 | ||
| Dorsal Cerebellar Vermis and the Posterior Fastigial Nucleus | 2067 | ||
| Saccades | 2067 | ||
| Pursuit | 2067 | ||
| Other Abnormalities of Ocular Motor Control Associated with Cerebellar Dysfunction | 2068 | ||
| Abnormalities of eye torsion | 2068 | ||
| The Cerebellum and Binocular Ocular Motor Control | 2068 | ||
| Disorders of alignment with cerebellar lesions | 2068 | ||
| Ocular Motor Learning and the Cerebellum | 2069 | ||
| Further Reading | 2069 | ||
| Cerebellum: Clinical Pathology | 2071 | ||
| Introduction | 2071 | ||
| Motor Symptoms | 2071 | ||
| Muscle Tone | 2071 | ||
| Gordon Holmes sign | 2071 | ||
| Pendulousness | 2071 | ||
| Postural asymmetries | 2072 | ||
| Pendular tendon reflexes | 2072 | ||
| Impairment of Motor Coordination | 2072 | ||
| Heel-knee-shin/toe square-drawing tests | 2072 | ||
| Finger-nose-finger test | 2072 | ||
| Rebound | 2072 | ||
| Finger-to-finger and finger-to-thumb tests | 2073 | ||
| Rapid, alternating movements | 2073 | ||
| Tremor | 2073 | ||
| Intention or kinetic tremor | 2073 | ||
| Postural tremor | 2073 | ||
| Palatal tremor | 2073 | ||
| Oculomotor Disturbances | 2073 | ||
| Equilibrium and Stance | 2073 | ||
| Gait | 2074 | ||
| Speech | 2074 | ||
| Dysarthria | 2074 | ||
| Cerebellar mutism | 2074 | ||
| Agrammatism | 2074 | ||
| Verbal fluency | 2074 | ||
| Cognition and Emotion | 2074 | ||
| Cerebellar Role in Motor Learning | 2075 | ||
| Localization: Body Maps and Motor Modes | 2075 | ||
| Sensorimotor Maps | 2075 | ||
| Localization of Cognitive Functions | 2075 | ||
| Further Reading | 2075 | ||
| Cerebellum: Evolution and Comparative Anatomy | 2077 | ||
| Introduction | 2077 | ||
| Histology of the Mammalian Cerebellar Cortex | 2077 | ||
| Cerebellar Cortex in Vertebrates | 2079 | ||
| Gross Anatomy of the Vertebrate Cerebellum | 2079 | ||
| Longitudinal Modular Organization of the Cerebellar Cortex and Its Efferent Connections | 2085 | ||
| Development of the Cerebellum | 2086 | ||
| Motor Control and Motor Learning: The Link between Structure and Function | 2088 | ||
| Further Reading | 2089 | ||
| Cerebellum: Models | 2091 | ||
| Cerebellar Learning Models | 2091 | ||
| Computational Models of Cerebellar LTD | 2092 | ||
| Rhythmic versus Chaotic Firing of Inferior Olive Neurons | 2095 | ||
| Feedback Error Learning Model | 2096 | ||
| The Ventral Paraflocculus and Ocular Following Responses | 2099 | ||
| Toward a General Model of the Cerebellum | 2100 | ||
| Further Reading | 2101 | ||
| Cerebral Cortex | 2103 | ||
| Further Reading | 2106 | ||
| Cerebral Cortex: Inhibitory Cells | 2109 | ||
| Introduction | 2109 | ||
| Two Basic Neuron Types in Cortex | 2109 | ||
| Morphological Diversity of Cortical GABA Cells | 2109 | ||
| Expression Patterns of Specific Chemical Substances | 2110 | ||
| Firing Pattern Diversity | 2111 | ||
| Nonpyramidal Cell Subtypes Identified by a Combination of Anatomical, Physiological, and Chemical Characteristics | 2112 | ||
| FS/Parvalbumin Cell Group | 2113 | ||
| LS Neurogliaform Cell Group | 2113 | ||
| Somatostatin Cell Group | 2114 | ||
| VIP/CCK/Calretinin Cell Group | 2114 | ||
| Double-bouquet cells | 2114 | ||
| Horizontal/descending arbor cells | 2114 | ||
| Small basket cells | 2114 | ||
| Descending basket cells | 2114 | ||
| Arcade cells | 2114 | ||
| CCK large basket cells | 2114 | ||
| Comparison of FS Basket Cells with Other Classes | 2114 | ||
| Comparison with Hippocampal GABAergic Cells | 2115 | ||
| Developmental Differentiation of GABAergic Cells | 2116 | ||
| Neuron Types and Circuit Organization in the Cortex | 2116 | ||
| Further Reading | 2116 | ||
| Cerebral Cortex: Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Cell Division | 2119 | ||
| Introduction | 2119 | ||
| Cell-Type Specification in the Neocortex | 2120 | ||
| Temporal Determinants: Birthdate and Laminar Fate | 2120 | ||
| Asymmetric and Symmetric Division of Cortical Progenitors Function in the Generation of Cortical Cell Diversity | 2121 | ||
| Does the Segregation of Progenitors to the Ventricular Zone and Subventricular Zone Represent a Bifurcation of Cell Fates? | 2122 | ||
| Intrinsic Factors of Cortical Cell-Fate Specification | 2123 | ||
| A Cascade of Intrinsic Determinants Controls the Production of Neurons in Drosophila | 2124 | ||
| Further Reading | 2124 | ||
| Cerebral Fissure Patterns | 2127 | ||
| Introduction | 2127 | ||
| Changing Patterns of Fissures with Cortical Development and Evolution | 2127 | ||
| Fissure Patterns and Brain Size | 2128 | ||
| Names of Fissures and Possible Homologies | 2129 | ||
| Experimental Manipulation of Fissure Formation | 2130 | ||
| Mechanical Theories of Fissure Formation | 2130 | ||
| Functional-Mechanical Theories of Fissure Formation | 2131 | ||
| Fissure Patterns in the Cortex of Extinct Mammals | 2133 | ||
| Further Reading | 2134 | ||
| Cerebrovascular Disease | 2135 | ||
| Occlusive Diseases and Stroke | 2135 | ||
| Intracranial Vascular Diseases | 2136 | ||
| Intracranial Aneurysms | 2136 | ||
| Ruptured aneurysms | 2136 | ||
| Unruptured aneurysms | 2136 | ||
| Vascular Malformations | 2137 | ||
| Arteriovenous malformations | 2137 | ||
| Dural arteriovenous malformations | 2138 | ||
| Cavernous malformations | 2138 | ||
| Developmental venous anomalies | 2138 | ||
| Capillary telangiectasias | 2138 | ||
| Spinal Vascular Diseases | 2139 | ||
| Arteriovenous Malformations of the Spinal Cord | 2139 | ||
| Dural arteriovenous fistulas | 2139 | ||
| Glomus type | 2139 | ||
| Juvenile type | 2139 | ||
| Perimedullary | 2139 | ||
| Traumatic Vascular Diseases | 2139 | ||
| Traumatic Aneurysms | 2139 | ||
| Carotid-Cavernous Fistulas | 2139 | ||
| Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage | 2139 | ||
| Further Reading | 2140 | ||
| Cetacean Brains | 2141 | ||
| Introduction | 2141 | ||
| Gross Structure of the Cetacean Brain | 2141 | ||
| Brain Size | 2141 | ||
| Surface Features | 2142 | ||
| Reproportioning of Central Sensory Structures | 2142 | ||
| Auditory Structures | 2142 | ||
| Olfactory Structures | 2143 | ||
| Hemispheric Connectivity | 2143 | ||
| Cortical Cytoarchitecture | 2143 | ||
| Conclusions | 2144 | ||
| Further Reading | 2144 | ||
| Chemical Senses: Overview | 2145 | ||
| Chemical Senses: Protozoa | 2147 | ||
| Introduction | 2147 | ||
| Paramecium Chemosensory Behavior | 2147 | ||
| Physiological Basis of Chemosensory Behavior | 2147 | ||
| Paramecium Membrane Receptors | 2149 | ||
| Ciliary Motion | 2149 | ||
| Other Ca2+-Dependent Processes in Paramecium Chemical Sensing | 2149 | ||
| Tetrahymena | 2149 | ||
| Euplotes | 2150 | ||
| Dictyostelium | 2150 | ||
| Further Reading | 2152 | ||
| Chemoaffinity Hypothesis: Development of Topographic Axonal Projections | 2153 | ||
| Introduction | 2153 | ||
| The Chemoaffinity Hypothesis | 2153 | ||
| Discovery of Graded Molecular Guidance Cues | 2154 | ||
| Mechanisms of Map Development | 2154 | ||
| Multiple Phases in the Development of a Topographic Map | 2154 | ||
| AP Mapping | 2156 | ||
| DV Mapping | 2156 | ||
| Refinement of the Retinotopic Map | 2158 | ||
| Concluding Statements | 2158 | ||
| Further Reading | 2158 | ||
| Cholinergic Neurotransmission in the Autonomic and Somatic Motor Nervous System | 2161 | ||
| Introduction | 2161 | ||
| Synthesis of Acetylcholine | 2161 | ||
| Choline and Choline Transport | 2161 | ||
| Choline Acetyltransferase | 2162 | ||
| Storage of Acetylcholine | 2163 | ||
| Release of Acetylcholine | 2163 | ||
| Regulation of Acetylcholine Neurotransmission | 2163 | ||
| Inactivation of Acetylcholine | 2164 | ||
| Enzymatic Hydrolysis: AChE | 2164 | ||
| Cholinergic Receptors | 2164 | ||
| nAChRs | 2164 | ||
| Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors | 2168 | ||
| Physiological Responses Produced Following Increases in Cholinergic Neurotransmission | 2168 | ||
| Further Reading | 2168 | ||
| Cholinergic Pathways in CNS | 2169 | ||
| Acetylcholine as a Central Nervous System Transmitter | 2169 | ||
| CNS Cholinergic Synapses | 2169 | ||
| Main CNS Cholinergic Pathways | 2170 | ||
| The Functions and Neurobiology of Basal Forebrain Cholinergic Neurons | 2173 | ||
| Trophic Factor Dependency of Forebrain Cholinergic Neurons | 2174 | ||
| CNS Cholinergic Neurons and AD | 2175 | ||
| Further Reading | 2176 | ||
| Cholinergic System | 2179 | ||
| Introduction | 2179 | ||
| Anatomy of the Cholinergic Basal Forebrain | 2179 | ||
| Anatomy of the Thalamic and Brain Stem Cholinergic Subgroups | 2181 | ||
| CBF Neuron Survival | 2182 | ||
| CBF Neurons Express NGF Receptors | 2182 | ||
| NGF Signaling in CBF Neurons | 2183 | ||
| CBF Alterations during the Progression of AD | 2185 | ||
| Mechanisms of NGF Receptor Alterations in Cholinergic Neurons in MCI and AD | 2185 | ||
| TrkA Signaling in the Cholinotrophic System | 2185 | ||
| p75NTR Signaling in the Cholinotrophic System | 2186 | ||
| CBF Neurons Display Cell Cycle Proteins in MCI and AD | 2186 | ||
| ProNGF and Cholinergic NB Neuron Survival | 2186 | ||
| CBF Neurons: Sorting Life from Death | 2188 | ||
| Genetic Signature of CBF Neurons | 2188 | ||
| Therapeutics for Cholinergic NB Dysfunction in AD | 2189 | ||
| Further Reading | 2190 | ||
| Cholinergic System Imaging in the Healthy Aging Process and Alzheimer Disease | 2191 | ||
| Introduction | 2191 | ||
| The Cholinergic System | 2191 | ||
| Anatomy of the Cholinergic System | 2191 | ||
| Cholinergic Neurotransmission | 2192 | ||
| Targeting the Cholinergic System In Vivo | 2195 | ||
| Pet Imaging of Cholinergic Receptor Binding and ChE Activity | 2195 | ||
| How can PET measure neuroreceptor binding and density in vivo? | 2195 | ||
| Cholinergic Markers in PET | 2196 | ||
| Perspective of neuroreceptor imaging in Alzheimer's disease | 2198 | ||
| Functional Imaging of Cholinergic Treatment Effects | 2199 | ||
| MRI Studies to Detect Atrophy of Cholinergic Nuclei | 2199 | ||
| Imaging the Cholinergic System In Vivo: Future Perspectives | 2200 | ||
| Further Reading | 2202 | ||
| Chromaffin Cells: Model Cells for Neuronal Cell Biology | 2203 | ||
| Techniques for Studying Chromaffin Cells | 2203 | ||
| Synthesis and Storage of Catecholamines in Adrenal Chromaffin Cells and Chromaffin Granules | 2203 | ||
| Control of Catecholamine Biosynthesis | 2205 | ||
| Control of Catecholamine Secretion | 2207 | ||
| Neuronal | 2207 | ||
| Nicotinic Cholinergic Receptors on Chromaffin Cells | 2207 | ||
| Peptide Modulation of Secretion | 2207 | ||
| Nonneuronal | 2208 | ||
| Exocytosis and Endocytosis | 2209 | ||
| Ca2+ Signaling | 2210 | ||
| Clinical Uses of Chromaffin Cells in Parkinson's Disease and Chronic Pain | 2210 | ||
| Further Reading | 2211 | ||
| Chronic (Repeated) Stress: Consequences, Adaptations | 2213 | ||
| Chronic Stress | 2213 | ||
| Chronic Stress and Recruitment of a Limbic Network That Biases Subsequent Autonomic, Behavioral, and Neuroendocrine Responses t | 2213 | ||
| Habituation of HPA Responses with Time after Inescapable Stressors | 2213 | ||
| Repeated Restraint | 2214 | ||
| Why Habituation? | 2214 | ||
| Where in the Brain Does Habituation to Restraint Occur? | 2214 | ||
| How Does Habituation Occur? | 2214 | ||
| Facilitation to Novel Stimuli Occurs with Chronic Stress | 2215 | ||
| What Does Facilitation Look Like? | 2215 | ||
| Facilitated Responses Require Sustained or Intermittently Repeated Stressors and Elevated Corticosterone Concentrations | 2216 | ||
| How Does Facilitation Occur? | 2216 | ||
| The Up- and Downsides of HPA Responses to Chronic or Repeated Challenge | 2217 | ||
| The Upside | 2217 | ||
| The Downside | 2218 | ||
| Further Reading | 2219 | ||
| Cingulate Cortex | 2221 | ||
| Anatomy of Cingulate Cortex | 2221 | ||
| Subdivisions | 2221 | ||
| Connections | 2221 | ||
| Role of Cingulate Cortex in Behavior | 2222 | ||
| Early Ideas of Cingulate Function | 2222 | ||
| Role of Cingulate Cortex in Reward-Guided Behavior | 2223 | ||
| Role of Cingulate Cortex in Selecting Action | 2223 | ||
| Role of Cingulate Cortex in Monitoring Behavioral Outcomes | 2224 | ||
| Role of Cingulate Cortex in Assigning Motivational Significance to Potential Actions | 2224 | ||
| Conclusion | 2226 | ||
| Further Reading | 2226 | ||
| Circadian Function and Therapeutic Potential of Melatonin in Humans | 2227 | ||
| The Circadian Function and Therapeutic Potential of Melatonin in Humans | 2227 | ||
| Melatonin and 6-Sulfatoxymelatonin | 2227 | ||
| Melatonin Gas Chromatographic-Mass Spectrometric Assay and Radioimmunoassays | 2227 | ||
| Bright (High-Intensity) Light | 2227 | ||
| Melatonin Suppression Test | 2227 | ||
| Seasonal Affective Disorder, or Winter Depression | 2228 | ||
| Phase Shift Hypothesis | 2228 | ||
| Dim Light Melatonin Onset as a Marker for the Phase of the Endogenous Circadian Pacemaker | 2228 | ||
| Dim Light Melatonin Offset and Melatonin Synthesis Offset | 2228 | ||
| Phase Angle Difference, Circadian Misalignment, and Phase Typing | 2229 | ||
| Zeitgeber Time | 2229 | ||
| Phase Angle of Entrainment and Circadian Period | 2229 | ||
| Circadian Time | 2230 | ||
| The Light and Melatonin Phase Response Curves | 2230 | ||
| Blind Free-Runners | 2231 | ||
| Relative Coordination to Weak Zeitgebers, the Two-Point Tau, the Tau Response Curve, and Tau at Entrainment Phase | 2232 | ||
| Natural Entrainment | 2233 | ||
| The Function of Endogenous Melatonin in Humans | 2233 | ||
| Further Reading | 2234 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2234 | ||
| Circadian Gene Expression in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | 2235 | ||
| Introduction | 2235 | ||
| Putative Circadian Clock Genes | 2236 | ||
| Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Circadian Clockwork Mechanisms | 2237 | ||
| Structural and Functional Features of Clock Proteins | 2238 | ||
| Patterns of Clock Gene Expression in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | 2239 | ||
| Regulation of Clock mRNA and Protein Expression and Function | 2240 | ||
| Regulation of Clock mRNA and Protein Expression by Light | 2241 | ||
| Summary | 2241 | ||
| Further Reading | 2241 | ||
| Circadian Genes and the Sleep-Wake Cycle | 2243 | ||
| Introduction | 2243 | ||
| Systems-Level Studies: Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Lesions | 2243 | ||
| Genetics-Level Studies: Mammalian Circadian Clock Genes | 2244 | ||
| Clock, Bmal1, and Npas2 | 2244 | ||
| Cryptochrome and Period | 2246 | ||
| Summary | 2247 | ||
| Further Reading | 2248 | ||
| Circadian Metabolic Rhythms Regulated by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | 2249 | ||
| Organisms Exhibit Metabolic Rhythms: Daily and Annual Rhythms | 2249 | ||
| The SCN Generates Metabolic Rhythms | 2249 | ||
| How Does the SCN Induce Rhythms in Metabolic Systems? | 2249 | ||
| The Endocrine System | 2249 | ||
| Autonomic Output | 2252 | ||
| Integration of Glucose Rhythms and Energy Balance | 2253 | ||
| Interaction of the SCN with Hypothalamic Nuclei Involved in Energy Balance | 2253 | ||
| Sensing energy stores | 2253 | ||
| Interaction with Other Hypothalamic Nuclei | 2253 | ||
| What is the Relevance of Metabolic Rhythms? | 2254 | ||
| Anticipation of Changes in Energy Requirement | 2254 | ||
| Metabolic Rhythms without the SCN; Food Entrainment | 2255 | ||
| The Metabolic Syndrome: A Brain Disease? | 2255 | ||
| Ignoring the Signal of the Clock | 2255 | ||
| Further Reading | 2257 | ||
| Circadian Organization | 2259 | ||
| Introduction | 2259 | ||
| Age-Related Changes in Inputs to the Circadian Clock | 2259 | ||
| Age-Related Changes in the Master Central Circadian Clock | 2260 | ||
| Age-Related Changes in Function of the Downstream Effector System | 2261 | ||
| Attenuating or Reversing Age-Related Changes in Circadian Organization | 2261 | ||
| Can Circadian Dysfunction Affect Aging? | 2263 | ||
| Further Reading | 2263 | ||
| Circadian Organization in Non-Mammalian Vertebrates | 2265 | ||
| Introduction | 2265 | ||
| Pineal Organ and Melatonin | 2265 | ||
| Hypothalamic Clocks | 2268 | ||
| The Eyes as Photoreceptors | 2269 | ||
| The Eyes as Circadian Pacemakers | 2269 | ||
| Extraretinal Photoreceptors | 2270 | ||
| Peripheral Oscillators | 2270 | ||
| Further Reading | 2272 | ||
| Circadian Oscillations in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | 2273 | ||
| Circadian Rhythmicity of SCN Tissue In Vivo and In Vitro | 2273 | ||
| Multiple Single-Cell Circadian Oscillators within the SCN | 2274 | ||
| Structural and Functional Heterogeneity of SCN Neurons | 2275 | ||
| Coupling Mechanisms for Coordinating SCN Cellular Oscillators | 2276 | ||
| The Search for Morning and Evening Circadian Clocks | 2277 | ||
| For the Future: From Intracellular Oscillations to Temporal Programs | 2278 | ||
| Further Reading | 2278 | ||
| Circadian Regulation by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | 2279 | ||
| Functional Properties of the Mammalian Circadian Clock in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | 2279 | ||
| Hierarchy and Cell-Autonomous Nature of Circadian Clocks in Mammals | 2279 | ||
| Functional Differences between Circadian Clocks in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus, Peripheral Tissues, and Fibroblasts | 2280 | ||
| The Search for Critical Output Signals of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | 2282 | ||
| Future Developments | 2284 | ||
| Further Reading | 2284 | ||
| Circadian Regulation in Invertebrates | 2285 | ||
| Introduction | 2285 | ||
| Localization of Circadian Oscillators | 2285 | ||
| Pacemakers in the Molluscan Retina | 2285 | ||
| Pacemakers in the Arthropod Brain | 2286 | ||
| Circadian Pacemakers outside the Nervous System | 2287 | ||
| Multioscillator Organization of the Pacemaking System | 2288 | ||
| Localization of Photoreceptors and Mechanisms of Entrainment | 2288 | ||
| Extraretinal Photoreceptors | 2288 | ||
| Participation of Retinal Photoreceptors in Entrainment | 2289 | ||
| Cellular Mechanisms of Entrainment by Light | 2289 | ||
| Identification of Output Pathways | 2290 | ||
| Rhythms in Insect Development | 2290 | ||
| Rhythms in Retinal Sensitivity to Light | 2290 | ||
| Further Reading | 2290 | ||
| Circadian Rhythm Models | 2291 | ||
| Introduction | 2291 | ||
| Early Models Illustrated Essential Roles of Negative Feedback and Posttranslational Modifications | 2291 | ||
| Recent Models Consider Additional Positive Feedback and Simulate the Effects of Mutations | 2292 | ||
| Models Have Increased the Understanding of Entrainment and Phase-Shifting by Light Cycles, Light Pulses, and Temperature Chang | 2293 | ||
| Models Illustrate Sensitivity of Rhythms to Stochastic Molecular Noise and Suggest Mechanisms to Enhance Noise Resistance | 2295 | ||
| Models Examine the Efficacy of Proposed Mechanisms of Intracellular Synchronization | 2295 | ||
| Directions for Research | 2296 | ||
| Conclusion | 2296 | ||
| Further Reading | 2296 | ||
| Circadian Rhythms in Sleepiness, Alertness, and Performance | 2299 | ||
| Introduction | 2299 | ||
| Identifying the Circadian Rhythm in Sleep and Wakefulness | 2299 | ||
| Subjective Measures of Fatigue and Alertness | 2299 | ||
| Cognitive Performance | 2300 | ||
| Electroencephalographic and Ocular Measures | 2300 | ||
| Midafternoon Dip | 2301 | ||
| Problems in Detecting Circadian Rhythmicity in Performance | 2301 | ||
| Practice Effects and Other Artifacts | 2301 | ||
| Interindividual and Intraindividual Variability | 2301 | ||
| Circadian Rhythmicity and Sleep-Wake Cycles | 2302 | ||
| Sleep Deprivation | 2302 | ||
| Sleep-Wake Regulation | 2302 | ||
| Forced Desynchrony | 2302 | ||
| Ultraradian Days | 2303 | ||
| Circadian Disorders | 2303 | ||
| Accident Risk | 2303 | ||
| Conclusion | 2304 | ||
| Further Reading | 2304 | ||
| Circadian Rhythms: Influence of Light in Humans | 2305 | ||
| Circadian Organization in Humans | 2305 | ||
| Circadian Photoreception in Humans | 2305 | ||
| The Effect of Visual Impairment on Circadian Rhythms | 2305 | ||
| Spectral Sensitivity of Circadian Photoreception | 2308 | ||
| Extraocular Circadian Photoreception | 2308 | ||
| Measuring Circadian Rhythms in Humans | 2309 | ||
| Circadian Phase and Amplitude | 2309 | ||
| Circadian Period | 2309 | ||
| Resetting the Human Circadian Pacemaker with Light | 2310 | ||
| Circadian Entrainment | 2310 | ||
| Properties of Light and Circadian Resetting | 2310 | ||
| Timing | 2310 | ||
| Intensity | 2312 | ||
| Duration and pattern | 2312 | ||
| Wavelength | 2312 | ||
| Photic history | 2313 | ||
| Other Neuroendocrine and Neurobehavioral Effects of Light | 2314 | ||
| Circadian Rhythm Disorders and Light | 2315 | ||
| Shift work | 2315 | ||
| Jet lag | 2317 | ||
| Advanced and delayed sleep phase syndrome | 2318 | ||
| Unusual environmental photoperiods | 2318 | ||
| Aging | 2320 | ||
| Psychiatric disorders | 2320 | ||
| Further Reading | 2322 | ||
| Circadian Systems: Evolution | 2323 | ||
| Introduction | 2323 | ||
| Fundamental Properties | 2323 | ||
| Function | 2323 | ||
| Physiological Organization and Evolution | 2324 | ||
| Photoreceptors for Entrainment | 2324 | ||
| Localization of Circadian Oscillators | 2325 | ||
| Phase Control and the Evolution of Circadian Systems | 2326 | ||
| Caveats | 2329 | ||
| Summary | 2329 | ||
| Further Reading | 2329 | ||
| Circumventricular Organs | 2331 | ||
| Introduction | 2331 | ||
| The Blood-Brain Barrier | 2331 | ||
| Features of CVOs | 2331 | ||
| Sensory CVOs | 2331 | ||
| Subfornical Organ | 2332 | ||
| Organum Vasculosum of the Lamina Terminalis | 2332 | ||
| Area Postrema | 2332 | ||
| Properties and Sensory Abilities of CVO Neurons | 2332 | ||
| Angiotensin II Sensing | 2333 | ||
| Sodium Sensation | 2333 | ||
| Osmosensitivity | 2333 | ||
| Calcium Sensation | 2333 | ||
| Secretory CVOs | 2333 | ||
| Roles of CVOs in Osmotic/Mineral Challenges | 2334 | ||
| CVOs in the Regulation of Thirst by Intracellular Dehydration | 2334 | ||
| CVOs in the Regulation of Thirst by Hypovolemia | 2334 | ||
| CVOs in the Regulation of Salt Appetite | 2335 | ||
| CVOs and the Gustatory Aspects of Salt Appetite | 2335 | ||
| CVOs as Controllers of Integrated Autonomic Function | 2335 | ||
| Further Reading | 2335 | ||
| Circumventricular Organs in Neuroendocrine Control | 2337 | ||
| Introduction | 2337 | ||
| Functional Roles for CVOs | 2337 | ||
| Biochemical Properties and Anatomic Connections | 2338 | ||
| Further Reading | 2340 | ||
| CIRL/Latrophilins | 2341 | ||
| Discovery of CL1 | 2341 | ||
| Structure of CLs | 2341 | ||
| CL1 Is a Major alpha-Latrotoxin Receptor | 2342 | ||
| Role for CL1 in alpha-Latrotoxin-Stimulated Neurotransmitter Release in the Presence of Extracellular Ca2 | 2343 | ||
| Role for CL1 in alpha-Latrotoxin-Stimulated Neurotransmitter Release in the Absence of Extracellular Ca2 | 2343 | ||
| CLs Are Conserved Proteins: Lessons from Caenorhabditis elegans | 2344 | ||
| Biological Functions of CLs | 2344 | ||
| Further Reading | 2345 | ||
| Clathrin and Clathrin-Adaptors | 2347 | ||
| Introduction | 2347 | ||
| Clathrin | 2347 | ||
| Clathrin Adaptors | 2347 | ||
| Initiation of Endocytic Complex Assembly by Clathrin Adaptors | 2348 | ||
| Roles of Clathrin and Clathrin Adaptors during Vesicle Formation | 2349 | ||
| Regulation of Clathrin Adaptors: Interactions and Functions | 2350 | ||
| Summary | 2350 | ||
| Further Reading | 2351 | ||
| Clock Gene Regulation of Endocrine Function | 2353 | ||
| Introduction | 2353 | ||
| Circadian Control of the Endocrine System | 2353 | ||
| Circadian Clock Genes and the Endocrine System | 2353 | ||
| Circadian Clock Genes and Endocrine Pathophysiology | 2354 | ||
| Further Reading | 2355 | ||
| Clock Genes and Metabolic Regulation | 2357 | ||
| Central Nervous System Organization of Mammalian Circadian Rhythms | 2357 | ||
| The Clock Is Universal | 2357 | ||
| Light: Zeitgeber and Photoreception | 2357 | ||
| Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: Integration of Metabolic and Circadian Signals | 2357 | ||
| Overview | 2357 | ||
| Suprachiasmatic nucleus neural circuits | 2357 | ||
| Neuroendocrine signals influence the suprachiasmatic nucleus clock | 2359 | ||
| The Molecular Clock in Neural and Peripheral Metabolic Cells | 2359 | ||
| The Discovery of Mammalian Clock Genes | 2359 | ||
| Metabolic Transcription Factors Participate in the Circadian Oscillator | 2359 | ||
| Clock Genes in Extra-Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Neurons and Peripheral Tissues | 2360 | ||
| Food Entrainment of the Clock | 2360 | ||
| Circadian, Sleep, and Metabolic Disorders in Humans | 2361 | ||
| Epidemiology of Sleep and Metabolic Disorders | 2361 | ||
| Narcolepsy and Energy Balance | 2362 | ||
| Molecular Interconnection between the Circadian and Metabolic Systems | 2362 | ||
| Role of Cellular Redox State and Chromatin Remodeling in Clock Gene Transcription | 2362 | ||
| Insight from Experimental Genetic Models into Links between Circadian and Metabolic Systems | 2362 | ||
| Future Questions | 2363 | ||
| Further Reading | 2363 | ||
| Cochlear Development | 2365 | ||
| The Structure of the Cochlea | 2365 | ||
| The Embryonic Origins of the Cochlea | 2365 | ||
| Otic Induction | 2365 | ||
| Axial Polarity and Patterning of the Cochlea | 2367 | ||
| Morphogenesis of the Cochlea | 2368 | ||
| Specification of Tissue Types | 2370 | ||
| Specification of Sensory Cells | 2370 | ||
| Hair Bundle Polarity | 2372 | ||
| Spiral Ganglion Neurons | 2372 | ||
| Further Reading | 2374 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2374 | ||
| Cochlear Mechanics | 2375 | ||
| Introduction | 2375 | ||
| Cochlear Vibration and the Active Process | 2375 | ||
| Nonlinear Growth of Macromechanical and Micromechanical Vibration with Sound Level | 2378 | ||
| Why Does the Wave Travel from Base to Apex? It's Cochlear Hydrodynamics, Not Stapes Drive | 2379 | ||
| Sensorineural Hearing Loss and the Frequency Threshold Curve | 2380 | ||
| Motor Losses: OHC Problems with No IHC/Neural Disruption (Noise Trauma, Hydrops, and Fistula) | 2381 | ||
| Sensory Losses: IHC/Neural Problems with Normal OHCS | 2382 | ||
| Mixed Cochlear Losses: Drug Blockade, Cochlear Hypoxia, and Morphological Disruption | 2382 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 2383 | ||
| Further Reading | 2383 | ||
| Cochlear Prosthesis | 2385 | ||
| Introduction | 2385 | ||
| Electrode Arrays | 2385 | ||
| Speech Processors | 2386 | ||
| Clinical Results | 2386 | ||
| Further Reading | 2388 | ||
| Cognition in Aging and Age-Related Disease | 2389 | ||
| Introduction | 2389 | ||
| Cognitive Declines with Healthy Aging | 2389 | ||
| Domain-General Theories of Cognitive Aging | 2389 | ||
| Sensory deficits | 2389 | ||
| Inhibition | 2389 | ||
| Speed of processing | 2390 | ||
| Domain-Specific Theories of Cognitive Aging | 2390 | ||
| Word-finding difficulties and transmission deficits | 2390 | ||
| Contextual memory and associative binding deficits | 2391 | ||
| Preserved Cognitive Function with Healthy Aging | 2391 | ||
| Crystallized Intelligence | 2391 | ||
| Emotion Regulation | 2391 | ||
| Neural Changes with Healthy Aging | 2392 | ||
| Changes in Prefrontal Cortex | 2392 | ||
| Medial Temporal Lobe Changes | 2392 | ||
| Changes in Emotion Processing Regions | 2393 | ||
| Mild Cognitive Impairment | 2393 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease | 2393 | ||
| Cognitive Changes in AD | 2393 | ||
| Episodic memory | 2393 | ||
| Semantic memory | 2394 | ||
| Working memory and executive function | 2394 | ||
| Neural Changes in AD | 2394 | ||
| Neural Changes in Later-Stage AD | 2394 | ||
| Individual Differences in Aging | 2394 | ||
| Further Reading | 2395 | ||
| Cognition: An Overview of Neuroimaging Techniques | 2397 | ||
| Anatomical Techniques | 2397 | ||
| Functional Techniques | 2397 | ||
| Classes of Functional Neuroimaging Techniques | 2397 | ||
| Direct measures of neural activity: EEG and MEG | 2397 | ||
| Indirect measures of neural activity: PET | 2398 | ||
| Indirect measures of neural activity: fMRI | 2398 | ||
| Related Techniques | 2399 | ||
| Optical Brain Imaging | 2399 | ||
| Trade-Offs between Temporal and Spatial Resolution | 2399 | ||
| Advantages and Limitations of Neuroimaging Techniques | 2399 | ||
| Contributions to the Study of Cognition | 2400 | ||
| Further Reading | 2401 | ||
| Cognition: Basal Ganglia Role | 2403 | ||
| Introduction | 2403 | ||
| Anatomical and Neurochemical Considerations | 2403 | ||
| Cognitive Control: Preparing, Initiating, Inhibiting, and Switching Responses | 2403 | ||
| Stimulus-Response Behavior | 2404 | ||
| Task Switching | 2405 | ||
| Rewards: Modulation of Striatal Signal Processing by Biological Feedback | 2406 | ||
| Learning, Memory, Skills, and Habits | 2408 | ||
| Synthesis | 2410 | ||
| Further Reading | 2411 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2411 | ||
| Cognition: Cerebellum Role | 2413 | ||
| Introduction | 2413 | ||
| Functional Neuroimaging Studies | 2413 | ||
| Verbal Working Memory | 2413 | ||
| Verbal Fluency | 2413 | ||
| Cognitive Flexibility | 2414 | ||
| Reasoning/Planning | 2414 | ||
| Dual Tasks | 2414 | ||
| Random Number Generation | 2415 | ||
| Theory of Mind | 2415 | ||
| Patient Studies | 2415 | ||
| Neurological Disorders | 2415 | ||
| Developmental Disorders | 2416 | ||
| Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | 2416 | ||
| Autism spectrum disorder | 2417 | ||
| Dyslexia | 2417 | ||
| Schizophrenia | 2417 | ||
| Individuals born very preterm | 2418 | ||
| Substance Abuse | 2418 | ||
| Cerebro-Cerebellar Interactions | 2418 | ||
| Further Reading | 2419 | ||
| Cognition: Neuropharmacology | 2421 | ||
| Dopamine | 2421 | ||
| Norepinephrine | 2423 | ||
| Serotonin | 2425 | ||
| Acetylcholine | 2426 | ||
| Summary | 2427 | ||
| Further Reading | 2428 | ||
| Cognitive Control and Development | 2429 | ||
| Evidence of Cognitive Control in Infancy | 2429 | ||
| Evidence of Cognitive Control in Early Childhood | 2430 | ||
| Evidence of Cognitive Control in Late Childhood and Adolescence | 2430 | ||
| Cortical Organization Underlying the Development of Cognitive Control | 2430 | ||
| Development of Brain Connectivity and Cognitive Control | 2431 | ||
| A Developmental Model of Cognitive Control | 2432 | ||
| Conclusions | 2433 | ||
| Further Reading | 2433 | ||
| Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia | 2435 | ||
| Why Study Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia? | 2435 | ||
| Article Overview | 2435 | ||
| Cognitive Endophenotypes | 2435 | ||
| Executive Function Deficits | 2436 | ||
| Inhibition | 2436 | ||
| Task Switching | 2436 | ||
| Working Memory | 2437 | ||
| Response Monitoring | 2437 | ||
| Declarative Memory | 2438 | ||
| Thought, Language, and Semantic Memory Disturbances | 2439 | ||
| Challenges and Potential Confounds in the Study of Cognition | 2439 | ||
| Heterogeneity | 2439 | ||
| Variability | 2439 | ||
| Amotivation | 2440 | ||
| Medications | 2440 | ||
| Generalized Deficit | 2440 | ||
| Are There Fundamental Deficits That Give Rise to Widespread Cognitive Disturbance? | 2440 | ||
| Attention | 2440 | ||
| Deficient Automation | 2441 | ||
| Context Processing | 2441 | ||
| Promising Advances in the Study of Cognition | 2441 | ||
| Imaging Genetics | 2441 | ||
| Neuroimaging Advances | 2441 | ||
| Further Reading | 2442 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2443 | ||
| Cognitive Dysfunction in Psychiatric Disorders | 2445 | ||
| Working Memory | 2445 | ||
| Working Memory in Schizophrenia | 2445 | ||
| Phonological Loop | 2445 | ||
| Visual-Spatial Scratch Pad | 2446 | ||
| Central Executive Function | 2446 | ||
| Executive Control in Schizophrenia | 2447 | ||
| Context Processing | 2447 | ||
| Conflict Detection/Error Monitoring | 2447 | ||
| Episodic Memory | 2447 | ||
| Episodic Memory in Schizophrenia | 2448 | ||
| Binding Functions | 2448 | ||
| Impairments in Strategic Contributions to Episodic Memory | 2448 | ||
| Prefrontal Abnormalities in Schizophrenia during Episodic Memory | 2448 | ||
| Specificity of Cognitive Deficits to Schizophrenia | 2449 | ||
| Summary | 2449 | ||
| Further Reading | 2450 | ||
| Cognitive Neuroscience: An Overview | 2451 | ||
| Further Reading | 2456 | ||
| Color Vision | 2457 | ||
| Introduction | 2457 | ||
| The Photodetectors, Opsins | 2457 | ||
| The Evolution of Vision | 2457 | ||
| Color Vision | 2458 | ||
| Energy versus Spectral Contrast | 2460 | ||
| Trivariant Color Vision | 2461 | ||
| The Midget System's Double-Duty Role | 2461 | ||
| The Retinex Theory | 2462 | ||
| Double Opponent Cells | 2462 | ||
| The Organization of Color Vision in Visual Cortex | 2463 | ||
| Color and Form Vision | 2464 | ||
| Is There a Separate Color Area in Visual Cortex? | 2464 | ||
| Tetravariant Color Vision | 2464 | ||
| Further Reading | 2465 | ||
| Coma | 2467 | ||
| Two Dimensions of Consciousness: Arousal and Awareness | 2467 | ||
| Nosology of Disorders of Consciousness | 2467 | ||
| Brain Death | 2467 | ||
| Coma | 2468 | ||
| VS | 2469 | ||
| MCS | 2469 | ||
| LIS | 2470 | ||
| Clinimetric Evaluation, Diagnosis, and Prognosis | 2470 | ||
| Consciousness Scales | 2470 | ||
| Brain Death | 2470 | ||
| Coma | 2470 | ||
| VS | 2471 | ||
| MCS | 2471 | ||
| LIS | 2471 | ||
| Residual Cerebral Function | 2471 | ||
| Brain Death | 2471 | ||
| Coma | 2472 | ||
| VS | 2472 | ||
| MCS | 2475 | ||
| LIS | 2475 | ||
| Conclusion | 2476 | ||
| Further Reading | 2476 | ||
| Coma and Other Pathological Disorders of Consciousness | 2477 | ||
| Introduction | 2477 | ||
| Underlying Mechanisms of Pathologic Coma | 2477 | ||
| Related Global Disorders of Consciousness | 2478 | ||
| Vegetative State | 2478 | ||
| Minimally Conscious State | 2479 | ||
| Akinetic Mutism | 2479 | ||
| Prognosis in Coma, Vegetative State, and Minimally Conscious State | 2479 | ||
| Underlying Mechanisms of Pharmacologic Coma | 2480 | ||
| Further Reading | 2480 | ||
| Command Systems | 2483 | ||
| Introduction | 2483 | ||
| Command Systems: Command versus Decision Making | 2483 | ||
| Historical Issues | 2483 | ||
| Network Architecture: Command and Central Pattern Generators | 2483 | ||
| Hierarchical and Parallel Organizations | 2484 | ||
| Drivers and Modulators | 2485 | ||
| Model Systems and Command Functions | 2485 | ||
| Related Behaviors: Reconfiguration of Multifunctional Central Pattern Generators | 2485 | ||
| Different Behaviors: From Behavioral Hierarchy to Adaptive Decision Making | 2488 | ||
| More Elaborate Neural Networks Involved in Motor Commands in Vertebrates | 2490 | ||
| Summary | 2491 | ||
| Further Reading | 2492 | ||
| Communication in Frogs and Toads | 2493 | ||
| Introduction | 2493 | ||
| Origin and Mechanisms of Sound Production | 2493 | ||
| Receivers | 2494 | ||
| The Auditory System | 2494 | ||
| Tympanic membrane and middle ear | 2494 | ||
| Inner ear | 2495 | ||
| Central Processing | 2496 | ||
| Behavior and Evolution | 2496 | ||
| Other Modes and Multimodal Communication | 2496 | ||
| Male Calling | 2497 | ||
| Mate Recognition | 2498 | ||
| Species recognition | 2498 | ||
| Sexual selection | 2499 | ||
| Eavesdroppers on Frog Communication by Predators | 2499 | ||
| Further Reading | 2500 | ||
| Communication in Terrestrial Animals | 2501 | ||
| Introduction | 2501 | ||
| How Mammal Calls Are Produced | 2501 | ||
| The Source and the Filter | 2501 | ||
| Contexts in Which Terrestrial Mammals Call | 2502 | ||
| Intraspecific | 2502 | ||
| Social communication | 2502 | ||
| Calling and territoriality | 2503 | ||
| Communication within the social group | 2503 | ||
| Sexual Communication | 2503 | ||
| Loud calls and sexual behavior | 2503 | ||
| Calling rate and male-male contests | 2503 | ||
| Effects of calling on females | 2504 | ||
| Alternative routes to honest signaling in mammal calls | 2504 | ||
| Loud mating calls in other mammals | 2505 | ||
| Interspecific Communication | 2505 | ||
| Further Reading | 2505 | ||
| Communication in the Honeybee | 2507 | ||
| The Life of Honeybees | 2507 | ||
| Chemical Communication | 2507 | ||
| Communication by Tactile and Vibration Signals | 2507 | ||
| Dance Language | 2508 | ||
| Further Reading | 2511 | ||
| Communication Networks and Eavesdropping in Animals | 2513 | ||
| Communication Networks | 2513 | ||
| Communication Behaviors Specific to Networks | 2513 | ||
| Signaling Behavior Best Explained by Networks | 2513 | ||
| Signal synchrony in choruses | 2513 | ||
| High level of close-range signals | 2514 | ||
| Directing signals in a network | 2514 | ||
| Eavesdropping | 2514 | ||
| Networks and Eavesdropping | 2514 | ||
| Two Categories of Eavesdropping | 2514 | ||
| Interceptive Eavesdropping | 2515 | ||
| Social Eavesdropping | 2515 | ||
| Acoustic Interactions in Songbirds | 2516 | ||
| Visual Interactions in Fish | 2516 | ||
| Effects of an Audience | 2517 | ||
| Further Reading | 2517 | ||
| Comparative Biology of Invertebrate Neuromuscular Junctions | 2519 | ||
| Invertebrates Investigated | 2519 | ||
| Muscle Innervation | 2520 | ||
| Diversity across Phyla | 2520 | ||
| Crustacean Limb Muscles | 2521 | ||
| Drosophila Larval Abdominal Muscles | 2522 | ||
| Other Arthropod Muscles | 2523 | ||
| Nematodes | 2523 | ||
| Mollusks | 2525 | ||
| Structural Features of Invertebrate Neuromuscular Junctions | 2525 | ||
| Synapses | 2525 | ||
| Active Zones | 2526 | ||
| Neuroactive Substances and Receptors | 2529 | ||
| General Features | 2529 | ||
| Postsynaptic Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors | 2529 | ||
| Other Invertebrate Neuromuscular Receptors | 2532 | ||
| Retrograde Modulation of Synaptic Strength | 2537 | ||
| Physiological Features | 2538 | ||
| Synaptic Diversity of Single Neurons | 2539 | ||
| Synaptic Specialization of Different Motor Neurons | 2540 | ||
| Conclusion | 2541 | ||
| Further Reading | 2542 | ||
| Comparative Neurobiology: History | 2545 | ||
| Introduction | 2545 | ||
| Origins | 2545 | ||
| Neuroanatomy in an Evolutionary Context | 2546 | ||
| Functional Mapping | 2547 | ||
| Simpler Systems | 2548 | ||
| Brain Size | 2550 | ||
| Evolutionary Developmental Neurobiology | 2551 | ||
| Further Reading | 2554 | ||
| e9780080446172v3 | 2555 | ||
| Front Cover | 2555 | ||
| Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | 2556 | ||
| Copyright Page | 2559 | ||
| Senior Editors | 2560 | ||
| Associate Editors | 2562 | ||
| Table of Contents | 2566 | ||
| Foreword | 2572 | ||
| Preface | 2574 | ||
| Volume 3 | 2576 | ||
| C | 2576 | ||
| Complexins | 2576 | ||
| Introduction | 2576 | ||
| Expression and Localization | 2576 | ||
| Structure and Biochemical Features | 2577 | ||
| Mechanism of Complexin Function | 2578 | ||
| Pathological Function of Complexin | 2581 | ||
| Future Directions | 2581 | ||
| Further Reading | 2582 | ||
| Computational Approaches to Motor Control | 2584 | ||
| Introduction | 2584 | ||
| The Problem of What to Do | 2584 | ||
| The Major Reward System in the Brain Is the Neurotransmitter Dopamine | 2585 | ||
| Balancing Expected Rewards with Motor Costs | 2587 | ||
| The Problem of How to Do It: Minimizing Costs to Find a Control Policy | 2588 | ||
| Effects of Damage to the Basal Ganglia on Representation of the Cost Function | 2589 | ||
| Cerebellar Damage and the Ability to Predict Sensory Consequences of Motor Commands | 2589 | ||
| Further Reading | 2591 | ||
| Computational Methods | 2594 | ||
| Introduction | 2594 | ||
| Brain Models | 2594 | ||
| Compartmental Models | 2595 | ||
| Network Models | 2596 | ||
| Learning Models | 2596 | ||
| Technology for Brain Modeling | 2596 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 2597 | ||
| Further Reading | 2597 | ||
| Computational Neuroethology | 2598 | ||
| Definitions | 2598 | ||
| History | 2598 | ||
| Conceptual Framework | 2598 | ||
| Goals and Methodology | 2599 | ||
| Examples | 2600 | ||
| Embodiment: Biomechanics and Neural Control | 2600 | ||
| Situatedness: Coupling among the Environment, the Periphery, and the Nervous System | 2601 | ||
| Active Perception | 2601 | ||
| Cognition and Intelligence | 2602 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 2602 | ||
| Further Reading | 2602 | ||
| Conditioned Reflex | 2604 | ||
| The Discovery of the Conditioned Reflex | 2604 | ||
| Classical Conditioning | 2604 | ||
| Classical Conditioning of the Eyeblink Response | 2604 | ||
| Eyeblink Conditioning in Aging Mammals | 2605 | ||
| Rodents | 2605 | ||
| Rabbits | 2606 | ||
| Humans | 2607 | ||
| Brain Substrates of Eyeblink Classical Conditioning | 2607 | ||
| Involvement of the Cerebellum in Associative Learning | 2607 | ||
| Involvement of the Hippocampus in Eyeblink Classical Conditioning | 2608 | ||
| Normal Aging in the Hippocampus and Cerebellum | 2608 | ||
| Amelioration of Eyeblink Classical Conditioning in Older Organisms | 2608 | ||
| Further Reading | 2609 | ||
| Conditioned Taste Aversion | 2610 | ||
| Introduction | 2610 | ||
| The Conditioned Taste Aversion Paradigm | 2610 | ||
| Neural Circuitry Implicated in CTA | 2611 | ||
| Area Postrema | 2611 | ||
| Nucleus Tractus Solitarius | 2612 | ||
| Pontine Parabrachial Nucleus | 2612 | ||
| Thalamus | 2612 | ||
| Hypothalamus | 2612 | ||
| Globus Pallidus | 2612 | ||
| Amygdala | 2612 | ||
| Hippocampus | 2612 | ||
| Prefrontal Cortex | 2612 | ||
| Insular Cortex | 2613 | ||
| AnatomicaSummary | 2613 | ||
| Effects of Aging on CTA Learning | 2614 | ||
| Biochemical and Metabolic Factors Related to Aging and CTA | 2615 | ||
| Genetic Factors Related to Aging and CTA | 2615 | ||
| Clinical Features of Aging Relevant to the CTA Paradigm | 2615 | ||
| Conclusions | 2615 | ||
| Further Reading | 2616 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2616 | ||
| Conditioning: Simple Neural Circuits in the Honeybee | 2618 | ||
| The Antennal Lobe and the Mushroom Body Are Sequentially Involved in the Olfactory Memory Trace | 2618 | ||
| Single Neuron Activity Correlate with Olfactory Learning | 2618 | ||
| Neural Circuits Underlying Olfactory Conditioning: Signaling Cascades Mediating CS and US Stimuli | 2619 | ||
| Molecular Signaling Cascades in the ALs Are Critical for the Induction of Olfactory Memory Traces | 2619 | ||
| Glutamate-Mediated Signaling Cascades in the MBs Contribute to LTM Formation | 2620 | ||
| Parallel Molecular Processes Contribute to LTM Memory Formation | 2621 | ||
| Further Reading | 2621 | ||
| Conditioning: Theories | 2624 | ||
| Background | 2624 | ||
| Notions Received from Pavlov | 2624 | ||
| The Linear Rule | 2624 | ||
| Contingency Effects and the Delta P Rule | 2624 | ||
| The Rescorla-Wagner Rule | 2625 | ||
| Current Issues | 2626 | ||
| Inhibitory Learning during Extinction | 2626 | ||
| Elementistic versus Configural Stimulus Representation | 2626 | ||
| Representation of Time in Conditioning | 2627 | ||
| Stimuli Trained in Compound Do Not Have a Fully Common Fate | 2628 | ||
| Priming Phenomena | 2629 | ||
| Divergence of Response Measures | 2630 | ||
| Learning Occurring with Absent Stimuli | 2631 | ||
| Further Reading | 2632 | ||
| Cone Photopigment Evolution | 2634 | ||
| Essential Features of Cone Photopigments | 2634 | ||
| Linking Opsin Genes and Cone Opsins | 2634 | ||
| Opsin Gene Families and Their Evolutionary Histories | 2636 | ||
| Mammalian Cone Pigment Evolution | 2637 | ||
| Primate Cone Pigment Evolution | 2638 | ||
| Evolution of SWS1 Cone Pigments | 2638 | ||
| Cone Pigment and Color Vision Evolution | 2639 | ||
| Summary | 2640 | ||
| Further Reading | 2640 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2640 | ||
| Congenital Muscular Dystrophy | 2642 | ||
| Introduction and History of the Concept of Congenital Muscular Dystrophy | 2642 | ||
| Disorders of alpha-Dystroglycan Glycosylation | 2642 | ||
| Walker-Warburg Syndrome | 2643 | ||
| Muscle-Eye-Brain Disease | 2643 | ||
| Fukuyama Congenital Muscular Dystrophy | 2644 | ||
| Other Phenotypes | 2644 | ||
| Laminin 2 (Merosin)-Deficient Congenital Muscular Dystrophy | 2644 | ||
| Disorders of Collagen VI (CMD Types Ullrich and Bethlem) | 2647 | ||
| CMD Type Ullrich | 2647 | ||
| Bethlem Myopathy | 2648 | ||
| Congenital Muscular Dystrophy with Spinal Rigidity | 2648 | ||
| Selenoprotein N-Related CMD | 2648 | ||
| Lamin A/C-Related CMD | 2648 | ||
| Further Reading | 2649 | ||
| Connectionist Models | 2650 | ||
| History | 2650 | ||
| The Modern Period | 2651 | ||
| Basic Properties of Connectionist Networks | 2653 | ||
| A Set of Units | 2653 | ||
| An Activation State | 2653 | ||
| A Weight Matrix | 2653 | ||
| An Input Function | 2653 | ||
| A Transfer Function | 2653 | ||
| A Learning Rule | 2653 | ||
| A Model Environment | 2654 | ||
| Appeal of Connectionist Models | 2654 | ||
| Symbolic versus Connectionist Approaches | 2655 | ||
| Biological Plausibility | 2656 | ||
| Further Reading | 2657 | ||
| Connectionist Models of Language Processing | 2658 | ||
| Introduction | 2658 | ||
| Constituency | 2658 | ||
| Structure Dependency | 2662 | ||
| Recursion | 2663 | ||
| Connectionist Models of Language Processing | 2664 | ||
| Further Reading | 2665 | ||
| Connectivity of Primate Reward Centers | 2666 | ||
| Introduction | 2666 | ||
| Prefrontal Cortex | 2666 | ||
| The Ventral Striatum | 2666 | ||
| The Amygdala | 2668 | ||
| The Midbrain Dopamine Neurons | 2668 | ||
| Afferent Projections | 2668 | ||
| Efferent Projections | 2670 | ||
| Completing the Cortical-Basal Ganglial Reward Circuit | 2670 | ||
| Complex Network Features of the Reward Circuit | 2671 | ||
| The Cortical-Striatal Network | 2671 | ||
| The Striatal-Nigral-Striatal Network | 2671 | ||
| Summary | 2673 | ||
| Further Reading | 2673 | ||
| Consciousness: Neural Basis of Conscious Experience | 2674 | ||
| Basic Definitions and Concepts | 2674 | ||
| Physical Nature; System Property | 2674 | ||
| Reports of Conscious Experience versus Behavioral Detection | 2675 | ||
| Do Animals Have Conscious Experience? | 2675 | ||
| Are Computers Conscious? | 2675 | ||
| Studies of Neural Basis | 2675 | ||
| Effects of Cerebral Lesions | 2675 | ||
| Regional Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism | 2676 | ||
| Electrophysiological Stimulation and Recording | 2676 | ||
| Time Factors in Conscious and Unconscious Mental Functions | 2677 | ||
| Neural Delay for Sensory Experience | 2677 | ||
| Neural Delay for Intention to Act | 2677 | ||
| 'Time-On' Theory for Conscious versus Unconscious Functions | 2677 | ||
| Unity of Conscious Experience | 2678 | ||
| A testable field theory | 2678 | ||
| Further Reading | 2678 | ||
| Consciousness: Neurophysiology and Visual Awareness in | 2680 | ||
| Consciousness as a Neurophysiological Problem | 2680 | ||
| Requirements for Establishing the NCC | 2680 | ||
| Techniques to Study the Neurophysiology of Consciousness | 2684 | ||
| Single-Unit Recordings Accompanied by Anatomical Analysis | 2684 | ||
| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 2684 | ||
| Macroscopic Optical Imaging | 2686 | ||
| Two-Photon Laser Scanning Microscopy | 2687 | ||
| Current Findings on Visibility and Visual Awareness | 2688 | ||
| Future Challenges | 2689 | ||
| Further Reading | 2690 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2691 | ||
| Consciousness: Philosophy | 2692 | ||
| The Two Problems of Consciousness | 2692 | ||
| Consciousness and the Brain: Facts and Enigmas | 2692 | ||
| Phenomenology: Consciousness as Information Integration | 2693 | ||
| Measuring Information Integration | 2694 | ||
| Effective Information | 2695 | ||
| Information Integration | 2695 | ||
| Complexes | 2695 | ||
| Consciousness, Information Integration, and the Brain | 2696 | ||
| Thalamocortical System | 2696 | ||
| Cerebellum | 2696 | ||
| Split Brain | 2696 | ||
| Cortical Input and Output Systems | 2697 | ||
| Basal Ganglia and Cortico-Subcortical Loops | 2697 | ||
| Slow-Wave Sleep | 2697 | ||
| Spatial and Temporal Scales | 2697 | ||
| A Few Corollaries and Predictions | 2698 | ||
| Further Reading | 2698 | ||
| Consciousness: Theoretical and Computational Neuroscience | 2700 | ||
| What Phenomena Does a Science of Consciousness Need to Explain? | 2700 | ||
| Distinctions between States and Levels of Consciousness | 2701 | ||
| Neuronal Correlates of Consciousness | 2701 | ||
| Zombie Behaviors | 2703 | ||
| Consciousness and Information Integration | 2703 | ||
| Further Reading | 2704 | ||
| Consciousness: Theories and Models | 2706 | ||
| Introduction | 2706 | ||
| Major Features | 2706 | ||
| Conscious Events Recruit Widespread Brain Activity | 2706 | ||
| Integration and Dissemination of Focal Information | 2706 | ||
| Fast Cortical Interactions (Gamma-Theta) | 2707 | ||
| Current Theories and Models | 2708 | ||
| Qualitative and Hybrid Architectures | 2708 | ||
| Dynamical and Field Theories | 2709 | ||
| Neural Darwinism | 2709 | ||
| Other Approaches | 2710 | ||
| Summary | 2711 | ||
| Further Reading | 2711 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2711 | ||
| Contextual Interactions in Visual Perception | 2712 | ||
| Introduction | 2712 | ||
| Phenomenology | 2712 | ||
| First-Order Spatial Interactions | 2712 | ||
| Subjective estimates of light intensity | 2712 | ||
| Sensitivity to changes in light intensity | 2714 | ||
| Neurophysiological correlates | 2714 | ||
| Second-Order Spatial Interactions | 2714 | ||
| Subjective estimates of light contrast | 2714 | ||
| Sensitivity to changes in light contrast | 2714 | ||
| Neurophysiological correlates | 2715 | ||
| Spatial Interactions with respect to the Perception of Motion | 2715 | ||
| Spatial Interactions with respect to the Perception of Depth | 2715 | ||
| Plasticity of Contextual Interactions | 2715 | ||
| Functional Significance | 2716 | ||
| Surface Properties | 2716 | ||
| Segmentation | 2717 | ||
| Further Reading | 2717 | ||
| Contextual Interactions in Visual Processing | 2720 | ||
| History | 2720 | ||
| Perception: Back to Gestalt from a New Reductionism | 2720 | ||
| Neurophysiology: The Changing Concept of the Receptive Field | 2720 | ||
| Neuroanatomy: The Substrate underlying Contextual Influences | 2721 | ||
| The Role of Contextual Modulation | 2722 | ||
| Grouping Lines into Smooth Contours | 2722 | ||
| Completing Occluded Surfaces | 2723 | ||
| Explicitly Identifying Border Ownership | 2724 | ||
| Figure versus Background | 2725 | ||
| Border Ownership and Visual Motion Perception | 2726 | ||
| Filling 'Holes' in the Visual Stimulus | 2729 | ||
| Signaling Surface Luminance | 2729 | ||
| Perceptual Learning and Task-Dependent Changes in Contextual Influences | 2729 | ||
| Conclusion | 2731 | ||
| Further Reading | 2732 | ||
| Cornelia De Lange Syndrome | 2734 | ||
| Introduction | 2734 | ||
| Clinical Features | 2734 | ||
| Structural Features | 2734 | ||
| Neurodevelopmental Features | 2734 | ||
| Clinical Variability | 2734 | ||
| Genetics | 2735 | ||
| The Cohesin Complex | 2736 | ||
| Long-Range Enhancer-Promoter Interaction and Control of Gene Expression | 2736 | ||
| Further Reading | 2736 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2737 | ||
| Corpus Callosum: Agenesis | 2738 | ||
| Introduction | 2738 | ||
| Embryology of Human Corpus Callosum Development | 2738 | ||
| Embryology of Mouse Corpus Callosum Development | 2739 | ||
| Factors Shaping the Development of the Corpus Callosum | 2740 | ||
| Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum in Humans | 2740 | ||
| Congenital Malformations of the Corpus Callosum | 2740 | ||
| Symptoms of Patients with Congenital Callosal Agenesis | 2741 | ||
| Differences between Congenital Callosal Agenesis Patients and Those with Complete or Partial Callosotomy | 2742 | ||
| Acquired Malformations or Lesions of the Corpus Callosum | 2742 | ||
| Vascular or arteriovenous malformations | 2742 | ||
| Repair of hydrocephalus | 2742 | ||
| Trauma | 2742 | ||
| Demyelinating diseases | 2743 | ||
| Tumors | 2743 | ||
| Generalized etiology | 2743 | ||
| Understanding the Genetic Etiology of Congenital Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum | 2743 | ||
| Genetic syndromes/disorders/malformations | 2744 | ||
| Chromosome aberrations | 2744 | ||
| Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum in Mouse | 2744 | ||
| Murine Strains with Spontaneous Callosal Agenesis | 2744 | ||
| Genetically Engineered Models of Callosal Agenesis | 2746 | ||
| Complete agenesis of the corpus callosum | 2747 | ||
| Hypoplasia/dysgenesis of the corpus callosum | 2748 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 2748 | ||
| Further Reading | 2748 | ||
| Cortical Control of Eye Movements | 2750 | ||
| Introduction | 2750 | ||
| The Neural Circuits of Visually Guided Saccadic Eye Movements as Revealed by Anatomical and Physiological Studies | 2750 | ||
| The Effects of Selected Lesions on Saccadic Eye-Movement Generation | 2752 | ||
| Eye Movements Elicited by Two Visual Targets and by Electrical Stimulation at Two Brain Sites | 2752 | ||
| Eye Movements Elicited by Combined Visual and Electrical Stimulation | 2752 | ||
| The Visual Percept Elicited by Electrical Stimulation of Area V1 | 2753 | ||
| The Role of Cortical GABAergic Inhibitory Circuits in the Generation of Saccadic Eye Movements | 2753 | ||
| Outline of the Basic Tasks and the Neural Circuitry Involved in the Generation of Visually Guided Saccadic Eye Movements | 2754 | ||
| Further Reading | 2756 | ||
| Cortical Plasticity and Learning: Mechanisms and Models | 2758 | ||
| Introduction | 2758 | ||
| Experience-Dependent Cortical Plasticity | 2758 | ||
| Models of Cortical Plasticity | 2759 | ||
| Structure from Correlations | 2759 | ||
| Postsynaptic normalization | 2760 | ||
| Sliding threshold for LTP and LTD | 2760 | ||
| Mechanisms and Cellular Correlates of Cortical Plasticity | 2761 | ||
| Cortical Plasticity: Spatiotemporal Stimuli | 2762 | ||
| Conclusion | 2763 | ||
| Further Reading | 2763 | ||
| Cortical Processing of the Reward Value of Food | 2764 | ||
| The Pleasantness of the Taste of Food | 2764 | ||
| Sensory-Specific Satiety | 2764 | ||
| Representation of the Pleasantness of the Smell and Sight of Food in the Brain | 2765 | ||
| Mouth Feel of Fat: Orbitofrontal Cortex, Primary Taste Cortex, and Amygdala | 2767 | ||
| Imaging Studies in Humans | 2768 | ||
| Taste | 2768 | ||
| Odor | 2768 | ||
| Olfactory-Taste Convergence to Represent Flavor, and the Influence of Satiety | 2768 | ||
| Oral Viscosity and Fat Texture | 2768 | ||
| The Sight of Food | 2769 | ||
| Satiety Signals | 2769 | ||
| Further Reading | 2770 | ||
| Corticomotoneuronal System | 2772 | ||
| Definition | 2772 | ||
| Anatomy of the CM System | 2772 | ||
| Pattern of Termination | 2772 | ||
| Distribution of CM Projections to Different Motor Nuclei | 2772 | ||
| Origins of CM Projections | 2772 | ||
| Physiology of the CM System | 2773 | ||
| Electrical Stimulation Methods | 2773 | ||
| Identification of Monosynaptic CM Effects in Motor Neurons | 2773 | ||
| Physiological Properties of CM Synapses | 2773 | ||
| Distribution of CM Effects in Different Motor Nuclei | 2773 | ||
| Origins of CM Effects | 2773 | ||
| Transcranial Stimulation in Humans | 2773 | ||
| Identification of CM Effects by Spike-Triggered Averaging | 2774 | ||
| Distribution of CM Effects in Different Motor Neuron Pools | 2774 | ||
| Development of the CM System | 2775 | ||
| Lesions Affecting CM Function | 2775 | ||
| Pathological Diseases Affecting CM Function | 2776 | ||
| Functional Significance of the CM System | 2776 | ||
| Further Reading | 2777 | ||
| Corticospinal Development | 2778 | ||
| Introduction | 2778 | ||
| Phases and Time Course of CS System Development | 2778 | ||
| CS Neuron Differentiation | 2778 | ||
| Development of the Projection to the Brain Stem and Spinal Cord | 2779 | ||
| Pathfinding from Cortex and Subcortical White Matter Tracts | 2779 | ||
| Decussation and Midline Crossing | 2779 | ||
| Collateral Branching into the Gray Matter | 2780 | ||
| Development of Connectional Specificity between CS Axon Terminals and SC Neurons | 2780 | ||
| Topographic Refinement of CS Terminations in the Spinal Gray Matter | 2780 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Refinement of CS Axon Terminal Connections | 2783 | ||
| Use-Dependent Development of the CS Tract | 2785 | ||
| Development of CS Control of Skilled Motor Behavior | 2785 | ||
| Development of the Cortical Motor Map | 2787 | ||
| Conclusion and Implications for Rehabilitation | 2788 | ||
| Further Reading | 2789 | ||
| Corticothalamic Connections: Structure and Function | 2790 | ||
| Introduction | 2790 | ||
| From Cortex to Thalamus: A Tale of Two Pathways | 2790 | ||
| Cortical Projections to the LGN | 2790 | ||
| Cortical Projections to the Pulvinar | 2791 | ||
| Corticothalamic Physiology and Function | 2792 | ||
| Conduction Latency | 2792 | ||
| Synapses and Receptors | 2792 | ||
| The Influence of Corticothalamic Feedback on Sensory Processing | 2793 | ||
| Conclusion | 2794 | ||
| Further Reading | 2794 | ||
| Corticothalamic Connections: Ultrastructure | 2796 | ||
| Introduction | 2796 | ||
| Cells of Origin | 2796 | ||
| Layers | 2796 | ||
| Subtype Characteristics | 2796 | ||
| Terminal Arbors | 2796 | ||
| Light Microscopy | 2796 | ||
| Background | 2796 | ||
| Morphological subtypes | 2797 | ||
| Electron Microscopy | 2798 | ||
| Type 1 and Type 2 Boutons | 2798 | ||
| Postsynaptic Target | 2798 | ||
| Examples of postsynaptic targets in five nuclei | 2800 | ||
| RTN output | 2802 | ||
| RTN cortical inputs | 2803 | ||
| Convergence of Multiple Afferents | 2803 | ||
| Reciprocity of CT and TC Connections | 2804 | ||
| CT Terminations: Functional Roles | 2804 | ||
| Further Reading | 2805 | ||
| Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone and Urocortins: Binding Proteins and Receptors | 2806 | ||
| Discovery of CRF and Its Role in the Stress Response | 2806 | ||
| CRF: Founding Member of a Small Family of Neuropeptides | 2806 | ||
| CRF Family Neuropeptides Signal via One of Two CRF Receptors | 2806 | ||
| CRF-Binding Protein | 2808 | ||
| Central CRF Pathways Are Involved in Anxiety and Depression | 2809 | ||
| Feeding, Digestion, and Metabolism | 2809 | ||
| Cardiovascular Effects of Urocortins via CRFR2 | 2810 | ||
| CRF and Pregnancy | 2811 | ||
| Summary | 2811 | ||
| Further Reading | 2812 | ||
| Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone: Integration of Adaptive Responses to Stress | 2814 | ||
| Introduction | 2814 | ||
| The CRF Family of Signaling Molecules | 2814 | ||
| The CAS and Its Role in Adaptive Responses to Stress | 2816 | ||
| Issues in Understanding CAS Activation by Central Peptide Administration and Stress | 2818 | ||
| CRFR Protein Expression | 2818 | ||
| Novel Receptors? | 2818 | ||
| Receptor Cross-Talk | 2819 | ||
| Interaction of CRFR- and CRFR2-Dependent Mechanisms | 2819 | ||
| Other Ligand-Binding Proteins | 2819 | ||
| Role of Ucns | 2819 | ||
| Significance | 2819 | ||
| Further Reading | 2820 | ||
| Cotransmission | 2822 | ||
| Early Background | 2822 | ||
| Sympathetic Nerve Cotransmission | 2822 | ||
| Parasympathetic Nerve Cotransmission | 2824 | ||
| Sensory–Motor Nerve Cotransmission | 2824 | ||
| Intramural Nerve Cotransmission | 2825 | ||
| CNS | 2825 | ||
| Physiological Significance of Cotransmission | 2825 | ||
| Fast and Slow Cotransmitters: Different Firing Patterns | 2826 | ||
| Different Cotransmitters Act on Different Postjunctional Cells | 2826 | ||
| Presynaptic Neuromodulation of Cotransmitter Release | 2826 | ||
| Synergism | 2826 | ||
| Negative Cross-Talk | 2826 | ||
| Cotransmitters and Trophic Factors | 2826 | ||
| Excitatory and Inhibitory Cotransmitters | 2826 | ||
| False Cotransmitters | 2828 | ||
| Coexisting Peptide Acting as a Neuromodulator | 2828 | ||
| Cotransmitter Plasticity: Control of Transmitter Expression | 2828 | ||
| Concluding Comments | 2829 | ||
| Further Reading | 2829 | ||
| Cranial-Cervical Dystonia | 2830 | ||
| Introduction and Definitions | 2830 | ||
| Causes | 2831 | ||
| Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology | 2831 | ||
| Treatment | 2832 | ||
| Further Reading | 2833 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2833 | ||
| Cross-Modal Interactions Between Vision and Touch | 2834 | ||
| Introduction | 2834 | ||
| Involvement of Visual Cortical Areas in Tactile Perception in the Sighted | 2834 | ||
| Visual Imagery and Multisensory Representations | 2835 | ||
| Tactile Perception in the Blind and Its Involvement of Visual Cortex | 2836 | ||
| Further Reading | 2837 | ||
| Cyclic AMP (cAMP) Role in Learning and Memory | 2840 | ||
| Historic Background | 2840 | ||
| The cAMP Signaling Pathway | 2841 | ||
| Interactions among Intracellular Signaling Systems | 2841 | ||
| Genetic Evidence for the Role of cAMP in Learning | 2842 | ||
| The Role of Calmodulin-Sensitive AC | 2842 | ||
| cAMP-Dependent Signaling Plays a Central Role in Long-Term Learning | 2842 | ||
| How Does the cAMP Pathway Initiate Synaptic Modifications during Learning? | 2843 | ||
| Presynaptic Modulation by cAMP | 2844 | ||
| Evidence for Effects of cAMP That Enhance Transmitter Release during Long-Term Potentiation at Mammalian CNS Synapses | 2844 | ||
| Presynaptic Targets of PKA That Contribute to LTP or Synaptic Facilitation | 2844 | ||
| Phosphorylation of RIM1alpha Plays a Necessary Role in PKA-Dependent LTP at Mossy Fiber and Parallel Fiber Synapses | 2844 | ||
| Phosphorylation of Synapsin by PKA Regulates the Readily Releasable Pool of Vesicles | 2845 | ||
| Postsynaptic Modulation by cAMP: Regulation of Glutamate Receptors during LTP | 2846 | ||
| Localization of PKA via A Kinase Anchoring Proteins Is Necessary for cAMP-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity | 2846 | ||
| Role of cAMP and PKA in Initiating Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity | 2848 | ||
| cAMP-Dependent Phosphorylation Plays an Important Role in Initiating Stable Transcription-Dependent Long-Term Synaptic Plastic | 2848 | ||
| Presynaptic Contributions to Late-Phase LTP at CA3-to-CA1 Pyramidal Cell Synapses | 2849 | ||
| Persistently Activated Protein Kinase Contributes to Initiation of Long-Term Synaptic Facilitation | 2849 | ||
| Initiation of Long-Term Plasticity by cAMP Involves Phosphorylation of Transcription Factors, Including CREB: Interactions betw | 2850 | ||
| Summary | 2850 | ||
| Further Reading | 2851 | ||
| Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated and Hyperpolarization-Activated Channels | 2854 | ||
| Structural Features of Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated and Hyperpolarization-Activated Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated Channels | 2854 | ||
| Functional Roles of CNG Channels in Visual and Olfactory Transduction | 2854 | ||
| Channelopathies and Knockout Models of the Rod Photoreceptor CNG Channel | 2855 | ||
| CNGA1 Subunit | 2855 | ||
| CNGB1a Subunit | 2855 | ||
| Channelopathies and Knockout Models of the Cone Photoreceptor CNG Channel | 2857 | ||
| CNGA3 Subunit | 2857 | ||
| CNGB3 Subunit | 2857 | ||
| Knockout Models of the Olfactory CNG Channel | 2858 | ||
| CNGA2 Subunit | 2858 | ||
| CNGA4 and CNGB1b Subunits | 2858 | ||
| Further Reading | 2859 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2859 | ||
| Cysteine-String Proteins (CSPs) | 2860 | ||
| Introduction | 2860 | ||
| Molecular Anatomy of CSPs: J-Domain Proteins Highly Conserved in Evolution | 2860 | ||
| CSP Is Localized to Synaptic Vesicles and Secretory Granules | 2863 | ||
| Insights from CSP-Deficient Flies | 2863 | ||
| Studies of CSP Interactions with Voltage-Dependent Ca2+ Channels and Other Presynaptic Proteins | 2863 | ||
| Elucidating the Biological Function of Cysteine-String Proteins in CSPalpha-Deficient Mice | 2864 | ||
| Concluding Remarks and Perspectives | 2867 | ||
| Further Reading | 2867 | ||
| Cysticercosis: Cerebral | 2868 | ||
| Further Reading | 2869 | ||
| Cytokine Receptors in Glia | 2870 | ||
| Introduction | 2870 | ||
| The Interferon/Interleukin-10 Receptor Family | 2870 | ||
| Interleukin-6-Type Receptors | 2871 | ||
| The Interleukin-2 Receptor Family/gammaC | 2871 | ||
| Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Family | 2872 | ||
| Interleukin-1 Receptors | 2873 | ||
| Transforming Growth Factor-beta Receptors | 2873 | ||
| Chemokine Receptors | 2874 | ||
| Further Reading | 2875 | ||
| Cytoskeletal Interactions in the Neuron | 2876 | ||
| Plakins | 2876 | ||
| Connections between the Cytoskeleton and Cell Junctional Complexes | 2876 | ||
| Cytoskeletal Cross-Linking | 2880 | ||
| Intermediate Filament and Actin Connections | 2880 | ||
| Intermediate Filament and Microtubule Connections | 2881 | ||
| Actin and Microtubule Connections | 2882 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 2883 | ||
| Further Reading | 2884 | ||
| Cytoskeleton in Plasticity | 2886 | ||
| Overview | 2886 | ||
| The Cytoskeleton at the Synapse | 2886 | ||
| The Presynaptic Terminal | 2886 | ||
| The Postsynaptic Terminal | 2886 | ||
| Dendritic Spines | 2887 | ||
| Dendritic Spines: Cytoskeleton | 2887 | ||
| Forms of Synaptic Plasticity | 2888 | ||
| LTP and Activity-Dependent Actin Remodeling | 2888 | ||
| Long-Term Depression | 2889 | ||
| Postsynaptic Signaling Pathways | 2889 | ||
| Mental Retardation and Dendritic Spines | 2890 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 2890 | ||
| Further Reading | 2891 | ||
| D | 2892 | ||
| Deafness | 2892 | ||
| Assessment of Hearing | 2892 | ||
| Causes of Impaired Hearing | 2892 | ||
| Sites and Types of Abnormality | 2893 | ||
| Sensorineural Impairment | 2894 | ||
| Animal Models for Deafness | 2895 | ||
| The Cochlear Prosthesis | 2895 | ||
| Further Reading | 2896 | ||
| Decision-Making and Neuroeconomics | 2898 | ||
| Decision Theory in Economics | 2898 | ||
| Revealed Preferences | 2898 | ||
| Axioms | 2898 | ||
| Representation of Preferences | 2899 | ||
| Cardinal and Ordinal Utilities | 2899 | ||
| Stochastic Choice | 2900 | ||
| Economic Theories of Stochastic Choice | 2900 | ||
| The Random Walk Model of Decision | 2901 | ||
| The Predictions of the Model | 2901 | ||
| Decision Theory in Neuroscience | 2901 | ||
| The Computation of the Utility | 2902 | ||
| A Synthesis | 2902 | ||
| Risky and Ambiguous Choice | 2902 | ||
| Further Reading | 2903 | ||
| Decision-Making and Vision | 2904 | ||
| Introduction | 2904 | ||
| The Basic Accumulator Model for Decisions | 2904 | ||
| Simple Perceptual Decisions | 2906 | ||
| Behavioral Observations | 2906 | ||
| Physiological Observations | 2908 | ||
| Deciding to 'Go' | 2909 | ||
| Limitations and Extensions of Accumulator Models | 2911 | ||
| Real-World Decisions | 2912 | ||
| Further Reading | 2912 | ||
| Decision-Making in Financial Markets | 2914 | ||
| Finance | 2914 | ||
| Many Facets of Risk | 2914 | ||
| Analyzing Risky Payoffs | 2914 | ||
| Describing Differences between Environmental and Financial Risks | 2916 | ||
| Learning in a Finance Framework | 2917 | ||
| Predicting Changes in Prediction Risk | 2917 | ||
| Prediction Risk: Comparing The Kalman Filter and GARCH Models | 2918 | ||
| Reinforcement Learning Models for Risk Prediction as Special Cases of GARCH | 2919 | ||
| Neuroscience: The Finance Perspective | 2919 | ||
| Learning and Prediction Risk | 2919 | ||
| Accommodating Prediction Risk in the Rescorla-Wagner Learning Rule | 2919 | ||
| A Dual Role for Encoding Prediction Risk | 2920 | ||
| Further Reading | 2921 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2921 | ||
| Declarative Memory System: Anatomy | 2922 | ||
| Introduction | 2922 | ||
| The Amygdala, Hippocampus, and Development of an Animal Model of Human Amnesia | 2923 | ||
| The Entorhinal Cortex | 2925 | ||
| Boundaries and connections | 2925 | ||
| The Perirhinal and Parahippocampal Cortices | 2926 | ||
| Lesion studies | 2926 | ||
| Boundaries and connections | 2927 | ||
| Neuroanatomy of Declarative Memory | 2928 | ||
| Further Reading | 2931 | ||
| Decoding Neuron Transcriptome by SAGE | 2932 | ||
| Basics of SAGE | 2932 | ||
| Applying SAGE to Brain Transcriptome Studies | 2933 | ||
| The Total SAGE Tags Collected from the Human Brain | 2933 | ||
| The SAGE Tags from Normal Brains and Brains with Tumors | 2933 | ||
| Comparing Brain SAGE Tags to Known Transcript Sequences | 2933 | ||
| Mapping SAGE Tags to Human Genome Sequences | 2935 | ||
| Further Reading | 2937 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2938 | ||
| Deep Brain Stimulation | 2940 | ||
| Clinical Applications of Deep Brain Stimulation | 2940 | ||
| DBS Components and Implantation | 2940 | ||
| Extracellular Electrical Stimulation | 2940 | ||
| DBS Parameter Selection | 2942 | ||
| Mechanisms of Action | 2942 | ||
| Further Reading | 2943 | ||
| Deep Brain Stimulation and Movement Disorder Treatment | 2944 | ||
| History and Development | 2944 | ||
| Description | 2944 | ||
| Indications and Targets | 2944 | ||
| Anatomy and Pathophysiology | 2944 | ||
| Mechanism of Action | 2945 | ||
| Operative Procedure | 2946 | ||
| Advantages, Disadvantages, and Alternatives | 2947 | ||
| Outcomes | 2948 | ||
| Further Reading | 2948 | ||
| Deep Brain Stimulation and Parkinson's Disease | 2950 | ||
| Introduction | 2950 | ||
| Methodological Aspects | 2950 | ||
| Selection of PD Patients for Surgical Therapy with DBS | 2950 | ||
| Surgical Issues | 2951 | ||
| Postoperative Management | 2952 | ||
| Results of Bilateral DBS in PD | 2953 | ||
| Bilateral DBS of the STN | 2953 | ||
| Bilateral DBS of the GPi | 2955 | ||
| Adverse Events | 2958 | ||
| Surgical and Device-Related AEs | 2958 | ||
| Stimulation and/or Disease-Related AEs | 2958 | ||
| Further Reading | 2959 | ||
| Delayed Reinforcement: Economics | 2960 | ||
| Introduction | 2960 | ||
| An Idealized Example | 2961 | ||
| Dynamic Consistency and Stationarity | 2962 | ||
| Dynamic Consistency | 2963 | ||
| Stationarity | 2963 | ||
| Exponential Discounting | 2963 | ||
| The Discount Factor | 2964 | ||
| The Discount Rate | 2964 | ||
| Beyond Exponential Discounting | 2965 | ||
| Intrapersonal Games | 2966 | ||
| Further Reading | 2967 | ||
| Delayed Reinforcement: Neuroscience | 2968 | ||
| Theoretical Bases | 2968 | ||
| Methodology | 2971 | ||
| Free-Operant Concurrent Schedules | 2971 | ||
| Discrete-Trials Concurrent Schedules | 2971 | ||
| Effects of Neurobiological Interventions on Choice of Delayed Reinforcers | 2972 | ||
| The 5-Hydroxytryptaminergic Pathways | 2972 | ||
| The Dopaminergic Pathways | 2973 | ||
| The Nucleus Accumbens Core | 2974 | ||
| The Prefrontal Cortex | 2974 | ||
| Future Directions | 2974 | ||
| Further Reading | 2975 | ||
| Dementia | 2978 | ||
| Introduction | 2978 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease | 2979 | ||
| Vascular Dementias | 2981 | ||
| Frontotemporal Dementia | 2981 | ||
| Parkinson's Disease | 2981 | ||
| Psychiatric Diseases | 2982 | ||
| Toxic-Metabolic Encephalopathies | 2982 | ||
| Further Reading | 2982 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2983 | ||
| Dementia and Language | 2984 | ||
| Effects of Dementia on Language | 2984 | ||
| Differential Effects | 2985 | ||
| Alzheimer's Dementia | 2985 | ||
| Parkinsonian Dementia | 2986 | ||
| Frontotemporal Dementias | 2986 | ||
| Primary nonfluent aphasia | 2986 | ||
| Semantic dementia | 2987 | ||
| Other dementias: vascular dementia and Lewy body disease | 2987 | ||
| Interactions and Interventions | 2987 | ||
| Implications and Conclusions | 2988 | ||
| Further Reading | 2988 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2989 | ||
| Demyelinating Diseases | 2990 | ||
| Introduction | 2990 | ||
| CNS Demyelinating Diseases | 2990 | ||
| Multiple Sclerosis | 2990 | ||
| Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis | 2992 | ||
| Neuromyelitis Optica (Devic's Disease) | 2993 | ||
| Acute Necrotizing Hemorrhagic Encephalomyelitis | 2994 | ||
| Peripheral Nervous System Demyelinating Diseases | 2994 | ||
| Guillain-Barreacute Syndromes | 2994 | ||
| Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Neuropathy | 2995 | ||
| Anti-Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein Neuropathy | 2996 | ||
| POEMS Syndrome | 2996 | ||
| Further Reading | 2997 | ||
| Demyelination and Demyelinating Antibodies | 2998 | ||
| Further Reading | 3000 | ||
| Dendrite Development, Synapse Formation and Elimination | 3002 | ||
| Introduction | 3002 | ||
| Synaptogenesis and Synapse Maturation | 3002 | ||
| Features of Nascent and Mature Synapses | 3002 | ||
| Process of Dendritic Arbor Development | 3003 | ||
| Synaptic Inputs Increase Dendrite Arbor Growth | 3004 | ||
| Conclusion | 3004 | ||
| Further Reading | 3005 | ||
| Dendrites: Localized Translation | 3006 | ||
| Introduction | 3006 | ||
| Translational Components in Dendrites | 3006 | ||
| Translational Machinery | 3006 | ||
| Posttranslational Organelles | 3006 | ||
| RNAs | 3006 | ||
| RNA Transport in Dendrites | 3006 | ||
| Local Protein Synthesis in Dendrites | 3007 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Local Translation | 3007 | ||
| Mechanisms of Translational Control at the Synapse | 3007 | ||
| Translation initiation | 3007 | ||
| Translation elongation | 3009 | ||
| RNA level | 3009 | ||
| Translational Repression during Transport | 3009 | ||
| Perspective | 3010 | ||
| Further Reading | 3010 | ||
| Dendritic RNA Transport: Dynamic Spatio-Temporal Control of Neuronal Gene Expression | 3012 | ||
| Introduction | 3012 | ||
| Discovery of Dendritic mRNA Transport | 3012 | ||
| Structure and Composition of Dendritic Transport mRNPs | 3012 | ||
| Sequence and Structural Characteristics of Localization Signals in Neuronal Transport mRNPs | 3013 | ||
| Trans-Acting Factors Involved in Dendritic mRNA Transport | 3014 | ||
| Dynamic Regulation of Transport mRNP Motility | 3014 | ||
| Function of Dendritic mRNAs in Synapse Plasticity and Neuronal Polarity | 3016 | ||
| Dendritic mRNP Transport and Neuronal Disease | 3017 | ||
| Analysis of mRNA Dynamics in Living Neuronal Dendrites | 3018 | ||
| Further Reading | 3019 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3019 | ||
| Dendritic Signal Integration | 3020 | ||
| Overview: Questions | 3020 | ||
| Approaches | 3020 | ||
| Synaptic Integration in a Simple Neuron: Cerebellar Granule Cells | 3020 | ||
| Basic Effects of Dendrites on Synaptic Integration | 3022 | ||
| Effects of Inhibition on Dendritic Integration | 3023 | ||
| Effects of Voltage-Gated Channels on Dendritic Integration | 3024 | ||
| Contributions of Dendritic Spines to Dendritic Integration | 3026 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 3026 | ||
| Further Reading | 3027 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3027 | ||
| Dendritic Spine History | 3028 | ||
| Discovery | 3028 | ||
| Fine Structure and Proof of Synaptic Status | 3028 | ||
| Association with Excitatory Transmission | 3029 | ||
| Ideas about Dendritic Spine Function | 3030 | ||
| Morphological Plasticity and Cytoskeletal Structure | 3030 | ||
| Dendritic Spines and Cognition | 3031 | ||
| Further Reading | 3032 | ||
| Depression and the Brain | 3034 | ||
| Introduction | 3034 | ||
| Neurobiological Correlates of Mood Disorders | 3034 | ||
| Neural Circuits Affected by Mood Disorders | 3035 | ||
| Brain Structural Abnormalities | 3036 | ||
| Neurophysiological Imaging Abnormalities | 3037 | ||
| Neuropathological Correlations | 3038 | ||
| Correlations with Rodent Models of Chronic and Repeated Stress | 3038 | ||
| Neurochemical Systems Implicated in Depression | 3038 | ||
| Serotonergic System | 3038 | ||
| Catecholaminergic Systems | 3039 | ||
| Cholinergic System | 3039 | ||
| Glutamatergic and GABAergic Systems | 3040 | ||
| Glucocorticoid System | 3040 | ||
| Autonomic Nervous System Function in Mood Disorders | 3041 | ||
| Disturbances in Sleep Physiology | 3041 | ||
| Alterations of Cognitive and Emotional Processing in Mood Disorders | 3041 | ||
| Motor Function | 3041 | ||
| Early Information Processing | 3041 | ||
| Emotional Processing Bias | 3041 | ||
| Attention, Memory, and Learning | 3042 | ||
| Executive Function | 3042 | ||
| Implications for Circuit-Based Models of Depression | 3042 | ||
| Summary | 3044 | ||
| Further Reading | 3044 | ||
| Development of Behavior | 3046 | ||
| Factors That Shape the Development of Behavior | 3046 | ||
| Behavior Depends on the Nervous System: As the Nervous System Develops, Behavior Changes | 3046 | ||
| Synaptic Connections Are Established in General; Then Later They Are Refined Based on Neuronal Activity | 3046 | ||
| Hormones Modify Some Parts of the Developing Brain | 3047 | ||
| Learning Changes Behavior | 3047 | ||
| An Individual's Responsiveness to Specific Stimuli Varies during Development | 3048 | ||
| Behavior as a Window into the Developing Nervous System | 3048 | ||
| Motor Behaviors | 3048 | ||
| How Are Spontaneous Embryonic Behaviors Generated? | 3049 | ||
| Acquiring Complexity by Combining Behaviors | 3050 | ||
| Development of Behaviors That Depend on Endocrine Function and Learning | 3050 | ||
| One Nervous System, Very Different Lifestyles: Metamorphosis | 3051 | ||
| Summary | 3051 | ||
| Further Reading | 3051 | ||
| Development of Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions | 3052 | ||
| Introduction | 3052 | ||
| General Features of the Neuromuscular Junction | 3052 | ||
| The Motor Neurons and Their Projections | 3052 | ||
| Cellular Determination and Axon Guidance | 3054 | ||
| Factors Regulating Motor Neuronal Identity | 3054 | ||
| The Decision to Defasciculate | 3054 | ||
| Target Selection | 3055 | ||
| Molecular Recognition of Synaptic Targets | 3055 | ||
| Synaptic Development and the Role of Activity | 3056 | ||
| Early Roles for Activity at the Neuromuscular Junction | 3056 | ||
| The Growth of the Neuromuscular Junction | 3057 | ||
| The Roles of Activity in Neuromuscular Junction Growth and Function | 3057 | ||
| Transsynaptic Signals Involved in Neuromuscular Junction Development | 3058 | ||
| Concluding Observations | 3059 | ||
| Further Reading | 3059 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3060 | ||
| Developmental Disability and Fragile X Syndrome: Clinical Overview | 3062 | ||
| Introduction | 3062 | ||
| Genetics of FXS | 3062 | ||
| Physical Features | 3062 | ||
| Cognitive Profile | 3062 | ||
| The Behavioral Phenotype | 3065 | ||
| Fragile X Premutation: Occasional Features of FXS | 3067 | ||
| Summary | 3068 | ||
| Further Reading | 3068 | ||
| Developmental Synaptic Plasticity: LTP, LTD, and Synapse Formation and Elimination | 3070 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Maturation of Glutamate Receptor Content | 3070 | ||
| 'Silent' Synapses Containing Only NMDA Receptors | 3070 | ||
| Insertion of AMPA Receptors Converts Silent Synapses into Functional Synapses, and Is a Basic Mechanism for Strengthening Synap | 3070 | ||
| Developmental Maturation of NMDA Receptor Subunits | 3070 | ||
| Changes in AMPA Receptor Subunits during Development | 3072 | ||
| LTP and LTD at Developing Excitatory Synapses | 3072 | ||
| LTP and LTD Occur Robustly at Developing Synapses | 3072 | ||
| Critical Periods for LTP and LTD during Development | 3073 | ||
| Experience Drives LTP and LTD In Vivo | 3073 | ||
| Other Forms of Synaptic Plasticity during Development | 3074 | ||
| Experience-Dependent Structural Plasticity at Developing Synapses: Synapse Formation, Elimination, and Morphological Change | 3074 | ||
| Developmental Changes in Morphology of Dendritic Spines | 3074 | ||
| Relationship between Structural Plasticity of Spines and LTP and LTD | 3074 | ||
| Structural Plasticity of Axonal Arbors | 3075 | ||
| Summary: Toward a Comprehensive Model of Functional and Structural Synapse Development | 3075 | ||
| Further Reading | 3076 | ||
| Diabetes Type 2 and Stress: Impact on Memory and the Hippocampus | 3078 | ||
| Introduction | 3078 | ||
| Memory in Aging: Normal Changes, Mild Cognitive Impairment, and Dementia | 3078 | ||
| Links between Diabetes and Dementia | 3078 | ||
| The Impact of Cortisol on Cognition and the Brain | 3079 | ||
| Interactions between Cortisol, Insulin Function, and Type 2 Diabetes | 3080 | ||
| Impact of Diabetes on the Brain | 3080 | ||
| Possible Mechanisms for the Cognitive Impairments Seen in T2DM | 3082 | ||
| Summary | 3083 | ||
| Further Reading | 3083 | ||
| Diabetic Neuropathy | 3086 | ||
| Clinical Overview | 3086 | ||
| Epidemiology | 3086 | ||
| Classification | 3086 | ||
| Somatic and autonomic peripheral nervous system manifestations | 3086 | ||
| Focal or multifocal neuropathic manifestations | 3087 | ||
| Central nervous system complications | 3087 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 3087 | ||
| Physiological Disturbances | 3087 | ||
| Morphological Changes | 3088 | ||
| Myelinated fibers | 3088 | ||
| Unmyelinated fibers | 3089 | ||
| Blood vessels | 3089 | ||
| Other changes | 3089 | ||
| Brain and spinal cord | 3090 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 3090 | ||
| Metabolic Consequences of Hyperglycemia | 3090 | ||
| Vascular Consequences | 3091 | ||
| Further Reading | 3091 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3091 | ||
| Dichotic Listening Studies of Brain Asymmetry | 3092 | ||
| Dichotic Stimuli | 3092 | ||
| The Dichotic Test Situation | 3092 | ||
| DL Paradigms | 3092 | ||
| The Right-Ear Advantage | 3092 | ||
| Attentional Factors | 3092 | ||
| Neuroanatomical Basis | 3094 | ||
| Validity and Reliability | 3094 | ||
| Calculation of DL Scores | 3095 | ||
| Arousal and Activation | 3095 | ||
| Developmental Effects | 3096 | ||
| Sex Differences and Handedness Effects | 3096 | ||
| Clinical Populations | 3096 | ||
| Nonverbal Stimuli and Lateralization of Affect | 3096 | ||
| Further Reading | 3097 | ||
| Differentiation: The Cell Cycle Instead | 3098 | ||
| Introduction | 3098 | ||
| Cell Division in the Nervous System | 3098 | ||
| Cell Cycle and Cell Fate in the Drosophila Nervous System | 3098 | ||
| Cell Cycle Stage and Cell Fate | 3099 | ||
| Cell Cycle Genes Regulate Cell Fate and Differentiation in the Nervous System | 3099 | ||
| Cell Cycle Progression | 3100 | ||
| Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitors | 3100 | ||
| Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent Kinases | 3101 | ||
| The Anaphase Promoting Complex | 3101 | ||
| The Retinoblastoma Protein | 3101 | ||
| The p53 Family | 3102 | ||
| Geminin | 3102 | ||
| Differentiation and Patterning Factors Regulate the Cell Cycle | 3102 | ||
| Conclusions | 3103 | ||
| Further Reading | 3104 | ||
| Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) | 3106 | ||
| Introduction | 3106 | ||
| What Is Water Molecule Diffusion? | 3106 | ||
| How to Measure Diffusion by MRI? | 3107 | ||
| What Is Diffusion Tensor? | 3109 | ||
| Applications and Limitations of DTI | 3113 | ||
| Further Reading | 3113 | ||
| Dopamine | 3114 | ||
| Anatomy | 3114 | ||
| Mesencephalon | 3114 | ||
| Diencephalon | 3114 | ||
| Other Systems | 3114 | ||
| Function | 3114 | ||
| Nigrostriatal System | 3114 | ||
| Mesolimbic System | 3115 | ||
| Mesocortical System | 3115 | ||
| Diencephalon Systems | 3116 | ||
| Other Systems | 3116 | ||
| Life Cycle | 3116 | ||
| Synthesis | 3116 | ||
| Metabolism | 3117 | ||
| Transporters | 3119 | ||
| Regulation | 3119 | ||
| Firing Pattern | 3119 | ||
| Autoreceptors | 3119 | ||
| Co-localized Peptides and Proteins | 3120 | ||
| Extrinsic | 3120 | ||
| Postsynaptic Signaling | 3120 | ||
| Neuromodulation | 3121 | ||
| Volume Transmission | 3121 | ||
| Somatodendritic Release | 3121 | ||
| Long-Term Potentiation and Long-Term Depression | 3121 | ||
| Pyramidal Cell Dendritic Spines | 3121 | ||
| Further Reading | 3122 | ||
| Dopamine - CNS Pathways and Neurophysiology | 3124 | ||
| Introduction | 3124 | ||
| Anatomy of DA Neuron Projections | 3124 | ||
| Electrophysiology | 3124 | ||
| Identification | 3124 | ||
| Passive Membrane Properties | 3124 | ||
| DA Neuron Activity States | 3125 | ||
| Irregular, Single-Spike Firing | 3125 | ||
| Burst Firing | 3125 | ||
| Electrical Coupling | 3126 | ||
| Afferent Input to Midbrain DA Neurons | 3127 | ||
| Intrinsic Regulation of DA Neuron Firing | 3127 | ||
| Autoreceptor-Mediated Inhibition | 3127 | ||
| GABA | 3127 | ||
| Afferent Connectivity | 3127 | ||
| GABAergic Inputs | 3127 | ||
| Glutamatergic Inputs | 3127 | ||
| Association between GABA and Glutamatergic Inputs | 3128 | ||
| Regulatory Inputs | 3128 | ||
| Neuromodulatory Inputs | 3129 | ||
| Cannabinoids | 3129 | ||
| Orexin | 3129 | ||
| Conclusion | 3129 | ||
| Further Reading | 3129 | ||
| Dopamine Control of Arousal | 3132 | ||
| Introduction | 3132 | ||
| Sleep Regulation: Wake-Active Dopamine Neurons | 3132 | ||
| Dopaminergic Disorders and Sleep: PD | 3134 | ||
| Dopamine and Stimulant-Induced Arousal | 3135 | ||
| Summary | 3136 | ||
| Further Reading | 3136 | ||
| Dopamine in Perspective | 3138 | ||
| DA Synthesis and Catabolism | 3138 | ||
| DA Biochemistry: History | 3138 | ||
| DA Function in the CNS: History | 3140 | ||
| Functional Significance of CNS DA | 3143 | ||
| Further Reading | 3145 | ||
| Dopamine Neurons: Reward and Uncertainty | 3146 | ||
| Introduction | 3146 | ||
| Behavioral Theories of Reward and Uncertainty | 3146 | ||
| Learning | 3146 | ||
| Approach Behavior and Decision Making | 3147 | ||
| Quantification of Reward Value and Uncertainty | 3147 | ||
| Pleasure | 3147 | ||
| Motivational Valence | 3147 | ||
| Reward Signals in Dopamine Neurons | 3148 | ||
| Reward Prediction Error | 3148 | ||
| Reward-Predicting Stimuli | 3149 | ||
| Uncertainty Signal in Dopamine Neurons | 3150 | ||
| Comparisons with Other Reward Centers | 3150 | ||
| Orbitofrontal Cortex | 3150 | ||
| Pure Reward Signals in Striatum and Nucleus Accumbens | 3151 | ||
| Reward Influences on Action-Related Activity in Striatum | 3151 | ||
| Prefrontal Cortex | 3151 | ||
| Other Cortical Areas | 3151 | ||
| Amygdala | 3152 | ||
| Further Reading | 3152 | ||
| Dopamine Receptors and Antipsychotic Drugs in Health and Disease | 3154 | ||
| Introduction | 3154 | ||
| Early Days: Before Discovery of Dopamine Receptors | 3154 | ||
| Therapeutic Concentrations of Antipsychotics | 3154 | ||
| In Vivo Experiments | 3154 | ||
| The Dopamine D1 Receptor | 3155 | ||
| Discovery of the Antipsychotic Dopamine Receptor, or the Dopamine D2 Receptor | 3155 | ||
| Two Classes of Dopamine Receptors | 3157 | ||
| Nomenclature of Dopamine Receptors | 3160 | ||
| Dopamine D2 Receptor Variants | 3161 | ||
| D2 Function and Distribution | 3161 | ||
| The Dopamine D3 Receptor | 3162 | ||
| The Dopamine D4 Receptor | 3162 | ||
| The Dopamine D5 Receptor | 3164 | ||
| Regulation of Dopamine Receptors | 3164 | ||
| D2 Interactions with Other Receptors | 3167 | ||
| Psychosis and the D2High Basis of Dopamine Supersensitivity | 3167 | ||
| Current Clinical and Basic Research on Dopamine Receptors | 3170 | ||
| Further Reading | 3171 | ||
| Dopamine: Cellular Actions | 3172 | ||
| Dopamine Actions in the Frontal Cortex | 3172 | ||
| Dopamine Actions in the Ventral and Dorsal Striatum | 3173 | ||
| Dopamine Actions in the Ventral Mesencephalon | 3174 | ||
| Conclusions | 3174 | ||
| Further Reading | 3174 | ||
| Dopaminergic Agonists and l-DOPA | 3176 | ||
| Pharmacological Treatment of Parkinson's Disease | 3176 | ||
| l-DOPA in PD | 3176 | ||
| L-DOPA and l-DOPA-Sensitive Dystonia | 3178 | ||
| Dopaminergic Agonists | 3178 | ||
| Ergoline Derivatives | 3179 | ||
| Non-Ergoline Derivatives | 3180 | ||
| Side Effects | 3180 | ||
| Conclusion | 3181 | ||
| Further Reading | 3181 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3182 | ||
| Dopaminergic Differentiation | 3184 | ||
| Introduction | 3184 | ||
| Overview: The Medical Importance of DA Neuron Development | 3184 | ||
| Extrinsic Factors in Mesencephalic DA Neuron Development | 3184 | ||
| Intrinsic Factors in Mesencephalic DA Neuron Development | 3185 | ||
| Development of Distinct Subtypes of Mesencephalic DA Neurons | 3186 | ||
| The Control of DA Axonal Development | 3186 | ||
| DA Neuron Differentiation In Vitro | 3187 | ||
| Conclusion | 3187 | ||
| Further Reading | 3188 | ||
| Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons | 3190 | ||
| Introduction | 3190 | ||
| Expression of Multiple Ion Channel Subtypes | 3190 | ||
| Excitability of Injured DRG Neurons | 3191 | ||
| Inflammatory Pain | 3192 | ||
| Demyelination and Multiple Sclerosis | 3192 | ||
| Ion Channel Mutations Associated with DRG | 3192 | ||
| Modulation of Excitability by Cofactors and Phosphorylation | 3193 | ||
| Conclusions | 3194 | ||
| Further Reading | 3194 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3194 | ||
| Double Cortex | 3196 | ||
| Introduction | 3196 | ||
| Genetic Bases | 3196 | ||
| Imaging Studies | 3196 | ||
| Neuropathology | 3198 | ||
| Clinical Aspects | 3198 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 3199 | ||
| Further Reading | 3201 | ||
| Down Syndrome | 3202 | ||
| Introduction | 3202 | ||
| History | 3202 | ||
| Epidemiology | 3203 | ||
| Clinical Features | 3204 | ||
| Etiology | 3204 | ||
| Neurobiological Bases for Nervous System Dysfunction in Down Syndrome | 3205 | ||
| Human Studies | 3205 | ||
| Synaptic structure and function | 3205 | ||
| Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons | 3205 | ||
| Mouse Models of Down Syndrome: Defining Nervous System Abnormalities | 3205 | ||
| Mice Trisomic for Mouse Orthologs of HSA21 | 3206 | ||
| Ts16 and Ts65Dn mice | 3206 | ||
| Ts1Cje and Ms1Ts65 mice | 3207 | ||
| Ts1Rhr and Ms1Rhr mice | 3207 | ||
| Mice Trisomic for HSA21 | 3207 | ||
| Mice Transgenic for Individual Genes | 3207 | ||
| Defining and Characterizing Nervous System Abnormalities in Mouse Models of Down Syndrome | 3207 | ||
| Synaptic Structure and Function | 3207 | ||
| Basal Forebrain Cholinergic Neurons | 3208 | ||
| Hippocampal Functions | 3208 | ||
| Cerebellum | 3208 | ||
| Basis of DS Therapy | 3208 | ||
| Further Reading | 3208 | ||
| Down Syndrome: A Disorder of Histogenesis | 3210 | ||
| Introduction | 3210 | ||
| Ts16 | 3210 | ||
| Ts65Dn | 3211 | ||
| Basal Forebrain Deficits | 3212 | ||
| Apoptosis in DS | 3212 | ||
| Ts1Cje and Ms1Cje Mouse Models of DS | 3212 | ||
| Further Reading | 3213 | ||
| Dream Function | 3214 | ||
| Introduction | 3214 | ||
| Contrasting Conceptions of 'Function' | 3214 | ||
| Dream Carryover Effects | 3214 | ||
| Carryover Effects of REM Dreaming | 3214 | ||
| Fluidity of thought | 3215 | ||
| Felt presence | 3215 | ||
| Felt position | 3215 | ||
| Emotional feeling | 3215 | ||
| Auxiliary effects | 3215 | ||
| Carryover Effects of Intensified Dreaming | 3215 | ||
| Sleep paralysis episodes | 3215 | ||
| Impactful dreams | 3216 | ||
| Memory Consolidation | 3216 | ||
| Memory Consolidation and REM Sleep | 3216 | ||
| Effects of learning on REM sleep | 3216 | ||
| Effects of REM deprivation on consolidation | 3216 | ||
| Convergent findings from other paradigms | 3217 | ||
| Memory Consolidation and NREM Sleep | 3217 | ||
| Dream Content and Memory Consolidation | 3217 | ||
| Emotional Adaptation | 3218 | ||
| Mood Regulation | 3218 | ||
| REM sleep and mood regulation during depression | 3218 | ||
| REM deprivation and depression | 3218 | ||
| Conflict Resolution | 3219 | ||
| Vestigial Defense | 3219 | ||
| Conclusion | 3219 | ||
| Further Reading | 3220 | ||
| Dreams and Dreaming: Incorporation of Waking Events | 3222 | ||
| Overview | 3222 | ||
| Effects of Presleep Experience on Dream Content | 3222 | ||
| Manipulation of Presleep Experience in the Sleep Laboratory | 3222 | ||
| Correspondence between Presleep Experience and Dreaming in the Home | 3223 | ||
| Incorporation of Presleep Experience into Sleep Onset Dreaming | 3223 | ||
| Form of Waking Experience Incorporations | 3224 | ||
| Sleep Stages, Waking Memory Sources, and Memory Systems | 3225 | ||
| Emotional Value and Waking Experience Incorporation | 3225 | ||
| Time Course of Incorporations | 3226 | ||
| Recent Memories, Dreaming, and Memory Consolidation | 3226 | ||
| Neural Basis for Dream Incorporation of Recent Events: Connection to Declarative Memory Consolidation? | 3227 | ||
| A Function for Dreaming? | 3228 | ||
| Further Reading | 3228 | ||
| Dreams and Nightmares in PTSD | 3230 | ||
| Clinical Significance of Nightmares in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder | 3230 | ||
| Nightmares and Sleep following Trauma Exposure and in Chronic PTSD | 3230 | ||
| Dream Recall and Nightmare-Related PTSD | 3230 | ||
| Repetition of Trauma in Dreams | 3231 | ||
| Trauma and Dream Content | 3231 | ||
| Victims of Physical and Sexual Abuse | 3231 | ||
| Victims of War and Violence | 3231 | ||
| Frequency of Dream-Related Disorders | 3232 | ||
| Functional Hypotheses of PTSD-Related Nightmares | 3232 | ||
| Nightmares and Emotional Adaptation to Trauma | 3232 | ||
| Sensitization Hypothesis of PTSD Nightmares | 3232 | ||
| Potential Psychophysiological and Neurobiological Underpinnings of PTSD-Related Nightmares | 3233 | ||
| Treatments of PTSD-Related Nightmares | 3234 | ||
| Imagery Rescripting and Rehearsal | 3234 | ||
| Prazosin | 3235 | ||
| Serotonin-Potentiating Drugs | 3235 | ||
| Other Pharmacological Agents | 3235 | ||
| Further Reading | 3236 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3236 | ||
| Dreams, Dreaming Theories and Correlates of Nightmares | 3238 | ||
| Nightmares Defined | 3238 | ||
| Nightmare Prevalence and Correlates | 3238 | ||
| Models of Nightmare Production | 3239 | ||
| Psychoanalytic and Neopsychoanalytic Models | 3239 | ||
| Personality and Evolutionary Models | 3239 | ||
| Boundary permeability | 3239 | ||
| Image contextualization | 3240 | ||
| Threat simulation | 3240 | ||
| Neurobiological Models | 3241 | ||
| Neurotransmitter imbalance | 3241 | ||
| REM sleep desomatization | 3241 | ||
| Mood regulation | 3242 | ||
| Affective network dysfunction | 3242 | ||
| Further Reading | 3244 | ||
| Drosophila Apterous Neurons: From Stem Cell to Unique Neuron | 3246 | ||
| Introduction | 3246 | ||
| The Apterous Neurons of the Drosophila Ventral Nerve Cord | 3246 | ||
| Genetic Mechanisms of Apterous Neuron Specification | 3246 | ||
| The Apterous Cluster Is Generated by the Stem Cell Neuroblast 5-6T | 3247 | ||
| Remodeling of Apterous Tv Neurons during the Pupal-to-Adult Transition | 3248 | ||
| Important Themes during Neuronal Subtype Specification | 3248 | ||
| Combinatorial Coding versus Master Regulators | 3249 | ||
| Feed-Forward Loops | 3249 | ||
| Target-Derived Instructive Signals | 3249 | ||
| Remodeling | 3249 | ||
| Conclusion | 3249 | ||
| Further Reading | 3250 | ||
| Drug Addiction: Behavioral Neurophysiology | 3252 | ||
| Introduction | 3252 | ||
| Anatomy of the Nucleus Accumbens: A Key Neural Substrate in Addiction | 3252 | ||
| Neurophysiological Investigations of Drug Addiction: Overview | 3253 | ||
| Nucleus Accumbens Cell Firing during Cocaine Self-Administration | 3253 | ||
| Role of Drug Abstinence on Accumbens Cell Firing during Cocaine Seeking | 3254 | ||
| Distinct Populations of Nucleus Accumbens Neurons Selectively Encode Goal-Directed Behaviors for Drug versus 'Natural' | 3255 | ||
| Insights into the Functional Organization of the Nucleus Accumbens | 3255 | ||
| Neurophysiological Investigations during Self-Administration of Other Abused Substances | 3255 | ||
| Behavioral Electrophysiology of the PFC and BLA | 3256 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 3256 | ||
| Further Reading | 3256 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3257 | ||
| Drug Addiction: Behavioral Pharmacology of Drug Addiction in Rats | 3258 | ||
| Introduction | 3258 | ||
| Environmental Modulation of the Behavioral Effects of Addictive Drugs | 3258 | ||
| Environmental Modulation of Immediate-Early Gene Expression | 3259 | ||
| Striatum | 3260 | ||
| Amygdala | 3261 | ||
| Neocortex | 3262 | ||
| Environmental Modulation of Drug-Induced Structural Neuroplasticity | 3262 | ||
| Conclusions | 3264 | ||
| Further Reading | 3265 | ||
| Drug Addiction: Cellular Mechanisms | 3266 | ||
| Addiction and Synaptic Plasticity | 3266 | ||
| Glutamate Receptors as Targets for Addictive Drugs | 3266 | ||
| Long-Term Potentiation: A Cellular Substrate for Abnormal Learning and Memory Processes | 3266 | ||
| Drug-Induced Synaptic Plasticity and VTA Dopaminergic Cell Activity | 3268 | ||
| Addiction and Ion Channels | 3268 | ||
| Calcium Channel Modulation of Addictive Behaviors | 3269 | ||
| Modulation of Drug Reinforcement by Other Ion Channels | 3270 | ||
| Changes in Ion Channel Function after Chronic Drug Exposure | 3271 | ||
| Conclusions and Future Directions | 3271 | ||
| Further Reading | 3272 | ||
| Drug Addiction: Neuroimaging | 3274 | ||
| Introduction | 3274 | ||
| Major Brain Circuits and Neurotransmitters Studied in Drug Addiction | 3274 | ||
| Major Neuroimaging Findings in Human Drug Addiction | 3275 | ||
| Association of Brain Imaging with the Core Clinical Drug Addiction Characteristics | 3277 | ||
| Brain Imaging of Acute Pharmacological and Nonpharmacological Effects | 3277 | ||
| Intoxication | 3277 | ||
| Craving | 3280 | ||
| Bingeing | 3280 | ||
| Withdrawal | 3282 | ||
| Chronic Effects and Other Issues | 3282 | ||
| Chronic drug effects | 3282 | ||
| Neurotoxicity | 3283 | ||
| Effects of exposure to drugs in utero | 3285 | ||
| Imaging predisposition and vulnerability | 3285 | ||
| Summary | 3286 | ||
| Further Reading | 3286 | ||
| Drugs Addiction: Actions | 3288 | ||
| Introduction | 3288 | ||
| Psychomotor Stimulants | 3288 | ||
| Opiates | 3289 | ||
| Nicotine | 3289 | ||
| Alcohol | 3289 | ||
| Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates | 3290 | ||
| Addictive Consequences | 3290 | ||
| Further Reading | 3291 | ||
| d-Serine: From Its Synthesis in Glial Cell to Its Action on Synaptic Transmission and Plasticity | 3292 | ||
| Introduction | 3292 | ||
| Localization of d-Serine | 3293 | ||
| Synthesis and Degradation of d-Serine | 3293 | ||
| Release of d-Serine | 3294 | ||
| d-Serine Clearance | 3295 | ||
| d-Serine Contribution to Synaptic Transmission and Plasticity | 3295 | ||
| Conclusion | 3297 | ||
| Further Reading | 3297 | ||
| Dynamin | 3300 | ||
| Introduction | 3300 | ||
| Dynamin Superfamily | 3300 | ||
| Dynamin Domains | 3300 | ||
| GTPase domain | 3300 | ||
| Middle domain and GTPase effector domain | 3301 | ||
| Pleckstrin-homology domain | 3301 | ||
| Proline-rich domain | 3301 | ||
| Dynamin Mediates Endocytosis | 3302 | ||
| Dynamin in Flies | 3302 | ||
| Mammalian Classic Dynamins | 3302 | ||
| Function of Other Superfamily Members | 3302 | ||
| Dynamin-related proteins | 3302 | ||
| Guanylate-binding proteins/atlastins | 3303 | ||
| Mechanisms of Dynamin-Mediated Membrane Fission | 3304 | ||
| Role of Unassembled Dynamin Early in Endocytosis | 3304 | ||
| Ring Assembly on Lipid Templates | 3304 | ||
| Helical Tension and Twist Produce Fission | 3304 | ||
| Dynamin Recruitment to Sites of Endocytosis | 3305 | ||
| Regulation of Dynamin 1 Function | 3305 | ||
| Dynamin and Synaptic Transmission | 3308 | ||
| Dynamin Inhibitors | 3308 | ||
| Dynamin and Disease | 3308 | ||
| Further Reading | 3310 | ||
| Dysautonomia: Familial | 3312 | ||
| Clinical Phenotype | 3312 | ||
| Diagnosis | 3312 | ||
| Pathology | 3312 | ||
| Biochemical Abnormalities | 3313 | ||
| Genetics | 3313 | ||
| IKAP Function | 3313 | ||
| Treatment of FD | 3314 | ||
| Summary | 3315 | ||
| Further Reading | 3315 | ||
| Dyslexia: Neurodevelopmental Basis | 3316 | ||
| Introduction | 3316 | ||
| Behavioral Profile of Developmental Dyslexia | 3316 | ||
| Definition of Developmental Dyslexia | 3316 | ||
| Cognitive Characteristics of Developmental Dyslexia | 3317 | ||
| Sensorimotor Characteristics of Developmental Dyslexia | 3317 | ||
| Biological Basis of Developmental Dyslexia | 3318 | ||
| Brain-Based Evidence | 3318 | ||
| Genetic Evidence | 3319 | ||
| Dyslexia in Different Languages and Orthographies | 3319 | ||
| Comorbid Disorders | 3320 | ||
| Developmental Dyslexia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | 3320 | ||
| Developmental Dyslexia and SLI | 3320 | ||
| Therapeutic Approaches to Developmental Dyslexia | 3320 | ||
| Summary | 3321 | ||
| Further Reading | 3322 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3322 | ||
| Dystonia: Classification, Genetics and Therapeutics | 3324 | ||
| Introduction | 3324 | ||
| Classification of Dystonia | 3324 | ||
| Classification Based on Cause | 3324 | ||
| Classification Based on Affected Body Regions | 3324 | ||
| Focal dystonias | 3324 | ||
| Dystonia-plus syndrome | 3326 | ||
| Classification Based on Age of Onset | 3327 | ||
| Early onset generalized dystonia | 3327 | ||
| Dopa-responsive dystonia | 3327 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Dystonia | 3327 | ||
| Imaging Studies in Dystonia | 3327 | ||
| Genetics of Dystonia | 3328 | ||
| Therapy | 3329 | ||
| Medications | 3329 | ||
| Dopaminergics | 3329 | ||
| Anticholinergics | 3329 | ||
| Benzodiazepines | 3329 | ||
| Baclofen | 3329 | ||
| Botox Treatment | 3329 | ||
| Surgical Treatment | 3330 | ||
| Deep Brain Stimulation | 3330 | ||
| Other Therapies | 3330 | ||
| Molecular Approaches | 3330 | ||
| Further Reading | 3330 | ||
| Dystonia: Myoclonus-Dystonia | 3332 | ||
| Definition, Terminology, and Diagnostic Criteria of Myoclonus-Dystonia | 3332 | ||
| Definition | 3332 | ||
| Terminology | 3332 | ||
| Diagnostic Criteria | 3332 | ||
| Clinical Features of M-D | 3333 | ||
| Clinical Features of M-D Patients with Documented SGCE Mutations | 3334 | ||
| Differential Diagnosis | 3334 | ||
| Genetic Findings in M-D | 3335 | ||
| Reduced Penetrance Due to Imprinting of the SGCE Gene | 3335 | ||
| Mutational Screening of the SGCE Gene | 3335 | ||
| Frequency of SGCE mutations in tested patient samples | 3335 | ||
| Types and localization of SGCE mutations | 3336 | ||
| Sarcoglycan Genes and SGCE Protein | 3336 | ||
| Genetic Heterogeneity of M-D | 3336 | ||
| Phenotype-Genotype Correlations | 3342 | ||
| Animal Models | 3342 | ||
| Diagnostic and Ancillary Tests | 3344 | ||
| DNA Tests | 3344 | ||
| Other Laboratory Tests | 3344 | ||
| Neuroimaging | 3344 | ||
| Treatment | 3344 | ||
| Further Reading | 3344 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3345 | ||
| Dystrophin, Associated Proteins, and Muscular Dystrophy | 3346 | ||
| Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: Clinical Features, Pathology | 3346 | ||
| Dystrophin: Identification, Features of Gene and Protein | 3346 | ||
| Autosomal Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophies | 3349 | ||
| Congenital Muscular Dystrophy | 3349 | ||
| The Dystrophin-Associated Complex | 3349 | ||
| The DAG Complex: A Functional Model | 3350 | ||
| Glycosylation-Dependent Muscular Dystrophies; Muscular Dystrophies with CNS Involvement | 3353 | ||
| Dysferlin: Sarcolemmal Repair Mechanism | 3353 | ||
| Dystrophin and Dystrophin-Associated Proteins in the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems | 3354 | ||
| Dystrophin Isoforms | 3355 | ||
| The DAG Complex in Peripheral Nerve | 3356 | ||
| Dystrophin and Animal Models of Muscular Dystrophy | 3356 | ||
| Mouse Models | 3356 | ||
| Mouse models of DAG complex mutations | 3357 | ||
| Dystrophin-Deficient Feline; Lethal Muscle Hypertrophy | 3357 | ||
| Dystrophin and Muscular Dystrophy in Dogs | 3357 | ||
| Dystrophin and DAG in Zebra Fish | 3357 | ||
| Dystrophin and DAG in Drosophila | 3357 | ||
| Dystrophin and Muscular Dystrophy in C. elegans | 3358 | ||
| Conclusion | 3358 | ||
| Further Reading | 3358 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3359 | ||
| E | 3360 | ||
| Eating Disorders | 3360 | ||
| Introduction | 3360 | ||
| Description | 3360 | ||
| Core Symptoms | 3360 | ||
| Familial/Genetic | 3361 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 3362 | ||
| Treatment | 3363 | ||
| Bulimia Nervosa | 3363 | ||
| Anorexia Nervosa | 3363 | ||
| Summary | 3364 | ||
| Further Reading | 3364 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3364 | ||
| Echolocation I: Behavior | 3366 | ||
| Echolocation Sounds and Foraging Niches | 3366 | ||
| Search Phase Sounds and Detection | 3366 | ||
| Pursuit and Capture | 3369 | ||
| Long CF/FM Bats and Doppler-Shift Compensation | 3370 | ||
| Laboratory Studies of the Limits of Echolocation Skills | 3371 | ||
| Detection | 3371 | ||
| Range (Distance) Discrimination | 3371 | ||
| Time-Intensity Trading, Middle-Ear Muscles, and Echo 'Gain Control' | 3371 | ||
| Fine Temporal Resolution/Range Jitter Discrimination | 3372 | ||
| 'Glints,' Multiple-Wave Front Resolution, and Target Discrimination | 3372 | ||
| Angular Resolution in the Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions | 3373 | ||
| Echolocation by Other Animals | 3375 | ||
| Further Reading | 3375 | ||
| Echolocation II: Neurophysiology | 3376 | ||
| Introduction | 3376 | ||
| Properties of Biosonar Signals | 3376 | ||
| The Auditory System of CF-FM Bats | 3378 | ||
| Subcortical Specialization | 3378 | ||
| Cortical Specialization | 3380 | ||
| The Auditory System of FM Bats | 3384 | ||
| Signal Processing for Sound Localization | 3385 | ||
| Protection of Biosonar Information Processing from Jamming by Biosonar Pulses of Conspecifics | 3386 | ||
| Corticofugal Feedback for Auditory Signal Processing | 3386 | ||
| Further Reading | 3386 | ||
| Electrical Perception and Communication | 3388 | ||
| Introduction | 3388 | ||
| Electric Fishes | 3388 | ||
| Occurrence of Electroreceptors | 3388 | ||
| The Signaling Environment and Signal Transmission | 3388 | ||
| Advantages of Electric Communication | 3388 | ||
| Dual Functions | 3388 | ||
| Electric Signal Production and Signal Transmission | 3388 | ||
| Electric Organs | 3388 | ||
| The Nature of Electric Signals | 3391 | ||
| Signal Transmission: The Geometry of Electric Fields in a Volume Conductor | 3392 | ||
| Active Space | 3393 | ||
| The Economy of Impedance Matching | 3393 | ||
| Nonpropagated Signals | 3395 | ||
| Noise | 3395 | ||
| Signal Reception | 3395 | ||
| Ampullary Electroreceptors | 3396 | ||
| Tuberous Electroreceptors | 3397 | ||
| Temporal Dimensions of Social Communication Signals | 3397 | ||
| Tonic Signals in Electric Communication | 3397 | ||
| Phasic Signals | 3403 | ||
| Jamming Avoidance Responses (JAR) | 3404 | ||
| Brain Mechanisms of Signal Generation | 3405 | ||
| Further Reading | 3406 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3406 | ||
| Electrical Self-Stimulation | 3408 | ||
| Introduction | 3408 | ||
| Multiple Reward Sites | 3408 | ||
| Role of Monoamines | 3408 | ||
| Fast Descending Reward-Relevant Fibers in the Medial Forebrain Bundle | 3409 | ||
| Second-Stage and Third-Stage Candidates | 3410 | ||
| Interaction with Addictive Drugs | 3411 | ||
| Electrical Self-Stimulation in Perspective | 3411 | ||
| Further Reading | 3411 | ||
| Electrocommunication | 3414 | ||
| Electric Organs and Electroreceptors | 3414 | ||
| Patterns of Electric Organ Discharges | 3414 | ||
| Sexual Dimorphisms in the Electric Organ Discharge | 3415 | ||
| Species Recognition | 3416 | ||
| Electrocommunication | 3417 | ||
| Wave-Type Weakly Electric Fish | 3417 | ||
| Pulse-Type Weakly Electric Fish | 3419 | ||
| Neural Control of Chirping Behavior | 3421 | ||
| Further Reading | 3422 | ||
| Electroencephalography (EEG) | 3424 | ||
| Definitions | 3424 | ||
| Neuronal Sources of the EEG/MEG | 3424 | ||
| EEG Rhythms: Phenomenology and Functional Significance | 3424 | ||
| EEG Signals in Vigilance and Sleep Stages | 3426 | ||
| Spatial Resolution of EEG | 3427 | ||
| The Combined Recording of EEG and fMRI | 3427 | ||
| Toward a New Era of Dynamical Brain Imaging | 3428 | ||
| Further Reading | 3430 | ||
| e9780080446172v4 | 3765 | ||
| Front Cover | 3765 | ||
| Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | 3766 | ||
| Copyright Page | 3769 | ||
| Foreword | 3782 | ||
| Preface | 3784 | ||
| Senior Editors | 3770 | ||
| Associate Editors | 3772 | ||
| Table of Contents | 3776 | ||
| Volume 4 | 3786 | ||
| E | 3786 | ||
| Estrus and Menstrual Cycles: Neuroendocrine Control | 3786 | ||
| Introduction | 3786 | ||
| The Ovarian Cycle | 3786 | ||
| Overview | 3786 | ||
| GnRH Neurons: The Central Neural Regulators | 3786 | ||
| Follicular Phase and Ovulation | 3787 | ||
| Luteal Phase | 3788 | ||
| External Environmental Factors Influencing Ovarian Cyclicity: Energy Balance | 3788 | ||
| Further Reading | 3790 | ||
| Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) | 3792 | ||
| Event-Related Potentials | 3792 | ||
| Memory Encoding | 3792 | ||
| ERPs and Retrieval | 3793 | ||
| Recognition Memory | 3793 | ||
| Other ERP Old/New Effects | 3795 | ||
| ERP Studies of Recall | 3795 | ||
| Neural Generators of ERP Retrieval Effects | 3797 | ||
| Concluding Comments | 3797 | ||
| Further Reading | 3797 | ||
| Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) and Cognitive Processing | 3798 | ||
| Origins of Event-Related Potentials | 3798 | ||
| Selective Attention | 3799 | ||
| Stimulus Discrimination and Classification | 3801 | ||
| Memory Processes | 3802 | ||
| Language Processing | 3802 | ||
| Further Reading | 3803 | ||
| Evoked Potentials: Clinical | 3804 | ||
| Introduction | 3804 | ||
| Visual Evoked Potentials | 3804 | ||
| Nonpathological Factors Affecting VEPs | 3805 | ||
| Pathologic Changes Affecting the VEP | 3805 | ||
| Somatosensory Evoked Potentials | 3805 | ||
| Upper Limb SEPs | 3805 | ||
| Lower Limb SEPs | 3806 | ||
| Nonpathological Factors Affecting SEPs | 3807 | ||
| Pathological Changes in SEPs | 3807 | ||
| Brain Stem Auditory Evoked Potentials | 3807 | ||
| Clinically Relevant Changes in BAEPs | 3808 | ||
| Pathological Changes in BAEPs | 3808 | ||
| Event-Related Potentials (P3) | 3808 | ||
| Nonpathologic Factors Affecting the P3 | 3809 | ||
| Pathologic Factors Affecting the P3 | 3810 | ||
| Motor Evoked Potentials | 3810 | ||
| Methodology | 3810 | ||
| Nonpathological Changes in MEPs | 3810 | ||
| Pathological Changes in MEPs | 3811 | ||
| Other Uses of TMS | 3811 | ||
| Premotor Potentials | 3811 | ||
| Generators | 3811 | ||
| Nonpathological Changes in Premotor Potentials | 3811 | ||
| Pathological Changes in Premotor Potentials | 3811 | ||
| Intraoperative Neurophysiologic Monitoring | 3813 | ||
| Further Reading | 3813 | ||
| Evoked Potentials: Recording Methods | 3814 | ||
| Introduction | 3814 | ||
| Analysis in the Time Domain | 3814 | ||
| Time-Domain Averaging of Transient Evoked Responses | 3814 | ||
| Quantification of the Transient Evoked Response Waveform | 3814 | ||
| Analysis in the Frequency Domain | 3815 | ||
| Fourier Analysis of the Steady-State Evoked Response | 3815 | ||
| Frequency Tagging of Multiple Stimulus Locations, Submodalities, and Modalities | 3818 | ||
| The Sweep Technique | 3819 | ||
| Evoked Response Feedback | 3819 | ||
| Analysis of Nonlinear Sensory Systems | 3819 | ||
| The Two-Frequency Method | 3819 | ||
| The White Noise and Related Methods | 3822 | ||
| Further Reading | 3822 | ||
| Evolution of Sensory Receptor Specializations inthe Glabrous Skin | 3824 | ||
| Introduction | 3824 | ||
| Types of Cutaneous Receptors | 3824 | ||
| Free Nerve Endings | 3824 | ||
| The Merkel Cell System | 3825 | ||
| The Meissner Corpuscle | 3825 | ||
| Pacinian Corpuscle | 3826 | ||
| Ruffini Corpuscle | 3827 | ||
| Evolution of Cutaneous Receptors | 3827 | ||
| Further Reading | 3827 | ||
| Evolution of the Limbic System | 3828 | ||
| Introduction | 3828 | ||
| Mammals | 3828 | ||
| Sensory Projections to the Telencephalon | 3828 | ||
| Hippocampus and Cortex | 3829 | ||
| Amygdalar Complex and Claustrum-Endopiriform Area | 3829 | ||
| Reptiles | 3832 | ||
| Sensory Pathways to the Telencephalon | 3832 | ||
| Hippocampus and Cortex | 3832 | ||
| Amygdalar Nuclei and Pallial Thickening | 3834 | ||
| Birds | 3835 | ||
| Sensory Pathways to the Telencephalon | 3835 | ||
| Hippocampus and Cortex | 3836 | ||
| Amygdalar Nuclei and Mesopallium | 3836 | ||
| Amphibians | 3836 | ||
| Sensory Pathways to the Telencephalon | 3836 | ||
| Hippocampus and Cortex | 3837 | ||
| Amygdalar Nuclei | 3837 | ||
| Fish | 3838 | ||
| Sensory Pathways to the Telencephalon | 3838 | ||
| Hippocampus and Cortex | 3839 | ||
| Amygdalar Areas | 3839 | ||
| Further Reading | 3840 | ||
| Evolution of Vertebrate Brains | 3842 | ||
| Introduction and Overview | 3842 | ||
| Evolution of the Brain in Ancestral Vertebrates | 3844 | ||
| Type I Brains | 3846 | ||
| Lampreys | 3846 | ||
| Type I Cartilaginous Fishes | 3846 | ||
| Type I Ray-Finned Fishes | 3847 | ||
| Lungfishes, Crossopterygian, and Amphibians | 3847 | ||
| Type II Brains | 3848 | ||
| Hagfishes | 3848 | ||
| Type II Cartilaginous Fishes | 3848 | ||
| Teleosts | 3848 | ||
| Amniotes | 3849 | ||
| Mammals | 3849 | ||
| Sauropsids | 3849 | ||
| Forebrain evolution across amniotes | 3850 | ||
| Further Reading | 3851 | ||
| Evolution of Vertebrate Respiratory Control | 3852 | ||
| Introduction | 3852 | ||
| Evolution of Rhythm Generation | 3852 | ||
| Evolution of Gill Ventilation: From Tunicate to Fish | 3852 | ||
| Gill Ventilation in the Amphibian Tadpole | 3853 | ||
| Origins of Air Breathing | 3855 | ||
| The Air-Breathing Rhythm Generator in Amphibians | 3855 | ||
| The Air-Breathing Rhythm Generator in Mammals | 3856 | ||
| Evolution of Chemoreceptors | 3856 | ||
| Why Chemoreceptors? | 3856 | ||
| Peripheral Respiratory Chemoreceptors in Fish | 3857 | ||
| Peripheral Respiratory Chemoreceptors in Tetrapods | 3857 | ||
| Central CO2 Chemoreceptors in Air-Breathing Vertebrates | 3858 | ||
| Other Chemoreceptors: Upper Airways and Lung Epithelial Bodies | 3860 | ||
| Other Reflexes | 3860 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 3860 | ||
| Further Reading | 3860 | ||
| Excitotoxicity in Neurodegenerative Disease | 3862 | ||
| Introduction to the Excitotoxic Theory of Neurotoxicity | 3862 | ||
| Clinical Relevance of Excitatory Amino Acid Neurotoxicity | 3862 | ||
| Hypoxia/Ischemia | 3862 | ||
| Epilepsy | 3863 | ||
| Traumatic Brain Injury | 3863 | ||
| Neurodegenerative Diseases | 3864 | ||
| Parkinson's disease | 3864 | ||
| Huntington's disease | 3864 | ||
| Alzheimer's disease | 3864 | ||
| Intoxication with Exogenous Excitatory Amino Acids | 3865 | ||
| Implication of Distinct Glutamate Receptor Classes in Excitotoxicity | 3865 | ||
| Ionic Dependence of Excitotoxic Cell Damage | 3866 | ||
| Mitochondrial Dysfunction | 3867 | ||
| Role of Reactive Oxygen Species in Excitotoxicity | 3868 | ||
| Role of Nitric Oxide and Other Reactive Nitrogen Species in Excitotoxicity | 3869 | ||
| NMDA Receptors on Glial Cells | 3870 | ||
| Therapeutic Implications and Future Directions | 3870 | ||
| Further Reading | 3871 | ||
| Executive Function and Higher-Order Cognition: Assessment in Animals | 3872 | ||
| General Issues for Animal Testing | 3872 | ||
| Taxonomy of Cognition | 3872 | ||
| Methods to Study Perception | 3872 | ||
| Discrimination and Categorization | 3872 | ||
| Awareness | 3873 | ||
| Methods to Study Attention | 3873 | ||
| Methods to Study Memory | 3873 | ||
| Short-Term Working Memory | 3873 | ||
| Long-Term Memory | 3874 | ||
| Methods to Study Response Selection and Preparation | 3874 | ||
| Response Selection | 3874 | ||
| Response Preparation | 3875 | ||
| Intention | 3875 | ||
| Methods to Study Emotion | 3876 | ||
| Methods to Study Executive Control | 3876 | ||
| Decision Making | 3876 | ||
| Problem Solving and Tool Use | 3877 | ||
| Communication | 3877 | ||
| Further Reading | 3877 | ||
| Executive Function and Higher-Order Cognition: Computational Models | 3878 | ||
| Introduction | 3878 | ||
| Prefrontal Cortex and Control | 3878 | ||
| Active Goal Maintenance | 3878 | ||
| Biased Competition | 3879 | ||
| Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Performance Monitoring | 3880 | ||
| Conflict Theory | 3880 | ||
| Neuroanatomy | 3881 | ||
| Conflict and Errors | 3881 | ||
| Time Course of Executive Control | 3881 | ||
| Multiple Kinds of Control | 3882 | ||
| Basal Ganglia and Action Selection | 3882 | ||
| Production System Models | 3883 | ||
| Further Reading | 3883 | ||
| Executive Function and Higher-Order Cognition: Definition and Neural Substrates | 3884 | ||
| The Prefrontal Cortex | 3884 | ||
| PFC Contributions to Executive Control | 3885 | ||
| Inhibition | 3885 | ||
| Planning | 3886 | ||
| Evaluating Consequences | 3886 | ||
| Working Memory | 3886 | ||
| Learning and Using Rules | 3887 | ||
| Neurobiological Models of Executive Control | 3888 | ||
| Summary | 3889 | ||
| Further Reading | 3889 | ||
| Executive Function and Higher-Order Cognition: EEG Studies | 3890 | ||
| Introduction | 3890 | ||
| Selective Attention | 3890 | ||
| Novelty and Deviance Detection and Involuntary Attention Shift | 3891 | ||
| Monitoring | 3892 | ||
| Conclusion | 3893 | ||
| Further Reading | 3894 | ||
| Executive Function and Higher-Order Cognition: Neuroimaging | 3896 | ||
| Executive Function | 3896 | ||
| Probing Executive Function with Neuroimaging Techniques | 3896 | ||
| Tasks Used to Study Executive Function | 3896 | ||
| Selective Attention | 3896 | ||
| Response Inhibition | 3898 | ||
| Task-Set Representation | 3900 | ||
| Current and Future Directions | 3900 | ||
| Combined fMRI and EEG Methodology | 3900 | ||
| Event-Related Optical Signals | 3901 | ||
| Further Reading | 3901 | ||
| Executive Functions: Eye Movements and Neuropsychiatric Disorders | 3902 | ||
| What Are Executive Functions? | 3902 | ||
| Eye Movements and Executive Functions | 3902 | ||
| Classes of Eye Movements | 3902 | ||
| Eye Movements in Human Disorders | 3904 | ||
| Neurological | 3904 | ||
| Developmental | 3905 | ||
| Psychiatric | 3905 | ||
| Eye Movement Deficits in Schizophrenia | 3905 | ||
| What Is Schizophrenia? | 3905 | ||
| Eye Movement Deficits | 3905 | ||
| Biological Basis of Eye Movement Deficits | 3906 | ||
| Genetics of Eye Movement Deficits | 3906 | ||
| Importance of Subtypes and Genetics for Outcome | 3906 | ||
| Further Reading | 3907 | ||
| Exercise in Neurodegenerative Disease and Stroke | 3908 | ||
| Introduction | 3908 | ||
| PD | 3908 | ||
| The Condition | 3908 | ||
| Clinical Evidence for the Beneficial Effects of Exercise in PD | 3908 | ||
| Animal Studies | 3909 | ||
| AD | 3910 | ||
| The Condition | 3910 | ||
| Clinical Findings on Efficacy of Exercise in AD | 3910 | ||
| Animal Studies | 3911 | ||
| Stroke | 3911 | ||
| Exercise | 3911 | ||
| Animal Studies | 3912 | ||
| How Might Exercise Work? | 3913 | ||
| Exercise Regulates Trophic Factors | 3914 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 3915 | ||
| Further Reading | 3915 | ||
| Exercise: Optimizing Function and Survival at the Cellular Level | 3918 | ||
| Introduction | 3918 | ||
| Exercise and Central Nervous System Activation: Neurotransmitter Function | 3918 | ||
| Exercise and Growth Factor Expression | 3919 | ||
| Exercise and Cellular Survival Signaling | 3921 | ||
| Neurodegeneration: How Exercise Can Decrease Risk and Contribute to CNS Repair Mechanisms | 3922 | ||
| Conclusion | 3922 | ||
| Further Reading | 3923 | ||
| Exocytosis: Ca2+-Sensitivity | 3924 | ||
| Introduction | 3924 | ||
| The Microdomain Ca2+ Signal | 3924 | ||
| The Ca2+ Uncaging Experiment | 3924 | ||
| Ca2+-Dependent Rates of Exocytosis in Secretory Cells and Nerve Terminals | 3924 | ||
| The Ca2+ Sensitivity of Transmitter Release at the Calyx of Held | 3926 | ||
| Molecular Determinants for Different Ca2+ Sensitivities of Vesicle Fusion | 3928 | ||
| Ca2+ Cooperativity in Vesicle Fusion | 3928 | ||
| Further Reading | 3929 | ||
| Extinction: Anatomy | 3930 | ||
| Introduction | 3930 | ||
| Amygdala | 3930 | ||
| Medial Prefrontal Cortex | 3930 | ||
| Hippocampus | 3932 | ||
| Periaqueductal Gray and Error Signaling | 3932 | ||
| Anatomy of Extinction in Humans | 3933 | ||
| Further Reading | 3933 | ||
| Extracellular Matrix Molecules: Synaptic Plasticity and Learning | 3934 | ||
| Introduction | 3934 | ||
| Integrins and Synaptic Plasticity | 3934 | ||
| Integrins and Learning and Memory | 3935 | ||
| Reelin and Induction of NMDA Receptor- Dependent LTP | 3936 | ||
| Reelin and Learning and Memory | 3936 | ||
| Tenascin-C and Induction of Synaptic Plasticity via Ca2+ Channels | 3936 | ||
| TN-C and Learning and Memory | 3937 | ||
| TN-R, GABAergic Transmission, and Metaplasticity | 3937 | ||
| TN-R and Learning and Memory | 3938 | ||
| Tenascins and Neural Circuitries | 3938 | ||
| Plastic and Cognitive Functions of Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycans | 3938 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Remodeling of the ECM | 3939 | ||
| Conclusions and Future Directions | 3940 | ||
| Further Reading | 3941 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3941 | ||
| Eye and Head Movements | 3942 | ||
| Interactions between the Vestibulo- Ocular Reflex and Voluntary Eye Movements | 3942 | ||
| The Control of Eye-Head Gaze Shifts | 3942 | ||
| Behavioral Investigations | 3942 | ||
| Neurophysiology: Premotor Control of the Eye during Gaze Shifts | 3943 | ||
| Brain stem saccadic pathway | 3943 | ||
| Vestibulo-ocular reflex pathways | 3944 | ||
| Extraocular motor neurons | 3946 | ||
| Neurophysiology: Premotor Control of the Head during Gaze Shifts | 3946 | ||
| Integrated Feedback Control of Eye-Head Gaze Shifts and Implications for Upstream Control | 3947 | ||
| The Control of Eye-Head Pursuit | 3949 | ||
| Behavioral Investigations | 3949 | ||
| Neurophysiology: Premotor Control of the Eye during Eye-Head Pursuit | 3949 | ||
| Brain stem pursuit pathways | 3949 | ||
| Vestibulo-ocular reflex pathways | 3950 | ||
| Premotor inputs to the extraocular motor neurons | 3950 | ||
| Neurophysiology: Premotor Control of the Head during Eye-Head Pursuit | 3951 | ||
| Upstream Control | 3951 | ||
| Conclusion | 3951 | ||
| Further Reading | 3951 | ||
| Eye Movement Disorders | 3954 | ||
| Introduction | 3954 | ||
| Disorders of the Ocular Motor Periphery | 3954 | ||
| Disorders Affecting the Brain Stem Contributions to Gaze Control - the Pons | 3954 | ||
| Disorders Affecting the Brain Stem Contributions to Gaze Control - the Midbrain | 3955 | ||
| Disorders Affecting the Cerebellar Contributions to Gaze Control | 3956 | ||
| Disorders of the Basal Ganglia That Cause Disordered Gaze Control | 3958 | ||
| Disorders of the Cerebral Cortex That Affect Gaze Control | 3958 | ||
| Pathological Nystagmus and Saccadic Intrusions | 3958 | ||
| Nystagmus Due to Peripheral or Central Imbalance | 3960 | ||
| Nystagmus Due to Disturbance of the Neural Integrator for Eye Movements | 3960 | ||
| Nystagmus Occurring with Disorders of the Visual Pathways | 3961 | ||
| Saccadic Intrusions and Oscillations | 3962 | ||
| Conclusions | 3962 | ||
| Further Reading | 3962 | ||
| Eye Tracking and Mental Illness | 3964 | ||
| Quantitative Characterization of Eye- Tracking Dysfunction | 3964 | ||
| Specificity | 3965 | ||
| Psychotropic Medications | 3965 | ||
| Genetic Studies - Familial Aggregation, Twin Studies, and Linkage Studies | 3966 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 3967 | ||
| Brain Imaging | 3967 | ||
| Oculomotor Paradigms | 3967 | ||
| Psychophysical Methods | 3968 | ||
| Further Reading | 3968 | ||
| Eyeblink Conditioning | 3970 | ||
| Classical Conditioning of the Eyeblink Response | 3970 | ||
| The Nature of the Eyeblink Unconditioned and Conditioned Responses | 3970 | ||
| Brain Systems Involved in Eyeblink Conditioning | 3970 | ||
| Cerebellar System: The Pathways | 3971 | ||
| The UR Pathways | 3971 | ||
| The CR Pathway | 3971 | ||
| The CS Pathway | 3972 | ||
| The US Pathway | 3972 | ||
| Conjoint Activation of CS and US Pathways | 3972 | ||
| The Cerebellar System: Interpositus Nucleus | 3972 | ||
| Lesions | 3972 | ||
| Recordings | 3973 | ||
| Cerebellar System: Reversible Inactivation | 3973 | ||
| Cerebellar System: Cerebellar Cortex | 3973 | ||
| Lesions | 3974 | ||
| Inactivation | 3974 | ||
| Complete Cortical Elimination | 3974 | ||
| Recordings | 3975 | ||
| Mechanisms of Memory Storage in the Interpositus | 3975 | ||
| Mechanisms of Memory Storage in the Cerebellar Cortex | 3975 | ||
| Conclusion | 3976 | ||
| Further Reading | 3976 | ||
| F | 3978 | ||
| Facial Expression in Primate Communication | 3978 | ||
| Faces Are Salient Social Stimuli | 3978 | ||
| Static Faces | 3978 | ||
| Individual Identity | 3978 | ||
| Face Expertise | 3979 | ||
| Studies of Face Expertise in Primates | 3979 | ||
| Faces as Dynamic Signals | 3980 | ||
| Ritualization and Signal Form | 3980 | ||
| The Social Meaning of Graded and Blended Signals | 3981 | ||
| Deconstructing Facial Expressions into Component Movements | 3983 | ||
| Conclusion | 3984 | ||
| Further Reading | 3984 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3985 | ||
| Fatigue | 3986 | ||
| Introduction | 3986 | ||
| Sites of Impairment | 3986 | ||
| Task Dependency | 3989 | ||
| Task Failure | 3989 | ||
| Further Reading | 3991 | ||
| Fear Conditioning and Synaptic Plasticity | 3992 | ||
| Introduction | 3992 | ||
| Pavlovian Fear Conditioning | 3992 | ||
| Anatomical Basis of Conditioned Fear | 3992 | ||
| Molecular Mechanisms of Conditioned Fear | 3992 | ||
| Molecular Fingerprint of Synaptic Plasticity | 3992 | ||
| Glutamate Receptors | 3993 | ||
| Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor | 3995 | ||
| Signaling Pathways | 3995 | ||
| Transcription | 3996 | ||
| Translation | 3996 | ||
| Direct Measures of Synaptic Plasticity during Conditioned Fear | 3996 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 3997 | ||
| Further Reading | 3997 | ||
| e9780080446172v5 | 5017 | ||
| Front Cover | 5017 | ||
| Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | 5018 | ||
| Copyright Page | 5021 | ||
| Senior Editors | 5022 | ||
| Associate Editors | 5024 | ||
| Table of Contents | 5028 | ||
| Foreword | 5034 | ||
| Preface | 5036 | ||
| Volume 5 | 5038 | ||
| H | 5038 | ||
| Human Depth Electrodes | 5038 | ||
| Methodological Considerations | 5038 | ||
| Depth Electrodes in the Basal Ganglia and Related Structures | 5038 | ||
| Local Field Potentials Recorded from the Basal Ganglia and Related Structures | 5038 | ||
| Insights from Single-Unit Recordings in Subcortical Structures | 5039 | ||
| Future Directions | 5039 | ||
| Depth Electrode Recordings in Patients with Pharmacologically Resistant Epilepsy | 5039 | ||
| LFPs in Patients with Epilepsy | 5040 | ||
| LFP insights into cognitive processes | 5040 | ||
| Findings from Single-Unit Recordings in the Human MTL and Other Regions | 5041 | ||
| Insights into basic mechanisms of epilepsy and sleep behavior | 5041 | ||
| Insights into memory function | 5041 | ||
| Another role for the hippocampus: Human spatial navigation | 5042 | ||
| Visual perception | 5043 | ||
| Perception of speech and music | 5044 | ||
| Findings related to emotional processes | 5044 | ||
| Motor planning and execution | 5045 | ||
| Investigating the relationship between the blood oxygen level-dependent signal and neuronal activity | 5045 | ||
| Conclusions and Future Directions | 5045 | ||
| Further Reading | 5046 | ||
| Human Haptics | 5048 | ||
| Haptic Perception of Surface and Object Properties | 5048 | ||
| Roughness | 5048 | ||
| Compliance | 5048 | ||
| Thermal | 5048 | ||
| Weight | 5048 | ||
| Curvature, Angle, and Orientation (Tilt) | 5049 | ||
| Shape of Two- and Three-Dimensional Forms Larger than a Fingertip | 5049 | ||
| Size | 5050 | ||
| Haptic Space Perception by Sighted and Blind Observers | 5050 | ||
| Haptic Recognition of Objects | 5050 | ||
| Role of Hand Movements | 5050 | ||
| Relative precision of information | 5052 | ||
| Breadth of property information | 5052 | ||
| Duration | 5052 | ||
| Co-executability | 5052 | ||
| Implications for Haptic Object Classification | 5052 | ||
| Consequences of Constraining Manual Exploration in Space and/or Time | 5053 | ||
| Spatial constraints | 5054 | ||
| Temporal constraints | 5054 | ||
| Applications | 5055 | ||
| Further Reading | 5055 | ||
| Human Methods: Psychophysics | 5056 | ||
| Introduction | 5056 | ||
| Theoretical Concepts | 5056 | ||
| Representation of Information | 5056 | ||
| Relationship to the Goal of Psychophysics | 5057 | ||
| Psychophysical Methodologies | 5057 | ||
| Detection Experiments | 5057 | ||
| The Yes/No method | 5058 | ||
| m-Interval forced-choice method | 5061 | ||
| Vigilance paradigm | 5062 | ||
| Tracking techniques | 5062 | ||
| Discrimination Experiments | 5062 | ||
| Scaling Experiments | 5062 | ||
| Further Reading | 5063 | ||
| Humans | 5066 | ||
| Stimulus Overload and Working Memory | 5066 | ||
| Encoding Memories | 5067 | ||
| Selecting Semantic Memory | 5068 | ||
| Retrieving Autobiographical Memories | 5069 | ||
| A Board of Executives | 5070 | ||
| Further Reading | 5070 | ||
| Huntington's Disease | 5072 | ||
| Further Reading | 5074 | ||
| Huntington's Disease: Neurodegeneration | 5076 | ||
| Huntington's Disease | 5076 | ||
| Neurodegeneration in HD | 5076 | ||
| Neurodegeneration in In Vitro Models of HD | 5077 | ||
| Neurodegeneration in In Vivo Models of HD | 5077 | ||
| Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration in HD | 5079 | ||
| Conclusion | 5080 | ||
| Further Reading | 5081 | ||
| Hyperacuity | 5082 | ||
| Acuity | 5082 | ||
| Better Than Acuity | 5082 | ||
| General Considerations | 5086 | ||
| Auditory, Tactile and Other Senses | 5086 | ||
| Further Reading | 5086 | ||
| Hypocretin/Orexin and MCH and Receptors | 5088 | ||
| Discovery | 5088 | ||
| Structure | 5088 | ||
| Distribution | 5088 | ||
| Receptors and Signaling Cascades | 5089 | ||
| Input/Output | 5090 | ||
| Biological Actions within the Brain | 5090 | ||
| Feeding and Metabolism | 5090 | ||
| Motivation and Addiction | 5092 | ||
| Arousal | 5092 | ||
| Rodent models | 5092 | ||
| Human narcolepsy | 5092 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 5093 | ||
| Further Reading | 5093 | ||
| Hypothalamic Structure-Function Relationships | 5094 | ||
| Introduction | 5094 | ||
| Functional Organization of the Hypothalamus | 5094 | ||
| Hypothalamic Influences upon the Temporal Organization of Behavior | 5095 | ||
| Hypothalamic Regulation of Reproductive Function | 5098 | ||
| Hypothalamic Regulation of Feeding | 5100 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 5101 | ||
| Further Reading | 5101 | ||
| Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis | 5102 | ||
| The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis | 5102 | ||
| The Paraventricular Nucleus of the Hypothalamus | 5102 | ||
| Pituitary Corticotropes | 5102 | ||
| Adrenal Zona Fasciculata | 5102 | ||
| CBG (Transcortin) Binding | 5102 | ||
| Inhibition of the HPA Axis by GC | 5103 | ||
| Distinctive HPA Axis Drivers | 5103 | ||
| Periodic/Circadian Drivers of the HPA Axis | 5103 | ||
| The suprachiasmatic nuclei | 5103 | ||
| The food-entrainable oscillator | 5104 | ||
| Homeostatic Inflow: Systemically Responsive Networks Driving the HPA Axis | 5105 | ||
| The arcuate NPY/melanocortin system | 5105 | ||
| Systemic threats: The medullary NE/E/NPY system | 5105 | ||
| The Hypothalamic Visceromotor Pattern Generator | 5106 | ||
| Psychogenic Networks Driving the HPA Axis | 5107 | ||
| GCs in Central Motive States and Central Plasticity | 5108 | ||
| Corticotropin-Releasing Factor | 5108 | ||
| Norepinephrine | 5108 | ||
| Dopamine | 5109 | ||
| Endogenous Opioid Peptides | 5109 | ||
| Memory | 5109 | ||
| Neuronal Remodeling | 5110 | ||
| Conclusion | 5110 | ||
| Further Reading | 5110 | ||
| Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis: Organization, Neural/ Endocrine Control of TRH | 5112 | ||
| Introduction | 5112 | ||
| Biosynthesis and Processing of TRH | 5112 | ||
| TRH Gene and Promoter Regulation | 5112 | ||
| Anatomical Organization and Central Mediators of the Hypothalamic TRH Tuberoinfundibular System | 5116 | ||
| Feedback Regulation of Hypophysiotropic TRH by Thyroid Hormone | 5118 | ||
| Regulation of Hypophysiotropic TRH by Cold Exposure and Suckling | 5120 | ||
| Regulation of Hypophysiotropic TRH by Fasting and Infection (Nonthyroidal Illness Syndrome) | 5120 | ||
| Further Reading | 5123 | ||
| Relevant Website | 5124 | ||
| I | 5126 | ||
| Ideal Observer Theory | 5126 | ||
| Introduction | 5126 | ||
| Defining the Ideal Observer | 5126 | ||
| The Generative Model | 5126 | ||
| The Task Requirements | 5127 | ||
| Optimal Action or Decision Rule | 5127 | ||
| Applications of Ideal Observer Theory | 5128 | ||
| Examples of Ideal Observer Analysis | 5128 | ||
| Signal Detection | 5128 | ||
| The generative model | 5128 | ||
| The task | 5129 | ||
| The optimal decision rule | 5129 | ||
| How to compare test and ideal observers? | 5130 | ||
| Estimation | 5130 | ||
| The generative model | 5130 | ||
| The task | 5130 | ||
| The optimal decision rule | 5131 | ||
| How to compare test and ideal observers? | 5131 | ||
| Related Areas | 5132 | ||
| Further Reading | 5132 | ||
| Imaging Studies Using Reporter-Gene Transgenic Rats | 5134 | ||
| Introduction | 5134 | ||
| Reporter Genes | 5134 | ||
| LacZ (beta-Galactosidase) | 5134 | ||
| Green Fluorescent Protein and Spectral Variants | 5134 | ||
| Luciferase | 5134 | ||
| Transgenic Animals Carrying a Reporter Gene | 5135 | ||
| Establishment of Transgenic Animals | 5135 | ||
| Tissue-Specific Promoters | 5135 | ||
| Ubiquitous Promoters | 5135 | ||
| Tracking of Green Fluorescent Protein- Labeled Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells | 5135 | ||
| In Vivo Tracking of Luciferase-Labeled Cells | 5138 | ||
| Imaging Studies Using Dual-Reporter Genes | 5139 | ||
| Further Reading | 5139 | ||
| Immune Function During Sleep and Sleep Deprivation | 5140 | ||
| Context and Questions | 5140 | ||
| Sleep Responds to Experimental Immune Challenge | 5140 | ||
| Animal Models | 5140 | ||
| Human Models | 5140 | ||
| Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Host Defense | 5141 | ||
| Animal Models | 5141 | ||
| Normal Rhythms of Immune-Active Cells and Modulating Hormones in Humans | 5142 | ||
| Sleep Deprivation in Humans | 5142 | ||
| Further Reading | 5144 | ||
| Immune System-Neuroendocrine Interactions | 5146 | ||
| Introduction | 5146 | ||
| Possible Pathways by Which Circulating IL-1beta Signals the Brain | 5146 | ||
| Biosynthesis of PGs | 5147 | ||
| PGE2 Sites of Action | 5148 | ||
| Functional Circuits by Intraparenchymal PGE2 | 5149 | ||
| Alternative Pathways | 5150 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 5152 | ||
| Further Reading | 5152 | ||
| Induced Seizures as Therapy in Man | 5154 | ||
| History | 5154 | ||
| Indications | 5155 | ||
| Depressive Mood Disorders | 5155 | ||
| Melancholia | 5155 | ||
| Delusional (psychotic) depression | 5155 | ||
| Pseudodementia (reversible dementia) | 5156 | ||
| e9780080446172v6 | 6231 | ||
| Front Cover | 6231 | ||
| Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | 6232 | ||
| Copyright Page | 6235 | ||
| Senior Editors | 6236 | ||
| Associate Editors | 6238 | ||
| Table of Contents | 6242 | ||
| Foreword | 6248 | ||
| Preface | 6250 | ||
| Volume 6 | 6252 | ||
| N | 6252 | ||
| Napping | 6252 | ||
| Introduction | 6252 | ||
| Definitions and Demographics of Napping | 6252 | ||
| What Is a Nap? | 6252 | ||
| Changes in Napping Behaviors across the Life Span | 6252 | ||
| Is Napping a Natural Part of Our Circadian Rhythm? | 6253 | ||
| Timing of Naps | 6253 | ||
| Physiological Evidence for 'Nap Zone' | 6253 | ||
| Behavioral Markers for the 'Nap' Zone | 6254 | ||
| What Is the Function of Naps? | 6255 | ||
| Sleepiness versus Fatigue Countermeasures | 6255 | ||
| Napping in Sleep-Deprived Conditions | 6255 | ||
| Cognitive Benefits of Napping Linked to Specific Stages of Sleep | 6256 | ||
| Summary | 6256 | ||
| Further Reading | 6257 | ||
| Relevant Website | 6257 | ||
| Narcolepsy | 6258 | ||
| What Is Narcolepsy? | 6258 | ||
| Narcolepsy Symptoms | 6258 | ||
| Dissociated REM Sleep in Narcolepsy | 6258 | ||
| Genetic Predisposition to Narcolepsy- Cataplexy | 6259 | ||
| Narcolepsy-Cataplexy Is Tightly Associated with Hypocretin Deficiency | 6259 | ||
| Neurobiology of the Hypocretin Systems and Relevance to Narcolepsy | 6259 | ||
| Is Narcolepsy an Autoimmune Disorder? | 6262 | ||
| Narcolepsy without Cataplexy | 6263 | ||
| Therapies for Narcolepsy | 6264 | ||
| Perspectives for New Treatments | 6265 | ||
| Further Reading | 6265 | ||
| Natriuretic Peptides | 6266 | ||
| Introduction | 6266 | ||
| Natriuretic Peptides in the CNS | 6266 | ||
| ANF | 6266 | ||
| ANF and inflammation | 6266 | ||
| The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system and ANF | 6266 | ||
| ANF and alcohol withdrawal | 6267 | ||
| BNP | 6268 | ||
| CNP | 6268 | ||
| Further Reading | 6269 | ||
| Natural Images: Coding Efficiency | 6270 | ||
| Introduction | 6270 | ||
| Efficient for What Task? | 6270 | ||
| Defining Efficiency | 6271 | ||
| Representational Efficiency | 6271 | ||
| Correlation and Decorrelation | 6272 | ||
| Optimal Information Transfer | 6272 | ||
| Beyond Correlations: Sparseness and Independence | 6273 | ||
| Optimality with Nonlinear Systems | 6274 | ||
| Metabolic Efficiency | 6275 | ||
| Spike Efficiency | 6275 | ||
| Minimum Wiring | 6275 | ||
| Learning Efficiency | 6276 | ||
| Sparseness and Invariance | 6276 | ||
| Overcompleteness | 6276 | ||
| 'Hard-Coded' Efficiency | 6277 | ||
| Efficient Learning from the Environment | 6277 | ||
| Hybrid Strategies: Efficient Innate Learning | 6277 | ||
| Conclusion | 6278 | ||
| Further Reading | 6278 | ||
| Nausea and Vomiting | 6280 | ||
| Biological Significance | 6280 | ||
| Motor Components | 6281 | ||
| Preejection or Prodromal Phase | 6281 | ||
| Ejection Phase: Retching and Vomiting | 6281 | ||
| Coordination of the Motor Components | 6282 | ||
| Triggering the Emetic Reflex | 6282 | ||
| Gastrointestinal Afferents | 6282 | ||
| Area Postrema | 6282 | ||
| Vestibular system | 6283 | ||
| Nausea | 6283 | ||
| Anti-emetic Agents | 6284 | ||
| Further Reading | 6285 | ||
| Neglect Syndrome and the Spatial Attention Network | 6288 | ||
| The Neuropsychology of Neglect | 6288 | ||
| Spatial Attention Network in the Human Brain | 6290 | ||
| Functional Imaging of Spatial Attention | 6291 | ||
| Conclusions | 6291 | ||
| Further Reading | 6292 | ||
| Neocortex: Origins | 6294 | ||
| Introduction | 6294 | ||
| Historical Background | 6294 | ||
| Developmental and Genetic Evidence | 6295 | ||
| Reptilian Dorsal Cortex: Neocortical and Entorhinal/Subicular Features | 6296 | ||
| The Dorsalization Hypothesis | 6297 | ||
| Lamination of the Neocortex: The Preplate | 6297 | ||
| Origin of the Superficial Neocortical Layers and the Inside-Out Neurogenetic Gradient | 6298 | ||
| A Scenario for the Origin of Neocortical Lamination | 6299 | ||
| Final Comments | 6300 | ||
| Further Reading | 6301 | ||
| Neocortical Organization in Monotremes | 6302 | ||
| Introduction | 6302 | ||
| Gross Brain Morphology | 6302 | ||
| Somatosensory and Electrosensory Cortex | 6302 | ||
| Visual Cortex | 6305 | ||
| Auditory Cortex | 6307 | ||
| Motor Cortex | 6307 | ||
| Multimodal and Frontal Regions of Cortex | 6308 | ||
| Comparisons with Other Mammals | 6308 | ||
| Further Reading | 6310 | ||
| Neonatal Circuits | 6312 | ||
| Introduction | 6312 | ||
| Segmental and Spatial Distribution of the Pattern-Generating Circuitry in Neonatal Spinal Cord | 6312 | ||
| Sensory Pathway Interneurons and Pattern Generation in Neonatal Spinal Cord | 6312 | ||
| Specific Interneuronal Circuits | 6314 | ||
| Interneurons Involved in the Patterning of Motor Neuron Activity during Locomotion | 6318 | ||
| Further Reading | 6320 | ||
| Nerve Growth Factor | 6322 | ||
| Early History | 6322 | ||
| Neurotrophin Family | 6322 | ||
| Neurotrophin Receptors | 6322 | ||
| Neurotrophin Signaling | 6322 | ||
| TrkA Signaling | 6322 | ||
| p75 Signaling | 6323 | ||
| NGF and Development | 6323 | ||
| Axon Growth | 6323 | ||
| Cell Survival | 6323 | ||
| Postnatal Development | 6323 | ||
| Developmental Effects of Other Neurotrophins | 6324 | ||
| Biological Effects of NGF In Vivo: Nociception | 6324 | ||
| Mechanisms of Acute NGF-Induced Sensitization of Nociceptors | 6325 | ||
| Via trkA | 6325 | ||
| Via p75 | 6325 | ||
| Inflammation-Induced Release of NGF into Peripheral Tissues | 6326 | ||
| Long-Term Effects of NGF on Nociceptive Signaling | 6326 | ||
| The Effect of Other Neurotrophins and Glial- Derived Neurotrophic Factors on Peripheral Sensitization | 6327 | ||
| Neurotrophins, Central Sensitization, and Neuropathic Pain | 6327 | ||
| Effects of Neurotrophins on Axonal Growth in Adults | 6328 | ||
| Clinical Implications of Neurotrophin Biology | 6328 | ||
| Further Reading | 6329 | ||
| Network Control | 6330 | ||
| The Neuroanatomy of Breathing | 6330 | ||
| Respiratory Neurons | 6330 | ||
| Respiratory-Related Neurons | 6330 | ||
| Brain Stem Respiratory Neuron Groups | 6330 | ||
| Nucleus of the Solitary Tract and Dorsal Respiratory Group | 6330 | ||
| Ventral Respiratory Column | 6331 | ||
| Pontine Respiratory Group | 6332 | ||
| Mesencephalic Influences on Breathing | 6333 | ||
| Periaqueductal gray | 6333 | ||
| Forebrain influences on breathing | 6334 | ||
| Monoamine systems and breathing | 6335 | ||
| Respiratory Reflexes | 6336 | ||
| Receptors in the Nasal Passages and Pharynx | 6336 | ||
| Receptors in the Lower Airways | 6337 | ||
| Second- and Higher-Order Neurons in Respiratory Reflexes | 6338 | ||
| Central Pathways of Slowly Adapting Stretch Receptors | 6338 | ||
| Central Pathways of Rapidly Adapting Stretch Receptors | 6338 | ||
| Deflation-Activated Receptor-Mediated Reflexes | 6339 | ||
| Central Pathways of Peripheral Chemoreceptors | 6339 | ||
| Summary | 6339 | ||
| Further Reading | 6339 | ||
| Neural Cell Adhesion Molecules and Synapse Regulation | 6342 | ||
| The Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule | 6342 | ||
| N-CAM and Synaptic Plasticity | 6342 | ||
| N-CAM Is a Signal Transducer | 6344 | ||
| N-CAM Associates with and Reorganizes the Cytoskeleton | 6344 | ||
| Clustering of N-CAM Induces Signaling through Lipid Rafts | 6345 | ||
| N-CAM Activates Gene Transcription | 6346 | ||
| N-CAM Regulates Synapse Formation | 6346 | ||
| Dysfunction of N-CAM Leads to Psychiatric Disorders | 6347 | ||
| Further Reading | 6347 | ||
| Neural Circuitry in the Somatosensory System | 6348 | ||
| Somatosensory Circuits | 6348 | ||
| Ascending Somatosensory Pathways | 6348 | ||
| Time-Locked Neuronal Responses | 6348 | ||
| Local Inhibitory Circuits | 6348 | ||
| Somatosensory Neuronal Interactions | 6349 | ||
| Feed-Forward Transmission | 6349 | ||
| Thalamocortical Feed-Forward Interactions | 6350 | ||
| Somatotopic Influences | 6351 | ||
| Dynamic Interactions | 6351 | ||
| Neuronal Synchronization | 6351 | ||
| Thalamocortical Cooperativity | 6352 | ||
| Cortical Coordination | 6353 | ||
| Corticocortical Synchronization | 6353 | ||
| Corticocortical and Corticofugal Interactions | 6353 | ||
| Further Reading | 6354 | ||
| Neural Coding in Primary Motor Cortex | 6356 | ||
| Introduction | 6356 | ||
| Sensorimotor Transformations and Coordinate Frames | 6356 | ||
| Kinesiology of Reaching Movements | 6356 | ||
| Correlations Based on Single-Cell Activity | 6357 | ||
| Correlations Based on Population Codes | 6357 | ||
| Dissociation of Parameters | 6361 | ||
| Context-Dependent Change in Neural Coding | 6361 | ||
| Neural Coding in Premotor Cortex | 6362 | ||
| Beyond Neural Coding | 6362 | ||
| Further Reading | 6366 | ||
| Neural Coding of Spatial Representations | 6368 | ||
| Neuronal Signals That Encode Spatial Location | 6368 | ||
| Receptive Field Properties | 6368 | ||
| Areas That Specialize in Spatial Processing | 6368 | ||
| The Precision of Spatial Representations in the Brain | 6369 | ||
| Tuning Curve Width and Optimal Sensory Coding | 6369 | ||
| Tuning Curve Width and Motor Constraints | 6370 | ||
| Reference Frames in the Cortex | 6371 | ||
| References for Sensory Responses | 6371 | ||
| References for Motor Responses | 6371 | ||
| Changing Reference Frames | 6371 | ||
| Keeping Objects Separate | 6372 | ||
| Further Reading | 6373 | ||
| Neural Crest | 6374 | ||
| Introduction | 6374 | ||
| Induction and EMT | 6374 | ||
| Cranial Neural Crest | 6377 | ||
| Vagal Neural Crest | 6380 | ||
| Cardiac Neural Crest | 6380 | ||
| Enteric Nervous System | 6380 | ||
| Trunk Neural Crest | 6381 | ||
| Ventral Pathway | 6382 | ||
| Dorsolateral Pathway | 6383 | ||
| Sacral Neural Crest Cells | 6383 | ||
| Plasticity of Trunk Neural Crest Cells | 6383 | ||
| Conclusion | 6384 | ||
| Further Reading | 6384 | ||
| Neural Crest Cell Diversification and Specification: ErbB Role | 6386 | ||
| Components of the NRG-E rbB Signaling System | 6386 | ||
| NRG1-ErbB Signaling Regulates SC Lineage Development | 6387 | ||
| NRG1-ErbB Signaling as a Master Regulator of Myelination in the Peripheral Nervous System | 6388 | ||
| ErbB Signaling in the Mature Peripheral Nervous System and in Pathological Conditions | 6391 | ||
| Future Research | 6392 | ||
| Further Reading | 6393 | ||
| Neural Crest Cell Diversification and Specification: Melanocytes | 6394 | ||
| Introduction | 6394 | ||
| Development of Melanocytes | 6394 | ||
| Melanoblast Specification: The Interplay between Signaling Pathways and Transcription Regulation | 6395 | ||
| Melanoblast Specification: Cell Number and Location | 6398 | ||
| Melanoblast Survival, Proliferation, and Migration | 6399 | ||
| Melanoblast Differentiation | 6400 | ||
| Adult Melanocyte Stem Cells | 6400 | ||
| Further Reading | 6401 | ||
| Relevant Website | 6402 | ||
| Neural Crest Diversification and Specification: Transcriptional Control of Schwann Cell Differentiation | 6404 | ||
| The Role of Transcription Factors in the Schwann Cell Lineage | 6404 | ||
| Transcriptional Control of Schwann Cell Specification | 6404 | ||
| Hooked on Neuregulins: The Schwann Cell Precursor | 6404 | ||
| Molting into an Immature Schwann Cell | 6405 | ||
| Maintaining the Immature State | 6405 | ||
| Choosing between Two Alternative Fates during Terminal Differentiation | 6405 | ||
| Triggering Myelination by Axonal Signals | 6406 | ||
| Escorting Schwann Cells into the Myelinating Stage | 6406 | ||
| Finalizing Myelination | 6407 | ||
| Regulating Myelin Gene Expression | 6407 | ||
| Open Questions | 6408 | ||
| Further Reading | 6408 | ||
| Neural Induction in Chicks | 6410 | ||
| Introduction - Neural Induction as a Complex Process | 6410 | ||
| The Timing of Neural Induction | 6412 | ||
| Not Just a Decision between Neural Plate and Epidermis | 6414 | ||
| Conclusions - Neural Induction Is Not Yet a Solved Problem | 6414 | ||
| Further Reading | 6415 | ||
| Neural Integrator Models | 6416 | ||
| Introduction | 6416 | ||
| From Concepts to Cellular Mechanisms | 6418 | ||
| Diversity of Model Scenarios | 6420 | ||
| Network Integrator Models | 6420 | ||
| Rate code | 6420 | ||
| Location code | 6422 | ||
| Single Neuron Integrator Models | 6423 | ||
| Hybrid Models Incorporating Synaptic Feedback and Intrinsic Bistability | 6425 | ||
| Accumulation of Information versus Graded Memory | 6427 | ||
| Challenges and Future Directions | 6427 | ||
| Further Reading | 6429 | ||
| Neural Oscillators and Dynamical Systems Models | 6430 | ||
| Introduction | 6430 | ||
| Equilibria | 6430 | ||
| Limit Cycles | 6435 | ||
| Summary | 6438 | ||
| Further Reading | 6438 | ||
| Neural Patterning: Arealization of the Cortex | 6440 | ||
| Introduction | 6440 | ||
| Putting the Neocortex in Its Place | 6440 | ||
| Corticogenesis | 6441 | ||
| Areas Differentiate within a 'Uniform' Cortical Plate Characterized by Exuberant Distribution of Projection Neurons | 6441 | ||
| Cytoarchitecture and Exuberant Projection Neurons | 6442 | ||
| Area-Specific Thalamocortical Afferent Input and Potential Roles in Area Patterning | 6443 | ||
| Indirect Evidence for Intrinsic Genetic Regulation of Area Identity | 6443 | ||
| Roles for Morphogens and Transcription Factors in Control of Area Identity | 6443 | ||
| Intrinsic Control of Area Identity by Differential Expression of Transcription Factors in Cortical Progenitors | 6444 | ||
| Emx2 | 6444 | ||
| COUP-TFI | 6444 | ||
| Pax6 | 6444 | ||
| Sp8 | 6444 | ||
| Interactions between regulatory genes in controlling area patterning | 6445 | ||
| Morphogens/Signaling Molecules Establish Graded Patterns of Transcription Factor Expression in Cortical Progenitors | 6445 | ||
| FGF8 | 6445 | ||
| Wnts and BMPs | 6445 | ||
| Anteroposterior Patterning of the Cerebral Cortex: Are Arealization and Regionalization Related? | 6446 | ||
| Translation of Graded Expression of TFs by Cortical Progenitors and Their CP Progeny into Sharp Borders Exhibited by Cortical A | 6446 | ||
| What Is 'Area Identity'? | 6447 | ||
| Further Reading | 6448 | ||
| Neural Patterning: Eye Fields | 6450 | ||
| Introduction | 6450 | ||
| Retinal Patterning along the A-P Axis | 6450 | ||
| Retinal Patterning along the D-V Axis at the Early Stages | 6452 | ||
| Retinal Patterning along the D-V Axis at the Later Stages | 6453 | ||
| Other Aspects of Retinal Patterning | 6454 | ||
| Further Reading | 6455 | ||
| Neural Patterning: Midbrain-Hindbrain Boundary | 6456 | ||
| Neural Induction and Posteriorization | 6456 | ||
| Positioning of the Brain Primordia | 6456 | ||
| Function of Local Organizers | 6458 | ||
| Boundaries and Lineage Restriction | 6459 | ||
| First Step in Competence: Integration of the Signal by the Surrounding Tissue | 6459 | ||
| A Further Aspect of Competence: Predetermination of Cellular Fate | 6460 | ||
| Functional Range of Organizers Is Determined by the Receiving Field | 6461 | ||
| Further Reading | 6462 | ||
| Neural Prostheses for Reaching | 6464 | ||
| Introduction | 6464 | ||
| Progress in Neural Prostheses | 6464 | ||
| Decoding Cognitive Motor Signals | 6464 | ||
| Fast Decoding | 6466 | ||
| Clinical Applications | 6467 | ||
| Electrode Design and Biocompatibility | 6468 | ||
| Decoding from Local Field Potential Signals | 6469 | ||
| Conclusions | 6470 | ||
| Further Reading | 6471 | ||
| Neural Repair and Regeneration: Inflammatory Mechanisms and Cytokines | 6472 | ||
| Introduction | 6472 | ||
| Cytokines | 6472 | ||
| Microglia | 6472 | ||
| Astroglia | 6473 | ||
| The Role of Adaptive Immunity in Regulating the Glial Inflammatory Response | 6473 | ||
| Excitoxicity and Adaptive Immunity | 6474 | ||
| Regulation of Cytokine Release: Intensity and Timing | 6474 | ||
| Astroglial Scar Formation | 6475 | ||
| Central Nervous System Pathologies Associated with a Beneficial Inflammatory Response | 6475 | ||
| Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity | 6475 | ||
| Neuronal Survival | 6475 | ||
| Remyelination | 6476 | ||
| Axogenesis and Synaptogenesis | 6477 | ||
| Neurogenesis | 6477 | ||
| Further Reading | 6477 | ||
| Neural Stem Cells and CNS Diseases | 6480 | ||
| Introduction | 6480 | ||
| Neural Stem Cell Biology | 6480 | ||
| Definition of NSCs | 6480 | ||
| Stem Cell Niche and Function of NSCs in the Developing and Adult CNS | 6480 | ||
| Isolation, and Propagation of Murine and Human NSCs | 6481 | ||
| NSCs and CNS Repair | 6482 | ||
| Sources of NSCs for CNS Repair | 6482 | ||
| Identification and Fate of Donor NSCs in the CNS | 6483 | ||
| Properties of NSCs for CNS Therapy | 6483 | ||
| Representative Therapeutic Uses | 6483 | ||
| NSC therapy for globally affected CNS diseases | 6483 | ||
| NSC therapy in locally affected CNS disorders | 6487 | ||
| Future Needs and Directions | 6487 | ||
| Further Reading | 6488 | ||
| Neural Stem Cells: Adult Neurogenesis | 6490 | ||
| Introduction | 6490 | ||
| Location of Adult NSCs in the Mammalian Brain | 6490 | ||
| Identity of Adult NSCs | 6492 | ||
| Identification of NSCs by Cell Division Markers | 6492 | ||
| Identification of NSCs by Molecular Markers | 6492 | ||
| Identification of NSCs by Genetic Methods | 6493 | ||
| Regulation of Adult NSCs | 6493 | ||
| Extracellular Influences | 6493 | ||
| Intracellular Signaling | 6494 | ||
| The Function of Adult NSCs | 6495 | ||
| Conclusion | 6495 | ||
| Further Reading | 6496 | ||
| Neural Stem Cells: Ocular | 6498 | ||
| Introduction | 6498 | ||
| Retinal Progenitors in Normal Development | 6498 | ||
| Retinal Stem Cells in the Ciliary Marginal Zone | 6499 | ||
| Additional Sources of Retinal Stem and Progenitor Cells | 6500 | ||
| The Pigmented Epithelium | 6500 | ||
| The Ciliary Epithelium | 6500 | ||
| Intrinsic Stem Cells, Rod Precursors, and Muumlller Glia | 6501 | ||
| Further Reading | 6502 | ||
| Neural Synchrony and Feature Binding | 6504 | ||
| Synchrony as Tag of Relatedness | 6505 | ||
| The Role of Oscillations and Spike Synchronization | 6506 | ||
| The Duration of Synchronized Events | 6506 | ||
| Synchrony and Feature Binding | 6506 | ||
| The Role of Attention | 6507 | ||
| Oscillations and Read-Out | 6508 | ||
| Conclusions | 6509 | ||
| Further Reading | 6509 | ||
| Neurexins | 6512 | ||
| Gene Structure | 6512 | ||
| Protein Structure | 6512 | ||
| Interaction Partners | 6513 | ||
| Extracellular Binding Partners | 6513 | ||
| Intracellular Binding Partners | 6513 | ||
| Expression | 6514 | ||
| Function of Neurexins | 6515 | ||
| Role of Neurexins in Synaptic Transmission | 6515 | ||
| Role of Neurexins in Synaptogenesis | 6515 | ||
| Presynaptic assembly | 6516 | ||
| Postsynaptic assembly | 6516 | ||
| Development of synapse specificity | 6516 | ||
| Synaptic cell adhesion | 6518 | ||
| Clinical Aspects of the Neurexin- Neuroligin Complex | 6518 | ||
| Further Reading | 6518 | ||
| Neuroanatomy Methods in Humans and Animals | 6520 | ||
| Classical Histochemical Techniques | 6520 | ||
| Modern Molecular Techniques | 6522 | ||
| Confocal Microscopy | 6523 | ||
| Quantitative Studies of the Nervous System | 6524 | ||
| Intracellular Techniques and Three- Dimensional Reconstruction of Individual Cells | 6525 | ||
| Neuroanatomical Tract-Tracing Techniques | 6526 | ||
| Electron Microscopy | 6528 | ||
| Live Imaging Techniques | 6529 | ||
| Further Reading | 6529 | ||
| Neurodegeneration in Psychiatric Illness | 6530 | ||
| Definitions and Research Limitations | 6530 | ||
| Evidence for Neurodegeneration in Psychiatric Illness | 6530 | ||
| Clinical Course | 6530 | ||
| Schizophrenia | 6530 | ||
| Bipolar disorder and major depression | 6530 | ||
| Neuroimaging | 6531 | ||
| Postmortem Neuropathological Findings | 6532 | ||
| Schizophrenia | 6532 | ||
| Unipolar depression and bipolar disorders | 6532 | ||
| Classic neurodegeneration and depression | 6533 | ||
| Preclinical Data | 6533 | ||
| Animal Models for Psychiatric Disorders | 6533 | ||
| Psychosis and mania | 6533 | ||
| Depression | 6533 | ||
| Neuroprotective Effects | 6533 | ||
| Neurotrophic Effects | 6534 | ||
| Summary | 6534 | ||
| Further Reading | 6534 | ||
| Neuroeconomics: History | 6536 | ||
| Overview | 6536 | ||
| Critical First Steps | 6537 | ||
| Landmark Papers | 6537 | ||
| Summary | 6540 | ||
| Further Reading | 6541 | ||
| Neuroendocrine Aging: Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis in Women | 6542 | ||
| Introduction | 6542 | ||
| Overview of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary -Ovarian Axis in Young Women | 6542 | ||
| Ovarian Aging and the Menopausal Transition | 6542 | ||
| Effects of Ovarian Failure on the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis | 6544 | ||
| Effects of Menopause on Neuronal Morphology and Neuropeptide Gene Expression in the Human Hypothalamus | 6545 | ||
| Aging of the Reproductive Neuroendocrine Axis, Independent of the Effects of Gonadal Status | 6547 | ||
| Summary | 6547 | ||
| Further Reading | 6547 | ||
| Neuroendocrine Aging: Pituitary Metabolism | 6550 | ||
| Overview | 6550 | ||
| GH and IGF-1 | 6551 | ||
| Invertebrate Studies | 6551 | ||
| Mammalian Studies: Background | 6551 | ||
| Effects of Age on the GH/IGF-1 Axis | 6552 | ||
| Actions of GH and IGF-1 in Older Animals | 6553 | ||
| Animal Models of GH/IGF-1 Excess and Deficiency | 6553 | ||
| Insulin and Glucose Regulation | 6555 | ||
| Endocrine Effects of Moderate Caloric Restriction: Interactions with Insulin and IGF-1 | 6556 | ||
| Prolactin | 6556 | ||
| Basic Regulation and Actions | 6556 | ||
| Prolactin Secretion and Aging | 6557 | ||
| TSH: Tri-iodothyronine, Thyroxine, and Thyroid Function | 6557 | ||
| Conclusions | 6558 | ||
| Further Reading | 6558 | ||
| Neuroendocrine Aging: Pituitary-Adrenal Axis | 6560 | ||
| Introduction | 6560 | ||
| HPA Axis and Glucocorticoids | 6560 | ||
| Glucocorticoid Cascade Hypothesis | 6560 | ||
| HPA Axis in Aging Rodents | 6560 | ||
| HPA Axis Pulsatility | 6561 | ||
| Glucocorticoid Feedback | 6562 | ||
| Brain Corticosteroid Receptors | 6562 | ||
| Corticosteroid Receptor Balance and Aging | 6562 | ||
| Modulation of Brain Corticosteroid Receptors and HPA Axis: Implications for Aging | 6563 | ||
| Glucocorticoids and Aging: Mechanisms | 6564 | ||
| Age-Related Changes during Hypercorticism: The Relevance of Context | 6564 | ||
| Possible Mechanisms Underlying Glucocorticoid-Related Damage | 6564 | ||
| HPA Axis, Aging, and Age-Related Pathology in Humans | 6565 | ||
| Future Directions | 6566 | ||
| Further Reading | 6566 | ||
| Relevant Website | 6566 | ||
| Neuroendocrine Aging: Pituitary-Gonadal Axis in Males | 6568 | ||
| Overview | 6568 | ||
| Rate of Evolution and Extent of Relative Hypoandrogenemia in Older Men | 6568 | ||
| Mechanistic Bases of Testosterone Depletion | 6569 | ||
| Putative Pathophysiological Mechanisms in the Aging Male | 6569 | ||
| Hypothalamic GnRH Deficiency in Older Men | 6569 | ||
| Enhanced Gonadotrope Secretory Responsiveness to Small Amounts of GnRH | 6571 | ||
| Impaired Leydig Cell Steroidogenesis in Older Men | 6571 | ||
| Aging Restricts Feedback by Endogenous Testosterone on GnRH and LH Secretion | 6572 | ||
| FSH and Inhibin B | 6572 | ||
| Prolactin | 6573 | ||
| Neurohormonal Network Regulation in Aging Men | 6574 | ||
| Summary | 6576 | ||
| Further Reading | 6576 | ||
| Neuroendocrine Control of Energy Balance (Central Circuits/ Mechanisms) | 6578 | ||
| Key Hormonal Signals | 6578 | ||
| Leptin | 6578 | ||
| Insulin | 6580 | ||
| Ghrelin | 6580 | ||
| Peptide YY | 6580 | ||
| Glucagon-like Peptide 1 | 6580 | ||
| Metabolic Signals | 6581 | ||
| Neurotransmitters | 6581 | ||
| Serotonin | 6581 | ||
| Dopamine | 6582 | ||
| Further Reading | 6582 | ||
| Neuroendocrine Control: Maternal Behavior | 6584 | ||
| Introduction | 6584 | ||
| Measurement of Maternal Behavior | 6584 | ||
| Developmental Aspects of Maternal Behavior | 6584 | ||
| Hormonal Regulation of Maternal Behavior | 6585 | ||
| Steroid Hormones | 6585 | ||
| Estradiol | 6585 | ||
| Progesterone - 'Priming and timing' | 6586 | ||
| Protein Hormones | 6587 | ||
| Prolactin/placental lactogens | 6587 | ||
| Neural Basis of Maternal Behavior | 6587 | ||
| Neural Network of Maternal Behavior | 6587 | ||
| Neural Underpinnings of Maternal Aggression | 6588 | ||
| Hormone-Brain Interactions | 6588 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Systems | 6589 | ||
| Pup-Directed Maternal Behavior | 6589 | ||
| Maternal Aggression | 6590 | ||
| Genes and Motherhood | 6591 | ||
| Null Mutations | 6591 | ||
| Parent of Origin Effects | 6591 | ||
| Epigenetic Transmission of Maternal Behavior | 6591 | ||
| Experimental Modifications of Maternal Behavior | 6591 | ||
| Maternal Memory | 6591 | ||
| Reproductive Experience and Maternal Behavior | 6592 | ||
| Further Reading | 6593 | ||
| Neuroendocrine Peptide Processing | 6594 | ||
| Introduction | 6594 | ||
| The Proprotein Convertase Gene Family | 6594 | ||
| Neural and Endocrine Functions of the Proprotein Convertases | 6596 | ||
| Neuroendocrine Convertases PC1/3 and PC2 | 6596 | ||
| Ubiquitous Convertases Furin, PC7, and SKI-1/S1P | 6598 | ||
| Convertases PC5/6 and PACE4 | 6600 | ||
| Convertase PCSK9 (Originally Named NARC-1) | 6600 | ||
| Summary | 6601 | ||
| Further Reading | 6601 | ||
| Neuroendocrinology | 6602 | ||
| Further Reading | 6604 | ||
| Neuroendocrinology of Affective Disorders | 6606 | ||
| Introduction | 6606 | ||
| Corticotropin-Releasing Factor in Depression and Anxiety Disorders | 6606 | ||
| Basic Biology | 6606 | ||
| HPA Axis Abnormalities in Depression | 6607 | ||
| Extrahypothalamic CRF and Depression | 6609 | ||
| CRF and Anxiety Disorders | 6610 | ||
| Glucocorticoid Receptor Antagonists and Depression | 6610 | ||
| The HPA Axis in Depression and Anxiety: Conclusions | 6610 | ||
| Thyrotropin-Releasing Factor, the Hypothalamic-Pituitary -Thyroid Axis, and Depression | 6611 | ||
| Biology | 6611 | ||
| Psychiatric Manifestations of Thyroid Dysfunction | 6611 | ||
| TRH and TSH in Depression | 6611 | ||
| Bipolar Disorder and HPT Abnormalities | 6612 | ||
| Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Alterations in Anxiety Disorders | 6612 | ||
| Growth Hormone and Somatostatin | 6613 | ||
| Biology | 6613 | ||
| GH and Affective Disorders | 6613 | ||
| Somatostatin and Psychiatric Disorders | 6614 | ||
| Hypothalamic-Prolactin Axis | 6614 | ||
| Biology | 6614 | ||
| Prolactin-Releasing Factor | 6614 | ||
| PRL and Psychiatric Disorders | 6614 | ||
| Arginine-Vasopressin | 6615 | ||
| Biology | 6615 | ||
| AVP in Anxiety and Depression | 6615 | ||
| Oxytocin | 6616 | ||
| Biology | 6616 | ||
| Oxytocin and Psychiatric Disorders | 6616 | ||
| Clinical Implications and Conclusions | 6616 | ||
| Further Reading | 6617 | ||
| Neuroendocrinology of Puberty | 6618 | ||
| General Concepts | 6618 | ||
| The Hypothalamic-Pituitary -Gonadal Axis | 6618 | ||
| Central Role of the GnRH Neuron | 6618 | ||
| Transsynaptic Control of the GnRH Neuronal Network | 6620 | ||
| Classical Inhibitory Neurotransmission | 6620 | ||
| GABA | 6620 | ||
| Opioid peptides | 6620 | ||
| Classical Excitatory Neurotransmission | 6620 | ||
| Glutamate | 6620 | ||
| Catecholamines | 6621 | ||
| Neuropeptide Y | 6621 | ||
| The Novel Kisspeptin-GPR 54 Signaling System | 6621 | ||
| Glial Control of the GnRH Neuronal Network | 6621 | ||
| Glial Growth Factors | 6622 | ||
| Glutamate | 6623 | ||
| Small Bioactive Molecules | 6623 | ||
| Neuron-to-Glia Communication | 6623 | ||
| Transcriptional Control of the Onset of Puberty | 6623 | ||
| An Integrated View | 6625 | ||
| Further Reading | 6626 | ||
| Neuroendocrinology of Social/Affiliative Behavior | 6628 | ||
| Introduction | 6628 | ||
| Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Neuropeptides of Affiliation | 6628 | ||
| Social Recognition in Rodents | 6628 | ||
| Neuroendocrine Control of Parental Behavior in Rodents | 6629 | ||
| Maternal Care in Rats and Mice | 6629 | ||
| Spontaneous Maternal Care in Prairie Voles | 6630 | ||
| Paternal Care | 6630 | ||
| Social Bonding | 6631 | ||
| Mother-Infant Bonding in Sheep | 6631 | ||
| Pair Bonding in Monogamous Prairie Voles | 6631 | ||
| Implications for Human Social Behavior | 6633 | ||
| Conclusions | 6633 | ||
| Further Reading | 6634 | ||
| Neuroethics | 6636 | ||
| Introduction | 6636 | ||
| History | 6636 | ||
| Features of the Nervous System with Ethical Implications | 6636 | ||
| Structure of Neuroethics | 6637 | ||
| Conduct of Neuroscience Research | 6637 | ||
| Clinical research | 6638 | ||
| Basic research | 6638 | ||
| Bias in research | 6638 | ||
| Application of Research Findings | 6639 | ||
| Who, why, and how | 6639 | ||
| Brain-computer interfaces | 6640 | ||
| Neurobiology of Ethics | 6641 | ||
| Conclusion | 6641 | ||
| Further Reading | 6642 | ||
| Neuroethological Perspective | 6644 | ||
| Introduction | 6644 | ||
| The Economics of Natural Behavior | 6644 | ||
| Neurobiology of Reward and Decision Making | 6645 | ||
| Uncertainty and Decision Making | 6646 | ||
| Social Rewards in Primates | 6648 | ||
| Social Games | 6649 | ||
| Conclusion | 6650 | ||
| Further Reading | 6650 | ||
| Neurofibromatosis Type 1 | 6652 | ||
| Introduction | 6652 | ||
| NF1 Phenotype | 6652 | ||
| Diagnostic Criteria | 6652 | ||
| Tumors | 6652 | ||
| Nontumor Manifestations | 6653 | ||
| Genetics of NF1 | 6655 | ||
| Genetic Transmission | 6655 | ||
| Segmental NF1 and Mosaicism | 6655 | ||
| NF1 Gene Mutations | 6655 | ||
| Genotype-Phenotype Correlations | 6655 | ||
| Variable Expression | 6655 | ||
| Pathophysiology of NF1 | 6656 | ||
| Function of Neurofibromin | 6656 | ||
| NF1 Is a Tumor Suppressor Gene | 6656 | ||
| Management of NF1 | 6656 | ||
| Surveillance | 6656 | ||
| Treatment of Manifestations | 6657 | ||
| Further Reading | 6658 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6658 | ||
| Neurofibromatosis Type 1: Molecular and Cellular Biology | 6660 | ||
| Introduction | 6660 | ||
| Clinical Aspects | 6660 | ||
| Diagnostic Criteria | 6660 | ||
| Cafeacute-au-lait spots | 6661 | ||
| Neurofibromas | 6661 | ||
| Intertriginous freckling | 6661 | ||
| Optic pathway tumors | 6661 | ||
| Lisch nodules | 6661 | ||
| Distinctive osseous lesion | 6661 | ||
| Family history of NF1 | 6662 | ||
| Medical Complications | 6662 | ||
| Genetic Principles and NF1 | 6662 | ||
| Variable Expressivity | 6662 | ||
| Penetrance | 6662 | ||
| Pleiotropy/Mosaicism/Mutation | 6663 | ||
| Molecular Biology of NF1 | 6663 | ||
| Gene Cloning | 6663 | ||
| Gene Structure | 6663 | ||
| Neurofibromin Function | 6664 | ||
| Gene Expression | 6665 | ||
| Pathophysiology of NF1 | 6665 | ||
| Genotype-Phenotype Relationships | 6666 | ||
| The Role of NF1 in Tumorigenesis | 6666 | ||
| Animal Models for NF1 | 6667 | ||
| Conclusions | 6667 | ||
| Further Reading | 6668 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6668 | ||
| Neurofibromatosis Type 2 | 6670 | ||
| Introduction | 6670 | ||
| Epidemiology and Diagnostic Criteria | 6670 | ||
| Clinical Features | 6670 | ||
| Tumor Manifestations of NF2 | 6670 | ||
| Schwannomas | 6670 | ||
| Meningiomas | 6670 | ||
| Spinal cord gliomas | 6671 | ||
| Nontumor Manifestations of NF2 | 6671 | ||
| Ophthalmic abnormalities | 6671 | ||
| Neuromuscular abnormalities | 6671 | ||
| Delineation of NF2 from NF1 | 6672 | ||
| Molecular Genetics of NF2 | 6672 | ||
| Linkage Studies and Positional Cloning of the NF2 Gene | 6672 | ||
| NF2 Gene and Its Protein Product | 6674 | ||
| Tissue specificity | 6674 | ||
| Regulation and function of merlin | 6674 | ||
| Model organisms | 6674 | ||
| Tumor studies | 6674 | ||
| Mutational Analysis of the NF2 Gene | 6675 | ||
| Mosaicism | 6675 | ||
| Genotype/phenotype correlations | 6675 | ||
| Future Directions | 6676 | ||
| Further Reading | 6676 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6676 | ||
| Neurofibromatosis Type 2: Further Questions and Answers | 6678 | ||
| Introduction | 6678 | ||
| Epidemiology, Clinical Features, and Diagnostic Criteria | 6678 | ||
| Identification of the NF2 Gene | 6680 | ||
| Genotype-Phenotype Correlation in NF2 | 6680 | ||
| Mosaicism and Schwannomatosis | 6681 | ||
| Biological Role of the NF2 Protein | 6681 | ||
| Conclusions | 6682 | ||
| Further Reading | 6682 | ||
| Neurofilaments: Organization and Function in Neurons | 6684 | ||
| Neurofilaments in Neuronal Function | 6684 | ||
| Introduction to Neurofilaments | 6684 | ||
| Structure of the Neurofilament Proteins | 6684 | ||
| Function of Neurofilaments | 6684 | ||
| The Involvement of Neurofilaments in Neurodegenerative Diseases | 6686 | ||
| Disorganized Neurofilament Arrays as a Cause for Motor Neuron Disease | 6686 | ||
| Mutations in Neurofilament Genes Linked to Human Motor Neuron Diseases | 6686 | ||
| Axonal Neurofilaments as Determinants of Neurodegeneration in ALS | 6687 | ||
| Conclusion | 6687 | ||
| Further Reading | 6687 | ||
| Neurogenesis and Neural Precursors, Progenitors, and Stem Cells in the Adult Brain | 6688 | ||
| Defining Neural Stem Cells, Progenitors, and Precursors | 6688 | ||
| The Discovery of Constitutively Occurring Adult Mammalian Neurogenesis | 6689 | ||
| Neurogenic versus Nonneurogenic Regions in the Adult Brain | 6689 | ||
| Induction of Neurogenesis in Nonneurogenic Regions of the Adult Brain | 6691 | ||
| Conclusions and Future Prospects | 6692 | ||
| Further Reading | 6692 | ||
| Neurogenesis in the Intact Adult Brain | 6694 | ||
| History | 6694 | ||
| Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis | 6695 | ||
| Adult Olfactory Neurogenesis | 6696 | ||
| Regulation | 6696 | ||
| Function | 6697 | ||
| Medical Relevance | 6697 | ||
| Further Reading | 6698 | ||
| Neurohypophyseal System | 6700 | ||
| Hormone Structure, Biosynthesis, and Secretion | 6700 | ||
| Peptide and Prohormone Structure and Processing | 6700 | ||
| Genes and mRNA | 6700 | ||
| Structure of the Neurohypophyseal System | 6700 | ||
| Hypothalamic Nuclei (Supraoptic/Paraventricular/Accessory) | 6700 | ||
| Glial/Neuronal Interactions | 6702 | ||
| Regulation of Hormone Secretion | 6703 | ||
| Vasopressin | 6703 | ||
| Osmotic regulation | 6703 | ||
| Pressure/volume regulation | 6703 | ||
| Other physiological regulators | 6704 | ||
| Electrophysiology of VP neurons | 6704 | ||
| Oxytocin | 6705 | ||
| Pregnancy and parturition | 6706 | ||
| Suckling | 6706 | ||
| Homeostatic regulation of OT release | 6706 | ||
| Ejaculation | 6707 | ||
| Electrophysiology of OT neurons | 6707 | ||
| Further Reading | 6708 | ||
| Neuroimaging | 6710 | ||
| Introduction | 6710 | ||
| Computed Tomography | 6710 | ||
| Emission Computed Tomography | 6712 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 6715 | ||
| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 6717 | ||
| Summary | 6719 | ||
| Further Reading | 6720 | ||
| Neuroimmune System: Aging | 6722 | ||
| The Immune-Neuroendocrine System: The Evolutionary Perspective | 6722 | ||
| Immunosenescence | 6723 | ||
| Inflamm-Aging | 6724 | ||
| Inflammation and the Neuroendocrine System | 6724 | ||
| Major Depression | 6724 | ||
| Anorexia Nervosa | 6725 | ||
| Alzheimer's Disease | 6725 | ||
| Frailty Syndrome | 6726 | ||
| Conclusion | 6727 | ||
| Further Reading | 6727 | ||
| Neuroinformatics | 6728 | ||
| Successes and Challenges of Modern Neuroscience | 6728 | ||
| Neuroinformatics: Premise and Promise | 6728 | ||
| Institutional Resources and Initiatives | 6729 | ||
| A Sampler of Individual Projects and Databases | 6730 | ||
| NeuroMorpho.org: Opportunities and Solutions for Cellular Structure | 6733 | ||
| The Future: Explosive Potential of Digital Neuroscience | 6734 | ||
| Further Reading | 6735 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6735 | ||
| Neuroleptics | 6736 | ||
| Introduction | 6736 | ||
| Antipsychotic Affinity for the Dopamine Receptor | 6736 | ||
| Studies of Antipsychotic Action in Living Patients | 6736 | ||
| Second-Generation Antipsychotics | 6737 | ||
| Mechanisms of Atypicality | 6738 | ||
| 5HT2A Occupancy | 6738 | ||
| Extrastriatal Selectivity | 6738 | ||
| Intrastriatal Selectivity | 6738 | ||
| How Might Atypical Drugs Show Extrastriatal and Intrastriatal Selectivity? | 6739 | ||
| Dopamine Abnormalities in Schizophrenia | 6739 | ||
| Negative Symptoms | 6740 | ||
| Dopamine-Stabilizing Drugs | 6741 | ||
| The Future of Antipsychotic Treatment in Schizophrenia | 6741 | ||
| Conclusions | 6741 | ||
| Further Reading | 6742 | ||
| Neuroligins | 6744 | ||
| Neuroligin Genes and Structures | 6744 | ||
| Recognition of the Neurexins | 6744 | ||
| Neuroligins in Development and Disease | 6744 | ||
| Neuroligin in the Peripheral Nervous System and Secretory Tissues | 6746 | ||
| Conclusions | 6746 | ||
| Further Reading | 6747 | ||
| Neuromodulation | 6748 | ||
| Introduction | 6748 | ||
| Mechanisms of Neuromodulation | 6748 | ||
| Neuromodulation of Neuronal Properties | 6749 | ||
| Neuromodulation of Synaptic Properties | 6750 | ||
| Time Course of Neuromodulation | 6751 | ||
| The Complexity of Neuromodulation | 6751 | ||
| Sources of Neuromodulation | 6752 | ||
| Functions of Neuromodulation | 6752 | ||
| Homeostasis and Neuromodulation | 6753 | ||
| Neuromodulation and the Evolution of Behavior | 6753 | ||
| Summary | 6753 | ||
| Further Reading | 6754 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6754 | ||
| Neuromodulation of Calcium Channels | 6756 | ||
| Introduction | 6756 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Modulation of Cav2 Channels | 6756 | ||
| Mechanisms of G-Protein Modulation | 6756 | ||
| Voltage-dependent G-protein inhibition | 6756 | ||
| Voltage-independent G-protein inhibition | 6756 | ||
| Modulators of G-Protein Inhibition | 6757 | ||
| RGS proteins | 6757 | ||
| Synaptic proteins | 6758 | ||
| Protein kinase C | 6758 | ||
| Cav2 alpha1 splice variation | 6758 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Modulation of Cav1 Channels | 6758 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Modulation of Cav3 Channels | 6760 | ||
| Ca2+-Dependent Modulation of Cav Channels | 6760 | ||
| Calmodulin as a Cav Channel Subunit | 6760 | ||
| Calmodulin-Like Ca2+-Binding Proteins as Cav Modulators | 6761 | ||
| CaBP regulation of Cav2.1 channels | 6761 | ||
| CaBP regulation of Cav1 channels | 6762 | ||
| Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II Regulation of Cav1 Channels | 6762 | ||
| Conclusions | 6762 | ||
| Further Reading | 6763 | ||
| Neuromodulation of Sodium Channels | 6764 | ||
| Introduction | 6764 | ||
| Na+ Channel Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation | 6764 | ||
| Functional Modulation of Cloned and Expressed Na+ Channels | 6764 | ||
| Sites of Neuromodulation by PKA and PKC | 6764 | ||
| Membrane Potential-Dependent, Convergent Regulation by PKA and PKC | 6765 | ||
| Enhancement of Slow Inactivation by Protein Phosphorylation | 6766 | ||
| Modulation of Na+ Channels in Neurons | 6767 | ||
| Role of Kinase Anchoring in Na+ Channel Modulation in Neurons | 6768 | ||
| Functional Consequences of Na+ Channel Modulation | 6768 | ||
| Other Regulatory Pathways | 6770 | ||
| Further Reading | 6770 | ||
| Neuromorphic Systems | 6772 | ||
| Neuromorphic Engineering | 6772 | ||
| Digital and Analog in Neuromorphic VLSI Systems | 6772 | ||
| Emulation versus Simulation | 6774 | ||
| Neurons in Silicon | 6774 | ||
| Integrate-and-Fire Models | 6774 | ||
| Conductance-Based Models | 6775 | ||
| Axons, Action Potentials, and the Address-Event Representation | 6776 | ||
| Synapses in Silicon | 6777 | ||
| Plasticity and Learning | 6777 | ||
| Memory and Synaptic Weight Storage | 6777 | ||
| Multichip Neural Networks | 6778 | ||
| Impact of Neurobiology on Computer Engineering | 6779 | ||
| Further Reading | 6779 | ||
| Neuromuscular Connections: Vertebrate Patterns of | 6780 | ||
| Neural Control of Muscles | 6780 | ||
| Diversity of Vertebrate Skeletal Muscles | 6780 | ||
| General Features of the Motor Innervation of Skeletal Muscles | 6781 | ||
| Phylogenetic Variation in Patterns of Skeletal Muscle Innervation | 6781 | ||
| Agnatha (Hagfish, Lamprey) | 6781 | ||
| Cartilaginous Fish (Dogfish) | 6782 | ||
| Bony Fish (Tench, Zebra Fish) | 6782 | ||
| Amphibia (Salamanders, Frogs) | 6782 | ||
| Urodeles | 6782 | ||
| Anura | 6782 | ||
| Reptiles (Garter Snake, Lizard, Turtle) | 6782 | ||
| Birds (Chicken) | 6784 | ||
| Mammals (Human, Rat, Mouse, Cat) | 6784 | ||
| Variations in NMJ Properties | 6784 | ||
| Patterns of Motor Unit Use in Vertebrate Muscles | 6785 | ||
| Conclusions | 6787 | ||
| Further Reading | 6788 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): A Target for Natural and Environmental Toxins in Humans | 6790 | ||
| Natural Toxins and the Neuromuscular Junction | 6790 | ||
| Voltage-Gated Ion Channels | 6790 | ||
| Sodium Channels | 6792 | ||
| Calcium Channels | 6794 | ||
| Potassium Channels | 6795 | ||
| Presynaptically Active Neurotoxins | 6796 | ||
| Postsynaptically Active Toxins | 6798 | ||
| Myotoxic Activity | 6798 | ||
| The Anatoxins | 6799 | ||
| Miscellaneous | 6799 | ||
| Summary | 6799 | ||
| Further Reading | 6800 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Acetylcholinesterases | 6802 | ||
| Introduction | 6802 | ||
| AChE Detection and Assay | 6802 | ||
| Structure of AChE | 6803 | ||
| AChE Oligomeric Forms | 6803 | ||
| Noncatalytic AChE Subunits | 6804 | ||
| Biogenesis, Processing, and Assembly of AChE | 6804 | ||
| Mechanism of AChE Localization at the Neuromuscular Junction | 6805 | ||
| Appearance of AChE during Development of Skeletal Muscle | 6806 | ||
| Regulation of AChE Expression in Muscle | 6806 | ||
| Consequences of AChE Inactivation in Muscle, Pesticides, Nerve Gases, Congenital Myasthenia, and Alzheimer's Disease | 6807 | ||
| Epilogue | 6809 | ||
| Further Reading | 6809 | ||
| Relevant Website | 6809 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Activity-Dependent Muscle Fiber Modulation | 6810 | ||
| Introduction | 6810 | ||
| Motor Neurons Form Motor Units to Drive the Muscles | 6810 | ||
| The Firing Patterns of Motor Neurons | 6810 | ||
| Plateau Potentials Generate Tonic Firing | 6812 | ||
| Motor Neuron Firing Regulates Muscle Force Output | 6812 | ||
| The Neuromuscular Junction | 6813 | ||
| NMJs Differ in Structure and Function | 6813 | ||
| Plasticity of NMJs | 6814 | ||
| Mechanisms of Plasticity | 6814 | ||
| The Muscle Fibers | 6815 | ||
| Plasticity of Muscle Fibers | 6816 | ||
| Adaptation to Fast and Slow Impulse Patterns | 6816 | ||
| Matching Impulse Patterns and Contraction Speed | 6816 | ||
| Adaptation within Adaptive Ranges | 6816 | ||
| Cellular Mechanisms of Adaptation | 6817 | ||
| Conclusions | 6818 | ||
| Further Reading | 6818 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Aging | 6820 | ||
| Aging Effects on Motor Units | 6821 | ||
| Structure of Neuromuscular Junctions | 6822 | ||
| Aging Effects on NMJ Structure | 6823 | ||
| Neuromuscular Transmission | 6823 | ||
| Aging Effects on Neuromuscular Transmission | 6824 | ||
| Conclusions | 6824 | ||
| Further Reading | 6824 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Inherited and Acquired Disorders | 6826 | ||
| Background | 6826 | ||
| Investigating Neuromuscular Transmission in Human Disease | 6826 | ||
| Treatment of Neuromuscular Junction Disorders | 6826 | ||
| Congenital Myasthenic Syndromes | 6826 | ||
| AChR Deficiency | 6827 | ||
| Kinetic Abnormalities of the AChR | 6827 | ||
| AChE Deficiency | 6827 | ||
| Choline Acetylase Deficiency | 6829 | ||
| Limb Girdle Myasthenia | 6829 | ||
| Autoimmune Disorders | 6829 | ||
| Myasthenia Gravis | 6829 | ||
| Ocular MG | 6830 | ||
| MG without AChR Antibodies | 6831 | ||
| Maternal Antibodies and Development | 6831 | ||
| The Lambert-Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome | 6831 | ||
| Paraneoplastic Neurological Disorders | 6832 | ||
| Acquired Neuromyotonia | 6832 | ||
| Miller-Fisher Syndrome | 6833 | ||
| Further Reading | 6833 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6834 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Mammalian Development | 6836 | ||
| Introduction | 6836 | ||
| Development of Motor Neurons | 6836 | ||
| Birth | 6836 | ||
| Axon Outgrowth and Motor Neuron Identity | 6836 | ||
| Release of Acetylcholine from Growth Cones | 6836 | ||
| Development of Skeletal Muscle Fibers | 6836 | ||
| Myotube Formation | 6836 | ||
| Kinetics of Primary and Secondary Myotube Formation | 6836 | ||
| Origin of Muscle Fiber Types | 6837 | ||
| Early Appearance of Delocalized Postsynaptic Properties | 6837 | ||
| Early Development of the NMJ | 6837 | ||
| Initial Nerve-Muscle Encounters | 6837 | ||
| Polyaxonal Innervation | 6837 | ||
| AChR Accumulation | 6837 | ||
| AChR aggregation | 6838 | ||
| Upregulation of postsynaptic gene expression | 6839 | ||
| Schwann Cells: The Motor Neurons' Companion | 6839 | ||
| NMJ Maturation: Presynaptic | 6839 | ||
| Myelination of the Axon | 6839 | ||
| Synapse Elimination | 6839 | ||
| Maturation of the Nerve Terminal | 6839 | ||
| Transmitter release | 6840 | ||
| Ca2+ Channel Switch | 6840 | ||
| NMJ Maturation: Postsynaptic | 6840 | ||
| Remodeling of the Postsynaptic Zone | 6840 | ||
| Redistribution of AChRs and AChE | 6840 | ||
| Appearance of voltage-gated sodium channels channels and postsynaptic folds | 6840 | ||
| Formation of the folds | 6840 | ||
| Molecular Differentiation of the Postsynaptic Zone | 6841 | ||
| Changes in AChR expression | 6841 | ||
| Changes in NaV1 expression | 6842 | ||
| mRNA accumulation | 6842 | ||
| Accumulation of Myonuclei | 6842 | ||
| Mammalian Motor Unit Maturation | 6843 | ||
| Firing Patterns | 6843 | ||
| Efficacy of Neuromuscular Transmission | 6843 | ||
| Development of Muscle Fiber Homogeneity | 6843 | ||
| Conclusions | 6844 | ||
| Further Reading | 6844 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Postsynaptic Basal Lamina | 6846 | ||
| Introduction | 6846 | ||
| Synaptic Basal Lamina Components | 6846 | ||
| Collagen IV | 6846 | ||
| Laminins | 6847 | ||
| Nidogens (Entactins) | 6848 | ||
| Fibronectin | 6848 | ||
| Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans | 6848 | ||
| Perlecan | 6849 | ||
| Collagen XVIII | 6849 | ||
| Agrin | 6849 | ||
| AChE | 6849 | ||
| Cell Surface and Membrane Receptors | 6849 | ||
| Dystroglycan Complex | 6849 | ||
| MuSK | 6850 | ||
| Integrins | 6850 | ||
| Cadherins | 6850 | ||
| Proteases at the Neuromuscular Junction | 6851 | ||
| Matrix Metalloproteinases | 6851 | ||
| Tissue Inhibitors of Metalloproteinases | 6851 | ||
| Conclusion | 6851 | ||
| Further Reading | 6851 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Postsynaptic Events in Neuromuscular Transmission | 6852 | ||
| Essentials of Neuromuscular Transmission in Vertebrates | 6852 | ||
| AChRs and the Generation of the Endplate Current | 6852 | ||
| From EPCs to EPPs | 6854 | ||
| Passive Cable Properties of Muscle Fibers | 6854 | ||
| Spatial factors | 6855 | ||
| Effects of membrane capacitance | 6856 | ||
| Initiation of the Muscle AP | 6856 | ||
| Structure of the Postsynaptic Apparatus | 6856 | ||
| Safety Factor for AP Generation | 6858 | ||
| Termination of ACh Action | 6858 | ||
| How Different Species Achieve Reliability | 6858 | ||
| Some Special Cases | 6858 | ||
| Frog 'Slow' Fibers | 6859 | ||
| Mammalian Extraocular Fibers | 6860 | ||
| Intrafusal Fibers | 6860 | ||
| Conclusions | 6860 | ||
| Further Reading | 6860 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Presynaptic Non-Quantal Release of Transmitter | 6862 | ||
| Introduction | 6862 | ||
| Early Observations | 6862 | ||
| The H-Effect | 6862 | ||
| The VAChT Hypothesis | 6863 | ||
| Modulation of NQR | 6864 | ||
| AChE Activity and NQR | 6864 | ||
| Purinergic Regulation of NQR | 6864 | ||
| Biological Aspects of NQR | 6865 | ||
| Denervation | 6865 | ||
| Reinnervation | 6865 | ||
| Hibernation | 6865 | ||
| Physiological Implications | 6865 | ||
| Surplus Polarization of Muscle Fibers at the NMJ | 6866 | ||
| Role of Na+-K+ATPase | 6866 | ||
| Early Postdenervation Depolarization (EPD) | 6866 | ||
| Muscarinic AChRs (mAChRs) and EPD | 6867 | ||
| Hypertonicity and EPD | 6867 | ||
| Summary | 6867 | ||
| Glutamate | 6867 | ||
| Conclusions | 6867 | ||
| Further Reading | 6868 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Presynaptic Schwann Cells and Modulation of Neuromuscular Transmission | 6870 | ||
| Introduction | 6870 | ||
| An Advantageous Position | 6870 | ||
| Detectors of Synaptic Transmission | 6870 | ||
| A Cocktail of Presynaptically Released Molecules | 6870 | ||
| A Variety of Receptors | 6870 | ||
| An Evolutionarily Conserved Property | 6871 | ||
| Adapted Ca2 Responses | 6871 | ||
| Presence of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels | 6871 | ||
| Modulators of Synaptic Transmission | 6871 | ||
| G-Protein Signaling | 6871 | ||
| Calcium Signaling | 6872 | ||
| Glutamate Carboxypeptidase II | 6873 | ||
| Putative Gliotransmitters | 6874 | ||
| Possible Mediators of Synaptic Depression | 6875 | ||
| Nitric oxide | 6875 | ||
| Glutamate | 6875 | ||
| Endocannabinoids | 6877 | ||
| Arachidonic acid | 6877 | ||
| Possible Mediators of Synaptic Potentiation | 6877 | ||
| Prostaglandins | 6877 | ||
| Neurotrophic factors: BDNF | 6877 | ||
| Long-Term Modulation by PSCs | 6877 | ||
| Conclusion | 6878 | ||
| Further Reading | 6878 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Presynaptic Short-Term Plasticity of Neuromuscular Transmission | 6880 | ||
| Introduction | 6880 | ||
| Techniques of Study | 6880 | ||
| Facilitation of Transmitter Release | 6881 | ||
| Augmentation of Transmitter Release | 6881 | ||
| Potentiation and Posttetanic Potentiation of Transmitter Release | 6881 | ||
| Relationship between the Components of Increased Transmitter Release | 6882 | ||
| Comparison of the Components of Increased Transmitter Release at Three Different Preparations | 6882 | ||
| Mechanisms for the Components of Increased Transmitter Release | 6882 | ||
| Depression of Transmitter Release | 6883 | ||
| Mechanisms of Depression | 6884 | ||
| Developing Models to Describe Mechanisms Consistent with Short- Term Plasticity | 6885 | ||
| Short-Term Synaptic Memory | 6885 | ||
| Further Reading | 6885 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): Presynaptic Stretch Effects on Neuromuscular Transmission | 6886 | ||
| How Muscle Stretch Influences Neuromuscular Transmission | 6886 | ||
| The Kinetics of Stretch-Induced Enhancement of Release | 6886 | ||
| Lack of Dependence on Ca2+ Influx or Release of Ca2+ from Internal Stores | 6886 | ||
| Integrins as Mediators of the Stretch Modulation | 6887 | ||
| The Intracellular Mechanism of Modulation of Release | 6889 | ||
| Functional Importance and Generality of the Phenomenon | 6890 | ||
| Further Reading | 6891 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction Plasticity in Mammals and Botulinum Toxins | 6892 | ||
| Introduction | 6892 | ||
| Natural Plasticity of the NMJ | 6892 | ||
| Plasticity During Aging | 6892 | ||
| The Response to Muscle Damage | 6892 | ||
| The Response to Nerve Injury | 6893 | ||
| Partial denervation | 6893 | ||
| Complete denervation | 6893 | ||
| The Role of the Schwann Cell | 6894 | ||
| How Is Nerve Terminal Sprouting Regulated? | 6894 | ||
| The role of activity | 6895 | ||
| Growth factors | 6895 | ||
| Botulinum Toxins and How They Block Neuromuscular Transmission | 6895 | ||
| Natural History of Botulism and Botulinum Neurotoxins | 6895 | ||
| Clinical features of the disease | 6896 | ||
| Botulinum neurotoxin structure and serotypes | 6896 | ||
| Overview of Botulinum Neurotoxin Action | 6896 | ||
| Binding and Activation of Botulinum Neurotoxins | 6897 | ||
| Binding targets | 6897 | ||
| Uptake, translocation, and activation | 6898 | ||
| Enzyme activity | 6898 | ||
| Response of the Neuromuscular Junction to Botulinum Neurotoxin | 6898 | ||
| Block of Transmission | 6898 | ||
| Recovery of Transmission after Block by BoNT/A | 6898 | ||
| Axon sprouting | 6898 | ||
| Formation of new synapses | 6898 | ||
| Recovery of Quantal Release | 6899 | ||
| Withdrawal of sprouts | 6899 | ||
| Serotypes other than BoNT/A | 6899 | ||
| Differences Related to Muscle Type and Species | 6900 | ||
| Effects on muscle | 6900 | ||
| Clinical and Cosmetic Uses of BoNT/A | 6900 | ||
| Effects of Botulinum Neurotoxins on Human Neuromuscular Junctions and Muscle | 6901 | ||
| Time course of action | 6901 | ||
| Effects on nerve | 6901 | ||
| Effects on muscle | 6902 | ||
| Conclusion | 6902 | ||
| Further Reading | 6902 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction: Neuronal Regulation of Gene Transcription at the Vertebrate | 6904 | ||
| The Vertebrate Neuromuscular Junction: An Excellent System for Studying Neurotransmitter Receptor Accumulation in the Postsynap | 6904 | ||
| Expression of AChRs throughout Uninnervated Differentiating Myotubes Is Replaced by Synapse-Specific Expression in Innervated F | 6905 | ||
| Do Motor Neurons Produce Signals That Induce Clustering of AChRs at the Synapse, Stimulate Synapse-Specific AChR Synthesis, or | 6906 | ||
| A Nerve-Derived Factor Inducing AChR Aggregation: AGRIN | 6906 | ||
| Candidate Nerve-Derived Factors Inducing AChR Gene Transcription | 6906 | ||
| alphaCGRP and ATP | 6907 | ||
| Neuregulins | 6907 | ||
| In vitro studies implicating NRG1 as a motor neuron-produced signal regulating postsynaptic AChR gene expression | 6907 | ||
| In vivo genetic studies have revealed relatively normal NMJ development in mice lacking neuro muscular NRG signaling | 6907 | ||
| Essential functions of NRG1 in neuromuscular development | 6907 | ||
| AGRIN | 6908 | ||
| AGRIN molecular variants and the AGRIN receptor MUSK | 6908 | ||
| In vivo genetic studies of AGRIN'S roles in synapse-specific gene expression | 6908 | ||
| Signaling Pathways by Which MuSK Regulates Postsynaptic Gene Expression | 6910 | ||
| Musk expression in the postsynaptic membrane: A positive feedback loop? | 6910 | ||
| Signaling pathways | 6910 | ||
| MUSK and synaptic nuclei | 6910 | ||
| A number of proteins in addition to AChRs and MUSK display synapse-specific expression | 6910 | ||
| Models of Neuromuscular Synapse Formation | 6911 | ||
| Neurocentric Model | 6911 | ||
| Myocentric Model | 6911 | ||
| A Unifying Model? | 6912 | ||
| Conclusion | 6912 | ||
| Further Reading | 6912 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junction: Synapse Elimination | 6914 | ||
| Introduction | 6914 | ||
| From pi to μ | 6914 | ||
| Synapse Elimination versus Synapse Degeneration | 6916 | ||
| Real-Time Visualization of Synapse Elimination In Vivo | 6916 | ||
| Is competition local? | 6916 | ||
| The fate of the losers | 6917 | ||
| Are There Intrinsic Hierarchies Among Motor Neurons? | 6917 | ||
| The Role of Activity in Synapse Elimination | 6918 | ||
| Muscle Fiber Type Specificity and Selective Synapse Elimination | 6918 | ||
| Molecular Mechanisms of Synapse Elimination and Axonal Pruning | 6918 | ||
| Neurotrophic Influences on the Rate of Synapse Elimination | 6918 | ||
| Role of Proteases and the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System | 6919 | ||
| Role of Other Nonneural Cell Types at Immature and Adult NMJs | 6919 | ||
| Synapse Elimination and Neurodegenerative Disease | 6919 | ||
| Summary | 6920 | ||
| Further Reading | 6921 | ||
| Neuromuscular Transmission Modulation at Invertebrate Neuromuscular Junctions | 6922 | ||
| General Features of Modulation at Invertebrate Neuromuscular Junctions | 6922 | ||
| Presynaptic Membrane Potential | 6922 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Modulation | 6923 | ||
| Short-Term Modulation | 6923 | ||
| Synaptic enhancement | 6923 | ||
| Synaptic depression | 6927 | ||
| Long-Term Modulation | 6928 | ||
| Long-term facilitation | 6928 | ||
| Experience-dependent strengthening | 6928 | ||
| Long-term depression | 6934 | ||
| Long-term adaptation | 6934 | ||
| Molecular Approaches | 6936 | ||
| Inhibitory Modulation | 6936 | ||
| Presynaptic Inhibition | 6936 | ||
| Autoinhibition | 6937 | ||
| Neuromodulators and Neurohormones | 6938 | ||
| General Features | 6938 | ||
| Amines | 6938 | ||
| Octopamine | 6938 | ||
| Serotonin | 6939 | ||
| Peptides | 6940 | ||
| FMRFamide-like peptides | 6940 | ||
| Proctolin | 6940 | ||
| PACAP-like neuropeptide | 6940 | ||
| Conclusion | 6941 | ||
| Further Reading | 6941 | ||
| Neuron Doctrine: Historical Background | 6942 | ||
| Overview | 6942 | ||
| Modern Research First Confirmed, Then Challenged the Classical Neuron Doctrine | 6943 | ||
| Chemical versus Electrical Transmission | 6943 | ||
| The Neuron: From Simple to Complex Functional Unit | 6944 | ||
| A New Theoretical Framework for Brain Organization: Multilevel Functional Units | 6944 | ||
| Summary | 6945 | ||
| Further Reading | 6945 | ||
| Neuronal Angiotensin | 6948 | ||
| Overview of Systemic Angiotensin Production | 6948 | ||
| Tissue Renin-Angiotensin Systems | 6948 | ||
| Angiotensinogen in Brain | 6949 | ||
| Renin in the Brain | 6949 | ||
| Angiotensin Converting Enzyme | 6950 | ||
| Ang II/III Peptide Localization | 6951 | ||
| Angiotensin AT1 Receptors | 6951 | ||
| Actions via AT1 Receptors | 6951 | ||
| Angiotensin AT2 Receptors in Brain | 6952 | ||
| Ang 1-7 and Its Binding Site, the mas Oncogene | 6953 | ||
| Ang IV and Its Binding Site, IRAP | 6953 | ||
| Conclusion | 6953 | ||
| Further Reading | 6953 | ||
| Neuronal Motility and Structure: Cdk5 Pathways | 6954 | ||
| Introduction to Cdk5 | 6954 | ||
| Cdk5 and the Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Family | 6954 | ||
| Cdk5 is an atypical cyclin-dependent kinase | 6954 | ||
| p35 and p39 are essential activators of Cdk5 | 6954 | ||
| Posttranslational modifications of Cdk5 | 6954 | ||
| Consensus site for phosphorylation by Cdk5 | 6954 | ||
| Cdk5 and Its Activators | 6954 | ||
| Cdk5 activity is defined by the distribution of p35 and p39 | 6954 | ||
| Cdk5 Regulates Neuronal Migration | 6955 | ||
| Mouse Models of Cdk5 Deficiency | 6955 | ||
| Cerebral cortex | 6955 | ||
| Other brain regions | 6955 | ||
| Brief Introduction to Neocortical Development | 6955 | ||
| Different neurons in the neocortex come from distinct places | 6955 | ||
| Formation of cortical laminae | 6955 | ||
| Cdk5 Activity Is Essential for Proper Neocortical Lamination | 6956 | ||
| Formation of cortical laminae in p35 knockout mice | 6956 | ||
| Reelin Signaling Also Regulates Neuronal Migration | 6956 | ||
| Mouse Models of Reelin Deficiency | 6956 | ||
| Distinctions between Cdk5 and Reelin Mutant Mice | 6956 | ||
| Formation of the Preplate | 6956 | ||
| Migratory Mode | 6957 | ||
| Somal translocation | 6957 | ||
| Locomotion | 6957 | ||
| Migratory modes in Cdk5 and Reelin mutant mice | 6957 | ||
| Compound Mutant Mice | 6957 | ||
| Doublecortin and Dynein Pathways in Neuronal Migration | 6957 | ||
| Doublecortin | 6957 | ||
| Dynein, Lis1, and Ndel1 (Nudel) | 6958 | ||
| Cdk5 Pathways Controlling Neuronal Migration | 6958 | ||
| Cdk5 Phosphorylation of Focal Adhesion Kinase | 6958 | ||
| S732-phosphorylated Focal Adhesion Kinase regulates centrosome-associated microtubules | 6958 | ||
| The role of the cytoskeleton in migrating neurons | 6958 | ||
| S732-phosphorylated FAK and nucleokinesis | 6958 | ||
| Cdk5 Phosphorylation of Doublecortin | 6959 | ||
| Cdk5 Phosphorylation of Ndel1 | 6959 | ||
| Cdk5 Phosphorylation of p27 (kip1) | 6960 | ||
| Other Substrates of Cdk5 Potentially Important for Neuronal Migration | 6960 | ||
| Cdk5 and Axon Guidance | 6960 | ||
| Corpus Callosum Defects in p35-Deficient Mice | 6960 | ||
| Cdk5 and Semaphorin 3A | 6960 | ||
| Cdk5 and GDNF/GFRalpha1 | 6961 | ||
| Cdk5 Pathways Control Neuronal Motility and Structure | 6961 | ||
| Further Reading | 6961 | ||
| Neuronal Motility and Structure: MARK and GSK Pathways | 6962 | ||
| Introduction | 6962 | ||
| Microtubules and Microtubule-Associated Proteins in Neuronal Motility and Structure | 6962 | ||
| A Conserved Role of MARK/PAR-1 Kinases in Establishing Cell Polarity | 6962 | ||
| MARK Kinases Play an Important Role in Regulating Axonal Transport and Neurite Outgrowth | 6963 | ||
| Upstream and Downstream of MARK/PAR-1 | 6963 | ||
| GSK-3beta in Neuronal Motility and Structure and Its Relationship with MARK/PAR-1 | 6965 | ||
| MARK and GSK-3beta Pathways in Neurodegenerative Diseases | 6966 | ||
| Summary | 6967 | ||
| Further Reading | 6967 | ||
| Neuronal Pacemaking | 6968 | ||
| Introduction | 6968 | ||
| Types of Pacemaking Neurons | 6968 | ||
| Mechanisms of Pacemaking | 6968 | ||
| Hyperpolarization-Activated Current | 6968 | ||
| Persistent Sodium Current | 6970 | ||
| Resurgent Sodium Current | 6971 | ||
| Voltage-Activated Calcium Current | 6971 | ||
| Importance of Resting Potential | 6972 | ||
| Voltage-Dependent and Calcium-Dependent Potassium Conductances as Regulators of Firing Rate | 6973 | ||
| Plasticity of Pacemaking | 6974 | ||
| Significance of Pacemaking | 6976 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Pacemaking | 6976 | ||
| Summary | 6976 | ||
| Further Reading | 6976 | ||
| Neuronal Plasticity after Cortical Damage | 6978 | ||
| Measuring Brain Plasticity | 6978 | ||
| Behavioral Change after Brain Injury | 6978 | ||
| Neuronal Adaptations to Brain Injury | 6979 | ||
| Plasticity after Adult Brain Injury | 6979 | ||
| Plasticity after Infant Brain Injury | 6980 | ||
| Factors Influencing Recovery and Plasticity after Cortical Injury in Adulthood | 6980 | ||
| Factors Influencing Recovery and Plasticity after Cortical Injury in Infancy | 6981 | ||
| Summary | 6981 | ||
| Further Reading | 6981 | ||
| Neuron-Glia Coupling in Glutathione Metabolism | 6984 | ||
| Introduction | 6984 | ||
| Metabolism of GSH in Brain Cells | 6984 | ||
| Synthesis of GSH | 6984 | ||
| Metabolism of GSH | 6984 | ||
| Delivery of GSH Precursors from Astrocytes to Neurons | 6985 | ||
| Export of GSH | 6985 | ||
| Extracellular Processing of GSH | 6986 | ||
| Uptake of Amino Acids into Neurons | 6986 | ||
| Implications for a Disturbed GSH Metabolism in Parkinson's Disease | 6987 | ||
| Dopamine and GSH | 6987 | ||
| TNF-alpha and gamma-GT | 6987 | ||
| Conclusions | 6988 | ||
| Further Reading | 6988 | ||
| Neuron-Glia pH Regulation | 6990 | ||
| Introduction | 6990 | ||
| Intracellular pH and Buffering | 6990 | ||
| Extracellular pH and Buffering | 6991 | ||
| Baseline Interstitial pH of the Brain | 6991 | ||
| Buffering Properties of the Brain Interstitial Fluid | 6991 | ||
| pH Regulation in Neurons | 6992 | ||
| pH Regulation in Glial Cells | 6993 | ||
| Changes in pH Evoked by Neuronal Activity | 6994 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Shifts in Neuronal Intracellular pH | 6994 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Shifts in Glial Intracellular pH | 6995 | ||
| Activity-Dependent Shifts of Interstitial pH | 6995 | ||
| Functional Aspects of H+ Homeostasis and H+ Signaling | 6996 | ||
| Summary | 6997 | ||
| Further Reading | 6997 | ||
| Neuropathic Pain | 7000 | ||
| Etiology of Neuropathic Pain | 7000 | ||
| Nerve Trauma | 7000 | ||
| Disease Induced | 7000 | ||
| Chemotherapy Induced | 7002 | ||
| Mechanisms of Neuropathic Pain | 7002 | ||
| Role of the Peripheral Nervous System | 7003 | ||
| Ectopic activity | 7003 | ||
| Peripheral sensitization | 7004 | ||
| Role of the Central Nervous System | 7005 | ||
| Role of the Sympathetic Nervous System | 7006 | ||
| Influence of the Immune System | 7006 | ||
| Further Reading | 7008 | ||
| Neuropathy: Chemically-Induced | 7010 | ||
| Introduction | 7010 | ||
| Neuronopathies | 7010 | ||
| Methylmercury | 7010 | ||
| Methanol | 7011 | ||
| Axonopathies | 7011 | ||
| Organophosphate-Induced Delayed Polyneuropathy | 7011 | ||
| n-Hexane | 7012 | ||
| Carbon Disulfide | 7013 | ||
| Acrylamide | 7013 | ||
| Myelinopathies | 7014 | ||
| Hexachlorophene | 7014 | ||
| Lead | 7014 | ||
| Neurotransmission-Associated Neurotoxicity | 7015 | ||
| Nicotine | 7015 | ||
| Conclusion | 7015 | ||
| Further Reading | 7016 | ||
| Neuropathy: Metabolically-Induced | 7018 | ||
| Diabetic Neuropathies: Overview | 7018 | ||
| Neuropathy with Impaired Glucose Tolerance | 7018 | ||
| Symmetric Sensorimotor Polyneuropathy | 7018 | ||
| Asymmetric Diabetic Neuropathies | 7020 | ||
| Diabetic Autonomic Neuropathy | 7021 | ||
| Pathogenetic Mechanisms of Diabetic Neuropathy | 7023 | ||
| Advanced Glycosylation End Products Formation | 7023 | ||
| Apoptosis | 7023 | ||
| Autoimmune Processes | 7023 | ||
| Axonal Transport | 7023 | ||
| Ischemia | 7023 | ||
| Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases | 7023 | ||
| Neurotrophic Substances | 7023 | ||
| Oxidative Stress | 7024 | ||
| Polyol Pathway | 7024 | ||
| Protein Kinase C | 7024 | ||
| Regeneration and Synaptic Dysplasia | 7024 | ||
| Uremia | 7024 | ||
| Vitamin Deficiencies | 7025 | ||
| Beriberi (Thiamine) | 7025 | ||
| Pellagra (Niacin) | 7025 | ||
| Cobalamin (Vitamin B12) | 7025 | ||
| Vitamin E | 7025 | ||
| Hypothyroid Neuropathy | 7025 | ||
| Acromegaly | 7025 | ||
| Liver Disease | 7026 | ||
| Alcoholism | 7026 | ||
| Summary | 7026 | ||
| Further Reading | 7026 | ||
| Relevant Website | 7026 | ||
| Neuropathy: Peripheral | 7028 | ||
| Introduction | 7028 | ||
| The PNS | 7028 | ||
| Pathobiological Mechanisms in Peripheral Neuropathy | 7030 | ||
| Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease | 7030 | ||
| Diabetic Polyneuropathy | 7030 | ||
| Guillain-Barreacute Syndrome | 7031 | ||
| Toxic Polyneuropathy | 7032 | ||
| Further Reading | 7033 | ||
| Neuropeptide FF and Receptors | 7034 | ||
| Five Neuropeptide Genes and New Receptor Mechanisms | 7034 | ||
| Discovery of a New Neuropeptide Gene Family | 7034 | ||
| Neuropeptide FF, the Prototype Mammalian RFamide Peptide | 7034 | ||
| Prolactin-Releasing Peptide | 7036 | ||
| Arg-Phe-Amide-Related Peptide | 7036 | ||
| P518/26RFa/QRFP | 7036 | ||
| Kiss-1 | 7036 | ||
| GPCR Mechanisms | 7036 | ||
| Multiple Functions of Mammalian RFamide Peptides | 7037 | ||
| Sensory and Autonomic Functions | 7037 | ||
| Central Endocrine Regulation | 7038 | ||
| Energy Balance, Feeding, and Water Balance | 7038 | ||
| Further Reading | 7038 | ||
| Neuropeptide Inactivation or Metabolism | 7040 | ||
| Introduction | 7040 | ||
| Information Transfer by Neuropeptides versus Neurotransmitters | 7040 | ||
| Peptidase-Induced Inactivation of Neuropeptides | 7041 | ||
| Similarities and Differences in Zinc Metallopeptidases Involved in Neuropeptides Catabolism | 7042 | ||
| Natural and Synthetic Inhibitors of Neuropeptide Metabolizing Enzymes | 7044 | ||
| Biochemical Criteria Used to Characterize Neuropeptide-Activating or -Inactivating Peptidases | 7044 | ||
| Anatomical Criteria | 7044 | ||
| Analytical Criteria: Microdialysis Experiments | 7045 | ||
| Pharmacological Experiments Required to Attribute the Role of Activating or Inactivating Peptidase to a Neuropeptide- Cleaving | 7046 | ||
| Investigation of the Physiological Roles of a Given Neuropeptide through Selective Inhibitor-Induced Modulation of Its Extracel | 7047 | ||
| Physiological Interactions between Two Neuropeptidergic Systems Studied by Inhibition of Metabolyzing Enzymes | 7047 | ||
| Several Zinc Metallopeptidases Produce Two Active Neuropeptides, Angiotensin III and IV, from the Brain Angiotensin II | 7048 | ||
| Conclusion | 7049 | ||
| Further Reading | 7049 | ||
| Neuropeptide Receptors - Drug Development | 7052 | ||
| Neuropeptide Ligands | 7052 | ||
| Neuropeptide Signaling as Drug Target | 7052 | ||
| Neuropeptide Receptors as Drug Targets | 7053 | ||
| Validation of Neuropeptide Receptors as Drug Targets | 7053 | ||
| The Problems of Finding Exogenous Ligands to Neuropeptide Receptors | 7056 | ||
| Agonists | 7056 | ||
| Nonpeptide agonists to neuropeptide receptors | 7056 | ||
| Nonpeptide Antagonists to Neuropeptide Receptors | 7059 | ||
| Lack of Structural Information on the G- Protein-Coupled Receptors | 7059 | ||
| Dynamics of Neuropeptide-G -Protein-Coupled Receptor Functions in Drug Development | 7059 | ||
| Perspective | 7060 | ||
| Summary | 7060 | ||
| Further Reading | 7061 | ||
| Neuropeptide Release | 7062 | ||
| Introduction | 7062 | ||
| Neuropeptide Release Compared to Classical Neurotransmitter Release | 7062 | ||
| Synthesis | 7062 | ||
| Vesicle Types and Release Sites | 7062 | ||
| Calcium Dependent Release | 7062 | ||
| Timescale of Neuropeptide Release and the Type of Stimulus Required | 7062 | ||
| Molecular Release Mechanisms - SNARE Machinery | 7064 | ||
| Termination of the Signal | 7064 | ||
| Neuropeptide Release Is Not Uniform | 7065 | ||
| Variations between different neurons and over time | 7065 | ||
| Variation within neurons - axon terminal versus somatodendritic release | 7065 | ||
| Physiological Effects of Neuropeptide Release | 7066 | ||
| Summary | 7067 | ||
| Further Reading | 7067 | ||
| Neuropeptide S | 7068 | ||
| Structure and Expression of Neuropeptide S | 7068 | ||
| NPS Receptor | 7069 | ||
| Physiological Effects of NPS | 7069 | ||
| Genetics of NPSR | 7069 | ||
| Further Reading | 7070 | ||
| Neuropeptide Signaling in Invertebrates | 7072 | ||
| Introduction | 7072 | ||
| Neuropeptides and Their Precursors in Invertebrates | 7072 | ||
| Neuropeptides and Their Roles in Some Invertebrates | 7072 | ||
| Cnidarians Provide Information on Basic Neuropeptide Signaling | 7072 | ||
| The Nematode Worm C. elegans | 7073 | ||
| Mollusks | 7074 | ||
| Crustaceans | 7074 | ||
| Drosophila and Other Insects | 7075 | ||
| Evolutionary Conservation of Peptide Signaling | 7077 | ||
| Summary and Conclusion | 7079 | ||
| Further Reading | 7079 | ||
| Neuropeptide Synthesis and Storage | 7080 | ||
| Introduction | 7080 | ||
| Steps in Peptide Biosynthesis | 7080 | ||
| Precursor-Processing Enzymes | 7081 | ||
| Processing Enzyme Knockouts | 7083 | ||
| Granule Biogenesis and Storage | 7083 | ||
| Peptides in the Nervous System | 7085 | ||
| Genes Controlling Expression of Granules and Granule Proteins | 7086 | ||
| Further Reading | 7087 | ||
| Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and its Receptors | 7088 | ||
| Introduction | 7088 | ||
| Expression and Regulation of NPY | 7088 | ||
| Functional Activities of NPY | 7089 | ||
| PYY and PYY3-36 Function | 7089 | ||
| PP Function | 7090 | ||
| Receptors for the NPY Family of Peptides | 7090 | ||
| Y1 Receptor | 7090 | ||
| Y2 Receptor | 7090 | ||
| Y4 Receptor | 7091 | ||
| Y5 Receptor | 7092 | ||
| Regulation of Y Receptors | 7092 | ||
| Internalization and desensitization of NPY family receptors | 7092 | ||
| Dimerization among NPY family receptors | 7092 | ||
| The NPY System and Medication Development | 7092 | ||
| Further Reading | 7093 | ||
| Neuropeptides and Coexistence | 7094 | ||
| General Concepts and Definitions | 7094 | ||
| Cellular and Subcellular Sites of Neuropeptide Storage | 7094 | ||
| Localization within Large Granular Vesicles | 7094 | ||
| Synthesis, Storage, and Targeting to Processes | 7094 | ||
| Coexistence | 7095 | ||
| Neuropeptide Co-Localization | 7095 | ||
| Spinal cord | 7096 | ||
| Hypothalamus | 7096 | ||
| Retina | 7097 | ||
| Coexistence of Neuropeptides and Fast-Acting Neurotransmitters | 7097 | ||
| Acetylcholine | 7097 | ||
| Amino acids | 7097 | ||
| Biogenic amines | 7097 | ||
| Nitric oxide | 7097 | ||
| Coexistence of Neuropeptides and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor | 7097 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Function of Neuropeptides | 7097 | ||
| Neuropeptides as Slow-Acting Neurotransmitters | 7098 | ||
| Mode(s) of Release | 7098 | ||
| Functional Implications of Neuropeptide Coexistence | 7099 | ||
| Further Reading | 7100 | ||
| Neuropeptides and Receptors in Glia | 7102 | ||
| Introduction | 7102 | ||
| Illustrative Neuropeptides | 7103 | ||
| Angiotensin II | 7103 | ||
| Atrial Natriuretic Peptide | 7105 | ||
| Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide | 7106 | ||
| Galanin | 7106 | ||
| Neuropeptide Y | 7107 | ||
| Opioids | 7108 | ||
| Substance P | 7109 | ||
| Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide/Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide | 7109 | ||
| Future Directions | 7110 | ||
| Further Reading | 7110 | ||
| Relevant Website | 7110 | ||
| Neuropeptides in Autonomic Neurons | 7112 | ||
| Introduction | 7112 | ||
| Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide | 7112 | ||
| Enkephalins | 7113 | ||
| Galanin | 7113 | ||
| Neuropeptide Y | 7114 | ||
| Somatostatin | 7114 | ||
| Substance P | 7115 | ||
| Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide | 7115 | ||
| Other Neuropeptides | 7116 | ||
| Further Reading | 7116 | ||
| Neuropeptides Internalization | 7118 | ||
| Introduction | 7118 | ||
| Neurobiology of Substance P and NK- 1 Receptor | 7118 | ||
| Localization of Substance P and NK-1 Receptors in the Brain and Spinal Cord | 7118 | ||
| Substance P-NK-1 Internalization following Noxious Stimuli | 7120 | ||
| Using Receptor Internalization to Deliver Therapies That Target Specific Classes of NK-1-Expressing Cells | 7120 | ||
| Summary | 7121 | ||
| Further Reading | 7122 | ||
| Neuropeptides Phylogeny and Evolution | 7124 | ||
| Introduction | 7124 | ||
| Duplications within Genes | 7124 | ||
| Gene Duplications | 7126 | ||
| Proposed Vertebrate Chromosome or Genome Duplications | 7128 | ||
| Phylogenetic Sequence Analyses | 7128 | ||
| Evolutionary Change of Neuropeptide Functions | 7129 | ||
| Summary and Conclusion | 7130 | ||
| Further Reading | 7131 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Discovery | 7132 | ||
| Introduction | 7132 | ||
| The Discovery of Neuropeptides | 7132 | ||
| The Organ Bath-Based Approaches | 7132 | ||
| The first neuropeptide and the enkephalins | 7132 | ||
| Two families of hormones that became neuropeptides | 7132 | ||
| Three schools of neuropeptide discovery | 7133 | ||
| The Nucleic Acid-Based Approaches | 7133 | ||
| Neuropeptides discovered as part of precursors | 7133 | ||
| Neuropeptides resulting from alternative splicing | 7134 | ||
| Neuropeptides found by subtractive hybridization | 7134 | ||
| Neuropeptides found by homology screening | 7134 | ||
| Neuropeptides found in silico | 7134 | ||
| The Orphan GPCR-Based Approach | 7134 | ||
| How Many Neuropeptides Are Yet to Be Found? | 7134 | ||
| Further Reading | 7135 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Electrophysiology | 7136 | ||
| Neuropeptides versus Classical Neurotransmitters | 7136 | ||
| Volume Transmission | 7136 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Synthesis, Release, and Degradation | 7136 | ||
| Neuropeptide Receptors | 7139 | ||
| Peptidergic Interneurons | 7139 | ||
| Peptidergic Synaptic Potentials | 7140 | ||
| Growth Factors | 7140 | ||
| Conclusion | 7141 | ||
| Further Reading | 7141 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Endocrine Cells | 7142 | ||
| Introduction | 7142 | ||
| Hormones Later Becoming Neuropeptides | 7142 | ||
| Neuropeptides Entering Endocrine Cells | 7142 | ||
| Messenger Coexistence in Endocrine Cells and Neurons | 7143 | ||
| Adrenal Medulla | 7144 | ||
| Islet Beta Cells | 7145 | ||
| Intestinal L Cells | 7145 | ||
| Coexistence of Peptides with Overlapping Functions | 7146 | ||
| Peptides with Dual Localization in Endocrine Cells and Neurons - Ontogeny and Phylogeny | 7146 | ||
| Role as Principal Hormone or as Co- Expressed Peptide | 7146 | ||
| Pathophysiological Aspects | 7147 | ||
| Concluding Remarks and Future Directions | 7147 | ||
| Further Reading | 7148 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Enteric Nervous System | 7150 | ||
| Neuropeptides in the Enteric Nervous System | 7150 | ||
| Identification, Quantification, Localization, and Biological Actions of Neuropeptides | 7151 | ||
| Establishing Physiological Functions of Enteric Neuropeptides | 7152 | ||
| Functional Role of Peptides in Enteric Circuits | 7153 | ||
| Changes in Peptide Levels and Their Receptors | 7156 | ||
| New Advances | 7156 | ||
| Further Reading | 7157 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Epilepsy | 7158 | ||
| Dale's Principle versus the Concept of Coexistence: Implications for Epilepsy | 7158 | ||
| Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | 7158 | ||
| Several Lines of Evidence Implicate Neuropeptides in the Mechanisms of Epilepsy | 7159 | ||
| Expression of Peptides and Their Receptors Are Altered in Epileptic Brain | 7159 | ||
| Exogenously Administered Neuropeptides Modify Seizures | 7159 | ||
| Animals with Altered Peptide/Peptide Receptor Expression Have Altered Seizure Phenotypes | 7160 | ||
| Other Evidence | 7160 | ||
| Clinical Data | 7160 | ||
| Other Neuropeptides | 7160 | ||
| Seizure-Induced Neuropeptide Plasticity: Maladaptive and Adaptive Changes in Epilepsy | 7160 | ||
| Same Neuropeptide Can Be Both Anticonvulsant and Proconvulsant | 7162 | ||
| In the Same Brain Area, the Neuropeptide Acts at Different Receptor Subtypes | 7162 | ||
| In Different Brain Areas, Activation of the Same Receptor Subtype May Have Opposite Effects on Seizures | 7163 | ||
| Same Peptide Acting at the Same Receptor Subtype Has Different Species- Dependent Effects | 7163 | ||
| Mechanisms of Seizure Modulation by Neuropeptides | 7164 | ||
| G-Protein-Coupled Inward Rectifier K+ Channels | 7164 | ||
| Adenosine Triphosphate-Sensitive K+ Channels | 7164 | ||
| Subthreshold Voltage-Gated K+ Channels | 7164 | ||
| Other Mechanisms | 7164 | ||
| Can Neuropeptides Be Turned into Antiepileptic Drugs? | 7164 | ||
| Nonpeptide Ligands for Peptide Receptors | 7164 | ||
| Peptide Modification | 7165 | ||
| Alternative Routes of Delivery | 7165 | ||
| Further Reading | 7165 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Food Intake | 7166 | ||
| Neuropeptide Y | 7166 | ||
| Agouti-Related Protein | 7167 | ||
| Melanin-Concentrating Hormone | 7168 | ||
| Galanin | 7169 | ||
| Orexins | 7169 | ||
| Opioid Peptides | 7170 | ||
| Conclusion | 7171 | ||
| Further Reading | 7172 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Mental Disease | 7174 | ||
| Introduction | 7174 | ||
| Substance P and Neurokinin Receptor 1 Antagonists in Depression | 7174 | ||
| Growth Hormone-Releasing Secretagogues - Multitasking Neuropeptides | 7175 | ||
| Modulating the Vasopressin System - A Yet Unexploited Therapeutic Strategy for Treating Anxiety Disorders and Depression | 7176 | ||
| The Role of Neurotensin in Causality and Treatment of Schizophrenia | 7177 | ||
| Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Signaling - New Targets for Drugs for the Treatment of Stress-Related Disorders | 7178 | ||
| Conclusion | 7180 | ||
| Further Reading | 7181 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Pain | 7182 | ||
| General Aspects of Neuropeptides and Pain | 7182 | ||
| Tachykinins | 7182 | ||
| Distribution, Receptors, and Plasticity | 7182 | ||
| Release and Function | 7182 | ||
| Possible Clinical Application | 7183 | ||
| Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide | 7183 | ||
| Somatostatin | 7183 | ||
| VIP, PACAP-27, and PACAP-38 | 7183 | ||
| Galanin | 7184 | ||
| Neuropeptide Y | 7184 | ||
| Opioid Peptides | 7184 | ||
| Cholecystokinin and Other Antiopioid Peptides | 7184 | ||
| Further Reading | 7185 | ||
| Neuropeptides: Sensory Systems | 7186 | ||
| Introduction | 7186 | ||
| Biochemical Characterization and Anatomy of Primary Sensory Neurons | 7186 | ||
| Nociceptive Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons | 7186 | ||
| Peptidergic and Nonpeptidergic Nociceptors | 7188 | ||
| Target-Derived and Injury-Derived Growth Factors | 7189 | ||
| Target-Derived Neurotrophins | 7189 | ||
| Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Cytokines | 7190 | ||
| Neuropeptide Plasticity Following Inflammation or Nerve Injury | 7190 | ||
| Inflammation | 7190 | ||
| Nerve Injury | 7191 | ||
| Function of Sensory Neuropeptides | 7192 | ||
| The Role of Sensory Neuropeptides in the Spinal Cord | 7192 | ||
| The Role of Peripherally Released Sensory Neuropeptides | 7193 | ||
| Further Reading | 7194 | ||
| Neurophysiology: Past and Present | 7196 | ||
| Introduction | 7196 | ||
| The Reflex | 7197 | ||
| Microstructure and Function | 7197 | ||
| Localization of Function | 7198 | ||
| Further Reading | 7200 | ||
| Neuroplasticity: Computational Approaches | 7202 | ||
| Introduction | 7202 | ||
| Different Induction Protocols for Bidirectional Synaptic Plasticity | 7202 | ||
| Biophysical Models for the Induction of Synaptic Plasticity | 7203 | ||
| Calcium-Dependent Models of Bidirectional Synaptic Plasticity | 7204 | ||
| Two-Coincidence Models and Other Pathways for Induction | 7205 | ||
| Modeling the Biochemical Pathways Leading from Calcium to Change in Synaptic Efficacy | 7207 | ||
| Models for Maintaining Synaptic Plasticity | 7208 | ||
| A Molecular Switch | 7208 | ||
| The Cluster Model | 7209 | ||
| Additional Mechanisms | 7210 | ||
| Discussion | 7210 | ||
| Further Reading | 7211 | ||
| Neuroprotection: Endogenous Mechanisms | 7212 | ||
| Introduction | 7212 | ||
| Triggering Phase | 7212 | ||
| Signal Transduction Phase | 7212 | ||
| Genomic Phase | 7213 | ||
| Cellular Targets of Protection | 7213 | ||
| Synaptic Dysfunction | 7214 | ||
| Mitochondrial Dysfunction | 7214 | ||
| Cerebral Ischemic Preconditioning: Clinical Relevance | 7215 | ||
| Conclusions | 7215 | ||
| Further Reading | 7215 | ||
| Neuroprotection: Pharmacological Approaches | 7218 | ||
| Introduction | 7218 | ||
| The Amyloid Hypothesis | 7218 | ||
| Cholinergic Deficits | 7218 | ||
| Oxidative Stress | 7219 | ||
| Excitotoxicity | 7219 | ||
| Loss of Trophic Support | 7219 | ||
| Selective Pleiotropism as a Consideration in Developing Pharmacological Neuroprotectants | 7220 | ||
| Closing Remarks | 7220 | ||
| Further Reading | 7220 | ||
| Neuroproteomics | 7222 | ||
| Introduction | 7222 | ||
| Proteomic Mass Spectrometry | 7222 | ||
| Subcellular Proteomics | 7223 | ||
| Profiling Synaptic Proteomes | 7225 | ||
| Synaptic Multiprotein Complexes | 7226 | ||
| Synapse Phosphoproteomics | 7229 | ||
| Approaches to Probe the Phosphoproteome | 7229 | ||
| Phosphoproteome enrichment strategies | 7229 | ||
| Mass spectrometry-based strategies for phosphorylation analysis | 7229 | ||
| Challenges of phosphoproteome analysis | 7230 | ||
| Application to the Synapse Phosphoproteome | 7230 | ||
| Neuroproteomics Perspective | 7232 | ||
| Further Reading | 7232 | ||
| Neuropsychological Testing | 7234 | ||
| Introduction | 7234 | ||
| Historical Perspective | 7234 | ||
| The Basic Premise of Neuropsychological Testing | 7235 | ||
| What Comprises a Neuropsychological Evaluation? | 7235 | ||
| Selection of Tests | 7235 | ||
| The Clinical Interview | 7236 | ||
| Test-Taking Effort | 7236 | ||
| Premorbid Level of Cognitive Functioning | 7238 | ||
| Analysis of Test Performance | 7239 | ||
| Emotional, Behavioral, and Personality Testing | 7239 | ||
| Final Interpretations and Recommendations | 7239 | ||
| Repeat Neuropsychological Testing | 7240 | ||
| Common Referral Questions for Adults | 7241 | ||
| Common Referral Questions for Children | 7241 | ||
| Conclusions | 7242 | ||
| Further Reading | 7242 | ||
| Neuropsychology of Primate Reward Processes | 7244 | ||
| What Is Reward and Where Is It Processed? | 7244 | ||
| What Is Special about Reward Processing in Primates? | 7244 | ||
| Amygdala | 7245 | ||
| Reward versus Punishment | 7245 | ||
| Neuropsychology in Nonhuman Primates | 7245 | ||
| What Is Different about Primates? | 7247 | ||
| Prefrontal-Amygdala Interactions | 7247 | ||
| Orbital and Medial Prefrontal Cortex | 7248 | ||
| Basal Ganglia | 7248 | ||
| Summary | 7250 | ||
| Further Reading | 7250 | ||
| Neuropsychology: Theoretical Basis | 7252 | ||
| Birth of Neuropsychology | 7252 | ||
| The Anatomo-Clinical Approach as a Main Root of Neuropsychology | 7252 | ||
| Decline of the Anatomo-Clinical Approach in the First Half of the Twentieth Century | 7253 | ||
| Return of Localization and Connectionism | 7253 | ||
| Technological Progress in the Aid of Neuropsychology | 7254 | ||
| Some Major Achievements of Neuropsychology | 7255 | ||
| Cognitive Neuropsychology: A New Neuropsychology? | 7256 | ||
| The Future of Neuropsychology | 7257 | ||
| Further Reading | 7257 | ||
| Neurosecretion (Regulated Exocytosis in Neuroendocrine Cells) | 7258 | ||
| Introduction | 7258 | ||
| Formulation of the Basic Concept | 7258 | ||
| Model Systems | 7258 | ||
| Extension of the Basic Concept: Secretion from All Parts of Neurosecretory Neurons | 7258 | ||
| Compartments of Neurosecretory Neurons | 7259 | ||
| Perikarya | 7259 | ||
| Axons and Their Specializations | 7259 | ||
| Dendrites | 7260 | ||
| Neurosecretory Vesicles | 7260 | ||
| Neurosecretion from Axons in the Posterior Pituitary and Median Eminence | 7262 | ||
| Electrical Activation of Release | 7262 | ||
| The Role of Calcium Transients in Neurosecretory Axons | 7262 | ||
| Mechanism of Exocytosis in Neurosecretory Axons | 7262 | ||
| Readily Releasable Pool of NeurosecretoryMaterial | 7263 | ||
| Modulation of Secretion from Neurosecretory Axons | 7263 | ||
| Role of Pituicytes: Neuronal-Glial Plasticity | 7263 | ||
| Role of Locally Secreted Factors | 7263 | ||
| Neurosecretion from Soma and Dendrites | 7264 | ||
| Dissociation of Axonal from Soma-dendritic Release | 7264 | ||
| Mechanism of Soma-Dendritic Release: Role of Calcium and Priming of Dendritic Release | 7264 | ||
| Role of Soma-Dendritic Release on Neural Glial Plasticity | 7265 | ||
| Further Reading | 7265 | ||
| Neurosteroids | 7266 | ||
| Introduction | 7266 | ||
| Terminology | 7266 | ||
| Historical Background | 7266 | ||
| Neurosteroid Synthesis and Metabolism | 7266 | ||
| Neural Cells Involved in Neurosteroid Synthesis | 7268 | ||
| Regulation of Neurosteroid Synthesis | 7268 | ||
| Mechanisms of Neurosteroid Actions | 7269 | ||
| Biological Significance | 7270 | ||
| Further Reading | 7271 | ||
| Neurotensin and Receptors | 7272 | ||
| Introduction | 7272 | ||
| Biosynthesis, Processing, and Degradation of NT | 7272 | ||
| Biosynthesis | 7272 | ||
| Processing | 7272 | ||
| Degradation | 7273 | ||
| Brain Distribution of NT | 7274 | ||
| NT Receptors and Signaling | 7275 | ||
| Localization of NT Receptor Subtypes | 7278 | ||
| NTS1 Receptors | 7278 | ||
| NTS2 Receptors | 7280 | ||
| NTS3 Receptors | 7281 | ||
| NT/Dopamine Interactions | 7283 | ||
| NT and Pain Modulation | 7284 | ||
| Feeding Behavior and Obesity | 7284 | ||
| Further Reading | 7285 | ||
| Neurotoxins | 7286 | ||
| Introduction | 7286 | ||
| Historical Background | 7286 | ||
| Criterion for Definition as a Selective Neurotoxin | 7286 | ||
| Nature of Neurotoxin Selectivity | 7288 | ||
| Mechanisms of Neurotoxin Action | 7288 | ||
| Oxidative Inactivation of Vital Cellular Elements | 7288 | ||
| Alkylation of Vital Cellular Elements | 7289 | ||
| Trojan Horse Neurotoxins | 7289 | ||
| Potential for Trojan horse neurotoxins | 7289 | ||
| Neurotoxicity Produced by Excitotoxicity | 7289 | ||
| Interference with Neurotrophin Stimulation or Ontogenetic Nerve Activity | 7289 | ||
| Targeted Antibody - Production of Neurotoxicity | 7290 | ||
| Nonselective Neurotoxin(s) with Specialized Use to Model a Disease State | 7290 | ||
| Neurotoxins for the Future | 7290 | ||
| Ideal Properties of a Neurotoxin | 7290 | ||
| Validation of a Neurotoxin | 7290 | ||
| Neurotoxins as Experimental Tools, and Limitations | 7290 | ||
| Neurotoxins as Therapeutic Agents | 7291 | ||
| Endogenous Neurotoxins and Neuroprotectants | 7291 | ||
| Selective Neurotoxins in the Twenty-First Century | 7291 | ||
| Further Reading | 7292 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 7292 | ||
| Neurotoxins and their Neurotoxicology | 7294 | ||
| Introduction | 7294 | ||
| Factors Governing Neurotoxicity | 7294 | ||
| Targets of Neurotoxic Chemicals | 7296 | ||
| Occurrence of Neurotoxic Disorders | 7298 | ||
| Neurotoxins as Experimental Tools | 7300 | ||
| Further Reading | 7300 | ||
| Neurotransmitter and Hormone Receptors on Oligodendrocytes and Schwann Cells | 7302 | ||
| Oligodendrocytes | 7302 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Receptors and Development | 7302 | ||
| Cell proliferation | 7302 | ||
| Cell migration | 7304 | ||
| e9780080446172v7 | 7569 | ||
| Front Cover | 7569 | ||
| Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | 7570 | ||
| Copyright Page | 7573 | ||
| Senior Editors | 7574 | ||
| Associate Editors | 7576 | ||
| Table of Contents | 7580 | ||
| Foreword | 7586 | ||
| Preface | 7588 | ||
| Volume 7 | 7588 | ||
| O | 7588 | ||
| Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder | 7590 | ||
| Introduction | 7590 | ||
| Genetics of OCD | 7590 | ||
| Functional Neuroanatomy of OCD | 7592 | ||
| Immunology of OCD | 7594 | ||
| Management of OCD | 7595 | ||
| Further Reading | 7596 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 7597 | ||
| Octopamine and Other Monoamines in Invertebrates | 7598 | ||
| Introduction | 7598 | ||
| Octopamine | 7598 | ||
| Tyramine | 7600 | ||
| Dopamine | 7601 | ||
| Serotonin | 7602 | ||
| Histamine | 7603 | ||
| Summary | 7603 | ||
| Further Reading | 7603 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 7604 | ||
| Oculomotor Control: Anatomical Pathways | 7606 | ||
| Cerebral Cortex and the Control of Eye Movements | 7606 | ||
| Saccadic Eye Movement Pathways | 7607 | ||
| Pursuit Eye Movement Pathways | 7609 | ||
| The Thalamus and Eye Movement Control | 7610 | ||
| Interactions between the Saccadic and Pursuit Pathways | 7611 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 7611 | ||
| Further Reading | 7612 | ||
| Oculomotor System: Models | 7614 | ||
| Introduction | 7614 | ||
| Oculomotor Plant | 7614 | ||
| Lumped Plant Models | 7614 | ||
| One Dimension | 7615 | ||
| Three Dimensions | 7617 | ||
| Muscle Pulleys | 7617 | ||
| Eye Movement Models | 7617 | ||
| Final Common Integrator | 7618 | ||
| Saccadic System Functions | 7618 | ||
| Brain Areas and the Lumped Model | 7619 | ||
| Superior colliculus | 7619 | ||
| Oculomotor cerebellum | 7619 | ||
| Neuromimetic Model of the Saccadic System | 7620 | ||
| The Brain Does Not Have a Desired Eye Movement Signal | 7622 | ||
| Further Reading | 7623 | ||
| Olfaction in Invertebrates: Drosophila | 7624 | ||
| Drosophila as a Genetic Model | 7624 | ||
| Anatomy of the Drosophila Olfactory System | 7624 | ||
| Development of the Olfactory System in Drosophila | 7624 | ||
| Odorant-Binding Proteins | 7625 | ||
| Odorant Receptors | 7626 | ||
| Organization and Response Properties of Odorant Receptors | 7626 | ||
| Central Processing of Olfactory Information | 7627 | ||
| Genetic Architecture of Olfactory Behavior | 7628 | ||
| Odorant Recognition and Behavior | 7628 | ||
| Gene Networks That Mediate Olfactory Behavior | 7629 | ||
| Further Reading | 7629 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 7630 | ||
| Olfaction in Invertebrates: Honeybee | 7632 | ||
| Olfactory Receptor Neurons and Glomeruli | 7632 | ||
| Glomerular Activity Pattern and Odor Identity | 7632 | ||
| Neural Processing in the AL | 7633 | ||
| Connecting the ALs with the Mushroom Bodies | 7634 | ||
| Learning-Related Plasticity in the AL | 7634 | ||
| Odor Processing in the MB | 7635 | ||
| Sniffing and Odor Discrimination | 7635 | ||
| Further Reading | 7637 | ||
| Olfaction in Invertebrates: Manduca | 7638 | ||
| Introduction | 7638 | ||
| Natural History | 7638 | ||
| Anatomy of the Olfactory System of Manduca | 7638 | ||
| Olfactory Receptor Cells | 7638 | ||
| The Antennal Lobes | 7640 | ||
| Beyond the Antennal Lobe | 7640 | ||
| Physiology and Behavior | 7640 | ||
| Odor Identification and Discrimination | 7640 | ||
| Sensitivity/Concentration Coding | 7643 | ||
| Temporal Resolution/Inhibition | 7644 | ||
| Conclusions | 7645 | ||
| Further Reading | 7646 | ||
| Olfactory Bulb Anatomy | 7648 | ||
| Laminar Organization of the Main Olfactory Bulb | 7648 | ||
| Neuron Types and Synaptic Organization, Chemical Synapses, and Gap Junctions | 7648 | ||
| Principal Neurons | 7648 | ||
| Local Circuit Neurons | 7650 | ||
| Granule cells | 7650 | ||
| Periglomerular cells | 7652 | ||
| Short-axon cells | 7653 | ||
| Chemical Synapses and Gap Junctions | 7656 | ||
| Centrifugal Afferents | 7656 | ||
| Structure of Nonrodent Mammalian Olfactory Bulbs, with Reference to the Organization of the Insectivore Olfactory Bulb | 7656 | ||
| Further Reading | 7658 | ||
| Olfactory Bulb Mapping | 7660 | ||
| Introduction | 7660 | ||
| Each Olfactory Bulb Contains Two Symmetric Maps | 7660 | ||
| Zonal Organization | 7660 | ||
| Glomeruli as Molecular Feature-Detecting Units | 7660 | ||
| Molecular Features of Odorants | 7661 | ||
| Combinatorial Coding | 7661 | ||
| Molecular Feature Clusters of Glomeruli in the Olfactory Bulb | 7662 | ||
| Molecular Feature Maps | 7662 | ||
| Representation of Basic Odor Quality | 7663 | ||
| Functional Roles of Molecular Feature Maps | 7663 | ||
| Olfactory Cortex Reads the Odor Maps in the Olfactory Bulb | 7663 | ||
| Further Reading | 7664 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 7664 | ||
| Olfactory Bulb Physiology | 7666 | ||
| Introduction | 7666 | ||
| Radial Glomerular Modules | 7666 | ||
| Olfactory Nerve Synapses | 7666 | ||
| Mitral Cell Apical Primary Dendrite | 7666 | ||
| Intraglomerular Microcircuits | 7669 | ||
| Lateral Interglomerular Circuits | 7669 | ||
| Short-Axon Cells in the Glomerular Layer | 7669 | ||
| Dendrodendritic Reciprocal Synapses | 7669 | ||
| Mitral Cell Basal Secondary Dendrites | 7671 | ||
| Granule Cell Dendritic Signal Integration | 7671 | ||
| Functions of Lateral Inhibition | 7672 | ||
| Centrifugal Modulation | 7673 | ||
| Parallel Olfactory Pathways | 7674 | ||
| Circuit Rewiring via Adult Neurogenesis | 7674 | ||
| Further Reading | 7674 | ||
| Olfactory Coding | 7676 | ||
| Introduction | 7676 | ||
| Encoding Olfactory Information at the First Olfactory Relay | 7677 | ||
| Oscillations and Fine Temporal Structure of Spiking in Olfactory Neurons | 7677 | ||
| Slow Temporal Patterning of Olfactory Neuron Responses | 7679 | ||
| Decoding Olfactory Information at Downstream Levels of Processing | 7680 | ||
| Conclusion | 7683 | ||
| Further Reading | 7683 | ||
| Relevant Website | 7683 | ||
| Olfactory Cortex Physiology | 7684 | ||
| Introduction | 7684 | ||
| Circuit Structure | 7684 | ||
| Synaptic Physiology | 7684 | ||
| Sensory Physiology | 7685 | ||
| Functional Implications | 7688 | ||
| Further Reading | 7689 | ||
| Olfactory Cortex: Comparative Anatomy | 7690 | ||
| Introduction | 7690 | ||
| What Is Olfactory Cortex? | 7690 | ||
| Rodent Piriform Cortex | 7690 | ||
| Organization | 7690 | ||
| e9780080446172v8 | 8859 | ||
| Front Cover | 8859 | ||
| Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | 8860 | ||
| Copyright Page | 8863 | ||
| Senior Editors | 8864 | ||
| Associate Editors | 8866 | ||
| Table of Contents | 8870 | ||
| Foreword | 8876 | ||
| Preface | 8878 | ||
| Volume 8 | 8880 | ||
| R | 8880 | ||
| Rab3 | 8880 | ||
| Introduction | 8880 | ||
| Cloning and Structure of Rab3 | 8880 | ||
| Rab3 Cycle and the Role of Auxiliary Proteins | 8881 | ||
| Rab3 Function in Membrane Traffic and the Role of the Effectors | 8882 | ||
| Further Reading | 8884 | ||
| Rab3A Interacting Molecules (RIMs) | 8886 | ||
| RIM Genes and Proteins | 8886 | ||
| RIM Discovery and Isoforms | 8886 | ||
| N-Terminal Zinc Finger Domain | 8886 | ||
| Zinc Finger/PDZ Domain Linker Sequence | 8886 | ||
| PDZ Domain | 8888 | ||
| C2 Domains | 8888 | ||
| RIM Function in Synaptic Transmission | 8888 | ||
| Presynaptically Expressed Forms of Long-Term Potentiation | 8889 | ||
| Probability of Release and Short-Term Plasticity | 8889 | ||
| Long-Term Potentiation at Schaffer Collateral to CA1 Synapses | 8890 | ||
| Inhibitory Synaptic Transmission | 8890 | ||
| RIM Proteins Are Critical for Normal Learning and Memory | 8890 | ||
| Overview | 8892 | ||
| Further Reading | 8893 | ||
| Radial Glial Cells: Brain Functions | 8894 | ||
| Introduction | 8894 | ||
| History and Definition | 8894 | ||
| Radial Glial Cells as Neuronal Stem Cells | 8895 | ||
| Role in Neuronal Migration | 8895 | ||
| Dissolution and Transformation | 8897 | ||
| Further Reading | 8898 | ||
| Reaching and Grasping | 8902 | ||
| Introduction | 8902 | ||
| Reaching | 8902 | ||
| Reaching in the Monkey | 8902 | ||
| Reaching in Humans | 8903 | ||
| Neuropsychological evidence | 8903 | ||
| Neuroimaging and transcranial magnetic stimulation evidence | 8904 | ||
| Grasping | 8905 | ||
| Grasping in the Monkey | 8905 | ||
| Grasping in Humans | 8905 | ||
| Neuropsychological evidence | 8905 | ||
| Evidence from neuroimaging and TMS | 8906 | ||
| Further Reading | 8907 | ||
| Reading | 8908 | ||
| The Perceptual Span in Reading | 8908 | ||
| Eye Fixations Reflect Ongoing Cognitive Processing | 8909 | ||
| The Processing of Words | 8910 | ||
| Processing of Syntax and Global Meaning | 8912 | ||
| Models of Eye Movements during Skilled Reading | 8912 | ||
| Summary | 8913 | ||
| Further Reading | 8913 | ||
| Reasoning and Problem Solving: Models | 8914 | ||
| Introduction | 8914 | ||
| Definition and Types of Reasoning | 8914 | ||
| Theoretical Perspectives on Reasoning in the Psychological Literature | 8914 | ||
| Cognitive Architecture | 8914 | ||
| Representation in Reasoning | 8915 | ||
| Mental Models versus Mental Logic | 8915 | ||
| Empirical Evidence on Reasoning from the Neuroscience Literature | 8916 | ||
| Deductive Reasoning | 8916 | ||
| Deductive versus Inductive Reasoning | 8917 | ||
| Problem Solving and Planning | 8918 | ||
| Causal Reasoning | 8919 | ||
| Analogical Reasoning | 8920 | ||
| Summary, Conclusions, and Future Directions | 8921 | ||
| See also | 8921 | ||
| Further Reading | 8922 | ||
| Receptor Trafficking | 8924 | ||
| AMPA-R Trafficking | 8924 | ||
| NMDA-R Trafficking | 8925 | ||
| Conclusion | 8926 | ||
| Further Reading | 8926 | ||
| Recognition Memory | 8928 | ||
| Introduction | 8928 | ||
| Recognition Memory Paradigms | 8929 | ||
| Lesion Studies of Recognition Memory | 8930 | ||
| Electrophysiological Studies of Recognition Memory | 8931 | ||
| Functional Imaging of Recognition Memory | 8931 | ||
| Computational Modeling of Recognition Memory | 8932 | ||
| Further Reading | 8932 | ||
| Red Nucleus | 8934 | ||
| Location and Subdivisions of the Red Nucleus | 8934 | ||
| Species Variation of the Red Nucleus | 8934 | ||
| The RNm | 8934 | ||
| RNm Anatomy | 8935 | ||
| RNm Function | 8936 | ||
| Chronic lesions and reversible inactivation of RNm | 8936 | ||
| Electrophysiological evidence of spinal projections from RNm | 8937 | ||
| Signals recorded from RNm | 8937 | ||
| The Contralaterally Projecting RNpc | 8938 | ||
| RNpc Anatomy | 8938 | ||
| RNpc Function | 8939 | ||
| The Ipsilaterally Projecting RNp | 8939 | ||
| RNp Anatomy | 8940 | ||
| RNp Function | 8940 | ||
| Summary | 8940 | ||
| Further Reading | 8940 | ||
| Referentiality and Concepts in Animal Cognition | 8942 | ||
| Introduction | 8942 | ||
| Referential Communication and Semanticity | 8942 | ||
| The Semiotic Triangle | 8943 | ||
| Thoughts | 8943 | ||
| Symbols | 8946 | ||
| Vocal repertoires | 8946 | ||
| Combinations of calls | 8947 | ||
| Referents | 8948 | ||
| Food discovery | 8948 | ||
| Predator detection | 8948 | ||
| Social events | 8949 | ||
| Conclusion | 8949 | ||
| Further Reading | 8950 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 8950 | ||
| Reflex Circuits | 8952 | ||
| Introduction | 8952 | ||
| The Hierarchical Organization of Spinal Circuits | 8952 | ||
| The Regulator | 8952 | ||
| Pattern Generating Networks | 8952 | ||
| Sensory Feedback Is Multivariable and Context-Dependent | 8953 | ||
| Golgi Tendon Organs | 8953 | ||
| Muscle Spindle Receptors | 8953 | ||
| Cutaneous Receptors | 8954 | ||
| Autonomic Reflex Circuits | 8954 | ||
| Reflexes Are Embedded in Neuromechanical Circuits | 8955 | ||
| Mechanical Component | 8955 | ||
| Neural Component | 8956 | ||
| Modularity | 8956 | ||
| Sensory Feedback Regulates the Mechanical Properties of the Musculoskeletal System and Promotes Coordination and Stability | 8956 | ||
| Reflex Circuits Are Subject to Peripheral and Central Modulation | 8957 | ||
| Further Reading | 8958 | ||
| Regulation of Cell Volume in Neural Cells | 8960 | ||
| Osmosis, Osmotic Pressure, and Steady- State Cell Volume Homeostasis | 8960 | ||
| Water Movement across Plasma Membranes | 8960 | ||
| Physiological and Pathological Perturbations of Cell Volume | 8960 | ||
| Methods of Cell Volume Measurements | 8961 | ||
| Ionic Mechanisms Responsible for Regulatory Volume Decrease in Swollen Cells | 8962 | ||
| Ionic Mechanisms Responsible for Regulatory Volume Increase in Shrunken Cells | 8962 | ||
| Gene Transcription Changes in Response to Cell Volume Alterations | 8963 | ||
| The Cell Volume Sensor | 8963 | ||
| Mechanisms of Volume Signal Transduction | 8964 | ||
| Physiological and Pathological Significance of Cell Volume Regulation in the CNS | 8964 | ||
| Further Reading | 8965 | ||
| Representation of Color | 8978 | ||
| Wavelength and Color | 8978 | ||
| Cone Photoreceptors | 8978 | ||
| Light Coding in Cone Photoreceptors | 8978 | ||
| Cone Opponency: Theory | 8978 | ||
| Cone Opponency: Implementation | 8979 | ||
| Cone Opponency: Relationship to Opponent Colors | 8980 | ||
| Color Processing in the Cortex | 8981 | ||
| Signal Mixing in V1 | 8981 | ||
| Color Processing in V1 | 8981 | ||
| Color Processing in V2 | 8982 | ||
| Color Processing in V4 | 8982 | ||
| Color Constancy | 8982 | ||
| Color Processing in MT | 8982 | ||
| Color Processing beyond V4/MT | 8983 | ||
| Conclusion | 8983 | ||
| Further Reading | 8983 | ||
| Representation of Movement | 8986 | ||
| Introduction | 8986 | ||
| Fundamentals of Motion Detection | 8986 | ||
| Psychophysics | 8988 | ||
| Anatomy | 8989 | ||
| Direction Selectivity | 8989 | ||
| Temporal Frequency and Speed Tuning | 8990 | ||
| Spatial Aspects of Receptive Fields | 8991 | ||
| Temporal Aspects of Motion Processing | 8992 | ||
| Higher-Order Aspects of Motion Representation | 8992 | ||
| Conclusion | 8993 | ||
| Further Reading | 8993 | ||
| Representation of Reward | 8994 | ||
| Definition of Reward | 8994 | ||
| Behavior and Behavioral Modeling | 8994 | ||
| Brain Mechanisms for Reward Evaluation | 8996 | ||
| Conclusions | 8997 | ||
| Further Reading | 8998 | ||
| Respiration | 9000 | ||
| Introduction | 9000 | ||
| Fundamental Elements of Ventilatory Control | 9000 | ||
| Breathing Is Automatic and Not Autonomic | 9000 | ||
| Ventilatory Control Processes | 9000 | ||
| Chemoreceptors and Chemoreflexes | 9001 | ||
| Sources of Chemoreceptor Feedback | 9001 | ||
| Central Chemoreceptors | 9001 | ||
| Peripheral Chemoreceptors | 9003 | ||
| Integrated Responses | 9003 | ||
| Time Domains of the Hypoxic Ventilatory Response | 9003 | ||
| Exercise Ventilatory Response: Feed-forward Control | 9004 | ||
| Adaptive Control Strategies: Respiratory Plasticity | 9004 | ||
| Respiratory Long-Term Facilitation following Acute Intermittent Hypoxia | 9004 | ||
| Chronic Intermittent Hypoxia | 9006 | ||
| Ventilatory Acclimatization to Chronic Sustained Hypoxia | 9006 | ||
| Developmental Plasticity in Ventilatory Control | 9006 | ||
| Modulation and Plasticity of the Exercise Ventilatory Response | 9007 | ||
| Age, Sex, and Genetics Influence Ventilatory Control | 9007 | ||
| Disorders of Ventilatory Control | 9007 | ||
| Sleep-Disordered Breathing | 9008 | ||
| Developmental Disorders | 9008 | ||
| Traumatic and Ischemic Neural Injury | 9008 | ||
| Neurodegenerative Diseases | 9008 | ||
| Genetic Diseases | 9008 | ||
| Psychiatric Disorders | 9009 | ||
| Ventilatory Control during Lung Disease | 9009 | ||
| Common Features of Ventilatory Control Disorders | 9009 | ||
| Further Reading | 9009 | ||
| Restless Leg Syndrome | 9010 | ||
| Further Reading | 9013 | ||
| Relevant Website | 9014 | ||
| Reticular Activating System | 9016 | ||
| Introduction | 9016 | ||
| Wiring Diagram | 9016 | ||
| Intrinsic Properties | 9017 | ||
| Ascending Effects | 9018 | ||
| Waking and the 40 Hz Rhythm | 9018 | ||
| Slow-Wave Sleep | 9018 | ||
| Spindles | 9019 | ||
| Delta waves | 9019 | ||
| Slow waves | 9019 | ||
| REM Sleep | 9019 | ||
| Muscle Tone and Locomotion | 9019 | ||
| Neuropharmacology of Sleep and Arousal | 9020 | ||
| Alcohol | 9020 | ||
| Anesthetics and Sedatives | 9020 | ||
| Antihistamines | 9020 | ||
| Stimulants | 9020 | ||
| Development | 9021 | ||
| Arousal and Sleep Disorders | 9021 | ||
| Further Reading | 9022 | ||
| Reticular Formation and the Brain Stem | 9024 | ||
| Histologic Structure | 9024 | ||
| Physiologic Effects of Reticular Cell Activity | 9026 | ||
| Input-Output Patterns | 9026 | ||
| Thalamic Extensions of Reticular Formation | 9027 | ||
| Further Reading | 9028 | ||
| Reticulospinal System | 9030 | ||
| Overview | 9030 | ||
| Anatomy of the Reticulospinal System | 9030 | ||
| Medial and Lateral Reticulospinal Tracts - Origins | 9030 | ||
| Part of the ventromedial system | 9030 | ||
| Laterality and terminations of the medial versus lateral reticulospinal tracts | 9031 | ||
| Medial Reticulospinal Tracts | 9031 | ||
| Lateral Reticulospinal Tracts | 9031 | ||
| Inputs to the Reticulospinal System | 9032 | ||
| Cortical Inputs | 9032 | ||
| Cerebellar Inputs | 9032 | ||
| Inputs for Initiation of Locomotion | 9033 | ||
| Tectal Inputs | 9033 | ||
| Somatosensory Inputs | 9033 | ||
| Auditory Inputs | 9033 | ||
| Functions of the Reticulospinal System | 9033 | ||
| Initiation and Regulation of Locomotion | 9033 | ||
| Preparatory and Anticipatory Aspects of Motor Control | 9034 | ||
| Movements and Muscle Recruitment Evoked by Electrical Stimulation | 9034 | ||
| Lesion Studies | 9036 | ||
| Summary and Implications | 9036 | ||
| Further Reading | 9037 | ||
| Retina: An Overview | 9038 | ||
| Photoreceptors | 9038 | ||
| Retinal Neurons | 9039 | ||
| Cellular Organization | 9039 | ||
| Outer plexiform layer: Horizontal and bipolar cells | 9039 | ||
| Inner plexiform layer: Amacrine and ganglion cells | 9040 | ||
| Ganglion Cells and Receptive Field Organization | 9041 | ||
| Retinal Synapses | 9042 | ||
| Neuronal Responses | 9044 | ||
| Photoreceptors | 9045 | ||
| Horizontal cells | 9045 | ||
| Bipolar cells | 9045 | ||
| Amacrine cells | 9045 | ||
| Ganglion cells | 9045 | ||
| Functional Organization of the Retina | 9045 | ||
| Pharmacology | 9047 | ||
| Conclusion | 9048 | ||
| Further Reading | 9048 | ||
| Retinal Amacrine Cells | 9050 | ||
| Introduction | 9050 | ||
| Amacrine Cell Morphology | 9050 | ||
| Amacrine Cell Neurotransmitters | 9051 | ||
| Amacrine Cell Physiology | 9053 | ||
| Examples of Specific Amacrine Cell Functional Roles | 9055 | ||
| AII Amacrine Cells | 9055 | ||
| Starburst Amacrine Cells | 9056 | ||
| Conclusions | 9058 | ||
| Further Reading | 9058 | ||
| Retinal Bipolar Cells | 9060 | ||
| Further Reading | 9065 | ||
| Retinal Color Mechanisms | 9066 | ||
| Color Vision Varies with Species | 9066 | ||
| Opponent Color and Double Opponent Responses in Fish | 9066 | ||
| Color Vision in Primates | 9068 | ||
| Yellow/Blue Color Vision | 9068 | ||
| Red/Green Color Vision | 9070 | ||
| Color Vision in the Periphery of the Retina | 9072 | ||
| Color Blindness in the Retina | 9073 | ||
| See also | 9073 | ||
| Further Reading | 9073 | ||
| Retinal Development: An Overview | 9074 | ||
| Ontogenesis and Organization of the Vertebrate Retina | 9074 | ||
| Cell Types of the Retina | 9074 | ||
| Proliferation of Retinal Progenitor Cells | 9074 | ||
| Interkinetic Nuclear Migration | 9074 | ||
| Oriented Cell Divisions | 9074 | ||
| Molecular Regulation of Retinal Cell Proliferation | 9075 | ||
| Spatial Control of Retinogenesis | 9076 | ||
| Lineage and Birth Date Relationships | 9076 | ||
| Competency Model for Retinogenesis | 9076 | ||
| Atoh7 and Regulation of Cellular Competence | 9077 | ||
| Postmitotic Cell Migration | 9077 | ||
| Modes of Migration | 9077 | ||
| Importance of Cell Polarity and Basement Membranes | 9078 | ||
| Regulation of Cellular Differentiation | 9078 | ||
| Coordination of Differentiation | 9078 | ||
| Chromatin Remodeling | 9079 | ||
| Cell Type-Specific Differentiation | 9079 | ||
| Protein Trafficking and Cellular Differentiation | 9079 | ||
| Neuronal Process Outgrowth and Synaptogenesis | 9080 | ||
| Cell Adhesion and Synapse Partnering | 9080 | ||
| Conclusions | 9080 | ||
| Further Reading | 9081 | ||
| Retinal Development: Cell Type Specification | 9082 | ||
| Multipotency of Retinal Progenitor Cells | 9082 | ||
| Coordinating Cell Fate and Proliferation | 9082 | ||
| Environmental Factors in Retinal Cell Fate Decisions | 9083 | ||
| Intrinsic Factors in Retinal Cell Fate Decisions | 9084 | ||
| bHLH and Homeodomain Transcription Factors | 9084 | ||
| Mu¨ller glial cells | 9085 | ||
| Bipolar cells | 9085 | ||
| Amacrine cells | 9085 | ||
| Ganglion cells | 9085 | ||
| Photoreceptor cells | 9086 | ||
| Horizontal cell | 9086 | ||
| Asymmetric Cell Divisions in Retinal Cell Fate Decisions | 9086 | ||
| Further Reading | 9087 | ||
| Retinal Ganglion Cells: Anatomy | 9090 | ||
| Introduction | 9090 | ||
| Midget Cells | 9091 | ||
| Parasol and Other Cells with Brisk Transient Responses | 9092 | ||
| Cells Responding Selectively to Short Wavelengths | 9094 | ||
| Other Wide-Field Cells | 9095 | ||
| Conclusions | 9095 | ||
| Further Reading | 9096 | ||
| Retinal Ganglion Cells: Receptive Fields | 9098 | ||
| Introduction | 9098 | ||
| Classification of Retinal Ganglion Cell Types | 9098 | ||
| Receptive Field Modeling | 9099 | ||
| Varieties of Retinal Ganglion Cells | 9100 | ||
| Conclusion | 9102 | ||
| Further Reading | 9102 | ||
| Retinal Glia | 9104 | ||
| Introduction | 9104 | ||
| Retinal Glial Cell Development and Morphology | 9104 | ||
| Muumlller Cells | 9104 | ||
| Astrocytes | 9104 | ||
| Microglia | 9104 | ||
| Glial Induction and Guidance of Retinal Blood Vessels | 9104 | ||
| Retinal Glial Cell Membrane Properties | 9105 | ||
| Ion Channels | 9105 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Receptors | 9106 | ||
| Transporter systems | 9106 | ||
| Calcium Signaling in Retinal Glial Cells | 9106 | ||
| Calcium Waves | 9106 | ||
| Light-Evoked Ca2+ Signaling | 9106 | ||
| Functions of Retinal Glial Cells | 9107 | ||
| Regulation of the Extracellular Microenvironment | 9107 | ||
| Regulation of neurotransmitters | 9107 | ||
| Regulation of pH | 9107 | ||
| Regulation of potassium | 9108 | ||
| Generation of the electroretinogram | 9109 | ||
| Modulation of Neuronal Activity | 9109 | ||
| Inhibition of ganglion cells | 9109 | ||
| D-serine regulation of NMDA receptors | 9110 | ||
| Regulation of Blood Flow | 9110 | ||
| Metabolic and Trophic Support of Neurons | 9110 | ||
| Further Reading | 9111 | ||
| Retinal Horizontal Cells | 9112 | ||
| Morphological Characteristics of Horizontal Cells | 9112 | ||
| Physiological Types of Horizontal Cells | 9114 | ||
| Luminosity-Type Horizontal Cells | 9114 | ||
| Chromaticity-Type Horizontal Cells | 9115 | ||
| Synaptic Transmission between Photoreceptors and Horizontal Cells | 9117 | ||
| Feed-Forward Excitatory Synapse | 9117 | ||
| Feedback Inhibitory Synapse | 9117 | ||
| Receptive Field Properties of Horizontal Cells | 9118 | ||
| Modulation of Horizontal Cell Physiology and Morphology | 9119 | ||
| Dopamine | 9119 | ||
| Nitric Oxide | 9119 | ||
| Retinoic Acid | 9121 | ||
| Functional Roles of Horizontal Cells | 9121 | ||
| Spatial Information Processing | 9121 | ||
| Color Information Processing | 9121 | ||
| Photoreceptor Modulation under Different Lighting Conditions | 9122 | ||
| Further Reading | 9122 | ||
| Retinal Models | 9124 | ||
| Introduction | 9124 | ||
| Unique Advantages of Retinal Models | 9124 | ||
| Differences with Respect to Classical Models | 9124 | ||
| Survey of Retinal Models | 9125 | ||
| Quantitative Models | 9125 | ||
| Linear systems | 9125 | ||
| Nonlinear effects | 9126 | ||
| Linear-nonlinear models | 9126 | ||
| Biophysical Models | 9127 | ||
| Voltage-gated channels | 9127 | ||
| Nonlinear subunits | 9127 | ||
| Direction selectivity | 9127 | ||
| Network Models | 9127 | ||
| Retinal Code | 9128 | ||
| Ensemble Activity | 9128 | ||
| Population codes | 9128 | ||
| Correlations | 9128 | ||
| Models of Light/Dark Adaptation | 9129 | ||
| Quantitative Models | 9129 | ||
| Biophysical Models | 9131 | ||
| Further Reading | 9132 | ||
| Retinal Pharmacology: Inner Retinal Layers | 9134 | ||
| Glutamate | 9134 | ||
| Distinct Glutamate Receptors Mediate Excitatory Light Responses in ON and OFF Bipolar Cells | 9134 | ||
| Glutamate is the Main Excitatory Transmitter of the Inner Plexiform Layer | 9135 | ||
| Synaptic Mechanisms Shape Excitatory Signaling in the IPL | 9136 | ||
| GABA | 9137 | ||
| GABAA and GABAC Receptors | 9137 | ||
| GABAB Receptors | 9138 | ||
| Glycine | 9138 | ||
| Acetylcholine | 9139 | ||
| Dopamine | 9139 | ||
| Neuropeptides | 9139 | ||
| Further Reading | 9140 | ||
| Retinitis Pigmentosa | 9142 | ||
| Further Reading | 9146 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 9147 | ||
| Retinoic Acid Signaling and Neural Patterning | 9148 | ||
| Retinoic Acid Signaling Plays a Role in Patterning of the Posterior Central Nervous System | 9148 | ||
| Spatiotemporal Aspects of RA Signaling in Early Mouse Embryos | 9148 | ||
| RA Is Not Required for Neural Induction | 9149 | ||
| Role of RA in Hindbrain Anteroposterior Patterning | 9149 | ||
| Role of RA in Spinal Cord Dorsoventral Patterning | 9150 | ||
| RA Antagonism of Fgf8 Expression in the Primitive Streak Controls Posterior Patterning | 9151 | ||
| RA Acts in a Paracrine Fashion to Regulate Posterior CNS Patterning | 9152 | ||
| Further Reading | 9152 | ||
| Retinomotor Movements | 9154 | ||
| Nature and Occurrence | 9154 | ||
| Mechanisms of Force Production for Retinomotor Movements | 9154 | ||
| The Photoreceptor Cytoskeleton and Force Production for Elongation and Contraction | 9154 | ||
| The RPE Cytoskeleton and Force Production for Pigment Granule Dispersion and Aggregation | 9156 | ||
| Intracellular Regulation of Retinomotor Movements: The Role of cAMP | 9157 | ||
| Regulation of Photoreceptor Retinomotor Movements by Paracrine Messengers | 9157 | ||
| Regulation of Retinomotor Movements in RPE Cells by Paracrine Messengers | 9158 | ||
| Functions and Significance of Retinomotor Movements | 9159 | ||
| Summary | 9159 | ||
| Further Reading | 9160 | ||
| Retrograde Neurotrophic Signaling | 9162 | ||
| Introduction | 9162 | ||
| Compartmentalized Nerve Cell Chambers Are Used to Study Retrograde Axonal Traffic | 9162 | ||
| Campenot Chamber | 9162 | ||
| Microfluidic Chambers | 9162 | ||
| Studying Retrograde NT Signaling In Vivo | 9162 | ||
| Retrograde Neurotrophic Signaling: Proposed Mechanisms | 9163 | ||
| Signaling Endosome Hypothesis | 9163 | ||
| NGF-Independent Retrograde Signaling | 9165 | ||
| Other Hypotheses | 9165 | ||
| The Nature of Intracellular Vesicles That Carry Retrograde NGF Signaling | 9165 | ||
| Role of MT/Dynein in Mediating Retrograde Transport of NT Signaling | 9166 | ||
| Disrupted Retrograde Transport NT Signaling in Neurodegenerative Diseases | 9166 | ||
| Summary | 9167 | ||
| Further Reading | 9167 | ||
| Retrograde Transsynaptic Influences | 9170 | ||
| Introduction | 9170 | ||
| Retrograde Signaling during Synapse Formation | 9170 | ||
| Synaptogenesis at the Neuromuscular Junction | 9170 | ||
| Synaptogenesis in the Central Nervous System | 9172 | ||
| Target-Dependent Control of Presynaptic Release Probability | 9172 | ||
| Retrograde Signaling and the Homeostatic Modulation of Presynaptic Function | 9173 | ||
| Conclusions | 9175 | ||
| Further Reading | 9175 | ||
| Retronasal Olfaction | 9176 | ||
| Introduction | 9176 | ||
| Definitions of Retronasal Smelling and Retronasal Olfaction | 9176 | ||
| Preliminary definition | 9176 | ||
| Final definitions | 9176 | ||
| Odorants from the Oral Cavity | 9176 | ||
| Sensory Systems for Retronasal Smelling and Retronasal Olfaction | 9176 | ||
| Oral cavity receptors | 9176 | ||
| Nasal cavity receptors | 9177 | ||
| Air and Odorant Movement and Access to Sensory Receptors | 9178 | ||
| Fluid flow | 9178 | ||
| Nasal cavities | 9178 | ||
| Oral cavity | 9179 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of Retronasal Olfaction and Retronasal Smelling | 9179 | ||
| Nasal Cavity Structure | 9179 | ||
| Nasal Cavity Sensory Systems | 9179 | ||
| Olfactory receptors are not permanent | 9179 | ||
| Trigeminal receptors are not replaced | 9179 | ||
| CNS Connections | 9179 | ||
| Olfactory bulb | 9179 | ||
| Trigeminal CNS nuclei | 9180 | ||
| Human Retronasal Responses | 9180 | ||
| Psychophysical Judgments | 9180 | ||
| Thresholds | 9180 | ||
| Identification | 9180 | ||
| Intensity | 9181 | ||
| Adaptation | 9181 | ||
| Interactions | 9181 | ||
| CNS Responses in Humans | 9181 | ||
| Odorant-evoked potentials | 9181 | ||
| Functional magnetic resonance imaging | 9182 | ||
| Clinical Relevance | 9183 | ||
| Further Reading | 9183 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 9183 | ||
| e9780080446172v9 | 9963 | ||
| Front Cover | 9963 | ||
| Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | 9964 | ||
| Copyright Page | 9967 | ||
| Senior Editors | 9968 | ||
| Associate Editors | 9970 | ||
| Table of Contents | 9974 | ||
| Foreword | 9980 | ||
| Preface | 9982 | ||
| Volume 9 | 9984 | ||
| S | 9984 | ||
| Slow Axonal Transport | 9984 | ||
| Overview | 9984 | ||
| Methods for Studying Slow Axonal Transport | 9984 | ||
| Accumulation Techniques | 9984 | ||
| Pulse-Labeling Techniques | 9984 | ||
| Imaging Techniques | 9986 | ||
| Two Distinct Subcomponents of Slow Axonal Transport | 9987 | ||
| The Kinetics of Slow Axonal Transport | 9988 | ||
| A Brief History of Experimental Studies on Slow Axonal Transport | 9988 | ||
| The Mechanism of Slow Axonal Transport | 9990 | ||
| A Unified Perspective for Fast and Slow Axonal Transport | 9991 | ||
| Furthur Reading | 9991 | ||
| SNAREs | 9994 | ||
| Introduction | 9994 | ||
| SNARE Structure | 9994 | ||
| Evolution of Ideas on SNARE Function | 9996 | ||
| SNAREs and Membrane Fusion | 9997 | ||
| SNARE Interactions with Other Conserved Components of the Fusion Machinery | 9998 | ||
| SNARE Interactions with Specific Components of the Release Machinery | 9999 | ||
| SNARE Specificity | 10001 | ||
| Outlook | 10001 | ||
| Further Reading | 10001 | ||
| Social Brain: Evolution | 10004 | ||
| Explaining Brain Evolution | 10004 | ||
| Theories for the Evolution of Large Brains | 10004 | ||
| Initial Explanations | 10004 | ||
| Asking the Right Questions | 10005 | ||
| Hypotheses for Brain Evolution | 10005 | ||
| Social Complexity | 10006 | ||
| The Nature of Social Cognition | 10007 | ||
| Cognition and the Brain | 10007 | ||
| Further Reading | 10008 | ||
| Social Cognition | 10010 | ||
| Introduction | 10010 | ||
| What Can Behavioral Studies Tell Us? | 10010 | ||
| Neural Activity Associated with Social Interactions | 10011 | ||
| Two Brains, Two Scanners | 10012 | ||
| Conclusions | 10012 | ||
| Further Reading | 10013 | ||
| Social Communication in Whales and Dolphins | 10014 | ||
| Introduction | 10014 | ||
| Vocal Learning | 10014 | ||
| Further Reading | 10017 | ||
| Social Emotion: Neuroimaging | 10018 | ||
| Neuropsychological Evidence for Discrete Neural Networks in Social Emotions | 10018 | ||
| Neuroimaging and Patient Research on Self-Awareness | 10019 | ||
| ToM and the MPFC | 10019 | ||
| Social Emotions and the Amygdala | 10020 | ||
| Social Emotions and the ACC | 10020 | ||
| Self-Conscious Emotions | 10021 | ||
| Imaging Moral Emotions | 10021 | ||
| Conclusions | 10022 | ||
| Further Reading | 10022 | ||
| Social Interaction | 10024 | ||
| Decision Making and Social Interactions | 10024 | ||
| Tasks | 10024 | ||
| Methods | 10026 | ||
| Findings | 10027 | ||
| The Caudate Nucleus | 10027 | ||
| Anterior Insula | 10028 | ||
| Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex | 10029 | ||
| Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex | 10029 | ||
| The Oxytocin System | 10029 | ||
| The Serotonin System | 10030 | ||
| Conclusion | 10030 | ||
| Further Reading | 10030 | ||
| Social Interaction Effects on Reward and Cognitive Abilities in Monkeys | 10032 | ||
| Introduction | 10032 | ||
| Primate Cognition | 10032 | ||
| Properties of Rewards | 10032 | ||
| Number | 10033 | ||
| Timing | 10033 | ||
| Impulsivity | 10034 | ||
| Inhibitory Control | 10034 | ||
| Memory | 10035 | ||
| Theory of Mind | 10035 | ||
| Primate Social Interactions | 10036 | ||
| Mutualism | 10036 | ||
| Kin Selection | 10036 | ||
| Reciprocity | 10037 | ||
| Punishment | 10038 | ||
| The Cognitive Psychology of a Cooperator | 10039 | ||
| Cognitive Constraints on Mutualism and Kin- Biased Cooperation | 10039 | ||
| Cognitive Constraints on Reciprocity and Punishment | 10039 | ||
| Individual recognition | 10040 | ||
| Number, amount, and time | 10040 | ||
| Inhibitory control and impulsivity | 10040 | ||
| Memory | 10040 | ||
| Theory of mind | 10040 | ||
| Conclusions | 10041 | ||
| Further Reading | 10041 | ||
| Social Stress in Adult Primates | 10042 | ||
| Introduction | 10042 | ||
| The Socioeconomic Health Gradient in Humans | 10042 | ||
| Sources of Variability in Health/Social Status Relations in Primates | 10043 | ||
| The Adverse Health Consequences of a Stressful Social Rank in a Primate | 10044 | ||
| Hypersecretion of Glucocorticoids | 10044 | ||
| Cardiovascular Pathologies | 10044 | ||
| Reproductive Impairments | 10044 | ||
| Immune Function | 10045 | ||
| Neurobiological Endpoints | 10045 | ||
| Conclusions | 10045 | ||
| Further Reading | 10045 | ||
| Sodium Channels | 10048 | ||
| Introduction | 10048 | ||
| Sodium Channel Subunit Structure | 10048 | ||
| Sodium Channel Genes | 10048 | ||
| Expression and Localization of Sodium Channel Subtypes | 10049 | ||
| Molecular Basis of Sodium Channel Function | 10050 | ||
| Three-Dimensional Structure of Sodium Channels | 10052 | ||
| Sodium Channel Pharmacology | 10052 | ||
| Sodium Channelopathies | 10053 | ||
| Further Reading | 10054 | ||
| Relevant Website | 10054 | ||
| Somatosensory Cortex | 10056 | ||
| Somatosensory Cortex in Mammals with Little Neocortex | 10056 | ||
| Prosimian Primates | 10057 | ||
| Monkeys, Apes, and Humans | 10057 | ||
| Modular Organization | 10059 | ||
| The Reorganization of Cortical Maps after Injury | 10060 | ||
| Further Reading | 10060 | ||
| Somatosensory Cortex: Functional Architecture | 10062 | ||
| Introduction | 10062 | ||
| Vertical Architecture | 10062 | ||
| Horizontal Architecture | 10063 | ||
| Model Systems of Functional Architecture | 10064 | ||
| Imaging the Functioning Somatosensory Cortex | 10065 | ||
| Cortical Function during Movement | 10066 | ||
| Attention, Distractions, and Goals | 10066 | ||
| Summary | 10067 | ||
| Further Reading | 10067 | ||
| Somatosensory Pathways (Ascending): Functional Architecture | 10068 | ||
| The Anterolateral Quadrant of the Cord | 10068 | ||
| Experimental Findings in Animals | 10068 | ||
| Clinical Findings | 10068 | ||
| The Dorsolateral Funiculi | 10069 | ||
| The Dorsal Columns | 10069 | ||
| Experimental Findings in Animals | 10069 | ||
| Clinical Findings | 10070 | ||
| The Primary Somatosensory Cortex (S1) as a Key Link between Ascending and Descending Somatosensory Pathways | 10071 | ||
| Further Reading | 10073 | ||
| Somatosensory Perception | 10074 | ||
| Introduction | 10074 | ||
| Measures of Spatial Sensitivity | 10074 | ||
| Sensitivity and Site of Stimulation | 10074 | ||
| Measures of Vibratory Sensitivity | 10076 | ||
| Measures of Temporal Sensitivity | 10076 | ||
| Temporal Summation | 10076 | ||
| Temporal Masking | 10076 | ||
| Effects of Aging | 10077 | ||
| Tactile Aids for the Blind and Deaf | 10078 | ||
| Tactile Aids for the Blind | 10078 | ||
| Tactile Aids for the Deaf | 10079 | ||
| Further Reading | 10079 | ||
| Somatosensory Plasticity | 10082 | ||
| Somatosensory Pathway Organization and the Hand | 10082 | ||
| Lesions of the Primary Afferent Neuron | 10084 | ||
| Peripheral Nerve Injuries and Amputations | 10084 | ||
| Dorsal Rhizotomy - Root Cut | 10085 | ||
| Spinal Cord - Dorsal Column Lesions | 10086 | ||
| Behavioral Consequences of Somatosensory Plasticity | 10088 | ||
| Neural Substrates for Reorganization in the Somatosensory Pathways | 10091 | ||
| Pathway Divergence and Disinhibition | 10091 | ||
| Terminal Sprouting and Synaptic Changes | 10091 | ||
| Atrophy, Transneuronal Atrophy, and Degeneration | 10092 | ||
| Neurogenesis? | 10092 | ||
| Further Reading | 10092 | ||
| Somatosensory Receptive Fields | 10094 | ||
| Introduction | 10094 | ||
| Peripheral Receptive Fields | 10094 | ||
| Receptive Fields of Neurons in SI Cortex | 10096 | ||
| Receptive Fields of Neurons in SII Cortex | 10100 | ||
| Conclusions anSummary | 10101 | ||
| Further Reading | 10102 | ||
| Somatostatin and Receptors | 10104 | ||
| Somatostatin | 10104 | ||
| Somatostatin Receptors | 10105 | ||
| Distribution of Somatostatin | 10106 | ||
| Distribution of Somatostatin Receptors | 10108 | ||
| Physiological Roles of Somatostatin | 10108 | ||
| Summary | 10109 | ||
| Further Reading | 10110 | ||
| Sonic Hedgehog and Neural Patterning | 10112 | ||
| Ventralization of Naive Neural Epithelium by Signals from the Notochord and Prechordal Plate | 10112 | ||
| Shh Patterns the Developing Spinal Cord | 10112 | ||
| Shh Is a Morphogen | 10112 | ||
| Shaping the Shh Gradient | 10114 | ||
| The Shh Response | 10115 | ||
| Is Shh Required for Neural Tube Patterning? | 10116 | ||
| Shh and Patterning of the Brain | 10118 | ||
| Small Molecule Inhibitors of Smo | 10118 | ||
| Further Reading | 10119 | ||
| Sound Localization: Neural Mechanisms | 10120 | ||
| Three Main Acoustical Cues to Sound Source Location | 10120 | ||
| Interaural Time Delays | 10120 | ||
| Interaural Level Differences | 10120 | ||
| Monaural Spectral Shape | 10122 | ||
| Neural Processing of Localization Cues in Three Parallel Pathways | 10122 | ||
| ITDs Are Processed in the Medial Superior Olive | 10122 | ||
| ILDs Are Processed in the Lateral Superior Olive | 10123 | ||
| Spectral Shape Cues Are Processed in the Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus | 10124 | ||
| Further Evidence for Processing of Localization Cues in Three Parallel Pathways | 10126 | ||
| Further Reading | 10126 | ||
| Sox Gene Expression | 10128 | ||
| Introduction | 10128 | ||
| Role of SOX Factors in Defining Neural Competence | 10128 | ||
| Role of SOX Factors in the Maintenance of Identity and Differentiation of Neural Progenitor Cells of the Central Nervous System | 10129 | ||
| Role of SOX Factors in the Maintenance and Differentiation of Neural Progenitor Cells of the Peripheral Nervous System | 10131 | ||
| Conclusion | 10133 | ||
| Further Reading | 10133 | ||
| Spasticity | 10136 | ||
| Introduction | 10136 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 10136 | ||
| Definitions | 10137 | ||
| Resolving the Inconsistency | 10137 | ||
| Measurement | 10139 | ||
| Clinical Scales | 10139 | ||
| Biomechanical Methods | 10141 | ||
| Electrophysiological Methods | 10143 | ||
| Treatment | 10144 | ||
| Future Work | 10145 | ||
| Further Reading | 10146 | ||
| Relevant Website | 10146 | ||
| Spatial Cognition | 10148 | ||
| Behavioral Studies of Spatial Cognition in Humans | 10148 | ||
| Spatial Abilities | 10148 | ||
| Multiple Frameworks for Spatial Representation | 10148 | ||
| Neural Basis of Spatial Cognition | 10148 | ||
| Impairments of Spatial Cognition in Humans | 10148 | ||
| Impact of Parietal Lesions in Humans on Spatial Cognition | 10148 | ||
| Impact of Parietal Lesions in Monkeys on Spatial Cognition | 10149 | ||
| Spatial Information Is Encoded in Multiple Reference Frames | 10150 | ||
| Head-centered spatial representation in the ventral intraparietal area | 10150 | ||
| Eye-centered spatial representation in the lateral intraparietal area | 10150 | ||
| Frontal Lobe Mechanisms of Spatial Cognition | 10152 | ||
| Head-centered and hand-centered visual receptive fields in premotor cortex | 10152 | ||
| Object-centered spatial representation in the supplementary eye field | 10153 | ||
| Conclusion | 10154 | ||
| Further Reading | 10154 | ||
| Spatial Cognition and Executive Function | 10156 | ||
| Introduction | 10156 | ||
| Parietal Lobe and Spatial Representations | 10157 | ||
| Anatomical Delineation of Parietal Cortex | 10157 | ||
| Parietal Lobe and Spatial Representations: Evidence from Hemispatial Neglect | 10157 | ||
| Parietal Lobe and Spatial Representations: Evidence from Lesion Analyses | 10159 | ||
| Parietal Lobe and Spatial Representations: Evidence from Functional Imaging Studies | 10159 | ||
| Effects of Spatial Selection: Enhancement of Sensory Signals | 10159 | ||
| Sources of Spatial Orienting Signal | 10160 | ||
| Sources of Nonspatial Orienting Signal | 10161 | ||
| Conclusion | 10161 | ||
| Further Reading | 10162 | ||
| Spatial Cognitive Maps | 10164 | ||
| Introduction | 10164 | ||
| Spatial Strategies | 10164 | ||
| Cue Navigation | 10164 | ||
| Guidance | 10165 | ||
| Routes | 10165 | ||
| Path Integration | 10165 | ||
| Allocentric (Place) Navigation | 10165 | ||
| Exploration and Spatial Cognitive Maps | 10166 | ||
| What Is the Information Stored in Spatial Cognitive Maps? | 10166 | ||
| Configurations of Cues and Geometry | 10166 | ||
| Distal versus Local Landmarks | 10167 | ||
| Metrics and Topology | 10167 | ||
| Neural Bases of Spatial Cognitive Maps | 10168 | ||
| Conclusion | 10169 | ||
| Further Reading | 10169 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 10169 | ||
| Spatial Memory: Assessment in Animals | 10170 | ||
| Introduction | 10170 | ||
| Is Spatial Memory Special? | 10170 | ||
| T-Mazes and 'Place' versus 'Response' Learning | 10170 | ||
| Egocentric and Allocentric Representations of Location | 10170 | ||
| Radial-Arm Mazes: Dissociating Working, Reference, and Associative Memory | 10171 | ||
| The Water Maze | 10172 | ||
| Spatial Manipulations of the Environment | 10173 | ||
| Path Integration and Reorientation Paradigms | 10173 | ||
| Exploration and Novelty | 10174 | ||
| Primate Studies: Object-in-Place Tasks | 10174 | ||
| Translation to Assessment of Human Spatial Memory | 10176 | ||
| Conclusions | 10177 | ||
| Further Reading | 10177 | ||
| Spatial Orientation: Our Whole-Body Motion and Orientation Sense | 10178 | ||
| Introduction | 10178 | ||
| Example | 10179 | ||
| Specific Sense Energy - Semicircular Canals | 10179 | ||
| Specific Sense Energy - Otolith Organs | 10180 | ||
| Vestibular Senses Information Coding | 10181 | ||
| Summary | 10183 | ||
| Further Reading | 10183 | ||
| Spatial Transformations for Eye-Hand Coordination | 10186 | ||
| Introduction | 10186 | ||
| Visual Representations of Reach Space | 10186 | ||
| Gaze-Centered Encoding of Reach Targets | 10186 | ||
| Updating of Spatial Memory | 10186 | ||
| Motor Coding of Reach Movements | 10188 | ||
| Shoulder-Centered Encoding of Reach Plans | 10188 | ||
| Planned Movement Vectors and Kinematics | 10190 | ||
| The Visuomotor Transformation | 10190 | ||
| Comparison between Hand and Target Positions | 10190 | ||
| Reference Frame Transformations | 10191 | ||
| Conclusions | 10193 | ||
| Further Reading | 10194 | ||
| Spectrin: Organization and Function in Neurons | 10196 | ||
| Introduction | 10196 | ||
| Structure | 10196 | ||
| The Spectrin Gene Family | 10197 | ||
| Spectrin Function | 10198 | ||
| Functional Sites in the Spectrin Molecule | 10198 | ||
| Actin Binding Domain | 10198 | ||
| Ankyrin Binding Domain | 10198 | ||
| Intersubunit Interactions | 10199 | ||
| PH Domain | 10199 | ||
| SH3 Domain | 10199 | ||
| Calpain Cleavage Site/Calmodulin-Binding Domain | 10199 | ||
| EF Hand Domain | 10200 | ||
| Distribution of Spectrin in Neurons | 10200 | ||
| Genetic Studies of Spectrin Function in the Nervous System | 10200 | ||
| Invertebrates | 10200 | ||
| Human betaIII Spectrin | 10200 | ||
| Murine betaIV Spectrin | 10201 | ||
| Further Reading | 10201 | ||
| Speech Perception: Adult | 10202 | ||
| Introduction | 10202 | ||
| Units of Speech Perception | 10202 | ||
| Context in Encoding | 10202 | ||
| Speech and Expertise | 10204 | ||
| Categorical Perception | 10205 | ||
| Influences from Other Sources of Information | 10206 | ||
| Theoretical Approaches | 10207 | ||
| Neural Processing | 10208 | ||
| Further Reading | 10208 | ||
| Speech Perception: Cortical Processing | 10210 | ||
| Introduction | 10210 | ||
| The Processing of Intelligible Speech | 10211 | ||
| Phonological Information: Phonological Features | 10211 | ||
| Phonological Information: Phonotactic Structure | 10212 | ||
| Psychological Factors: Categorical Perception | 10212 | ||
| Psychological Factors: Auditory Word Forms | 10213 | ||
| Speech Perception: Production Links | 10213 | ||
| Perception Fields Important in Production | 10213 | ||
| Production Fields Activated in Speech Perception | 10214 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 10214 | ||
| Further Reading | 10214 | ||
| Speech Perception: Development | 10216 | ||
| Introduction | 10216 | ||
| Perceptual Abilities at Birth | 10216 | ||
| Learning Language-Specific Sound Categories | 10216 | ||
| Learning Language-Specific Syllable Patterns | 10217 | ||
| Learning about Words | 10218 | ||
| Theoretical Approaches | 10219 | ||
| Challenges | 10221 | ||
| Further Reading | 10221 | ||
| Speech Perception: Neural Encoding | 10222 | ||
| Introduction | 10222 | ||
| Speech Acoustics | 10222 | ||
| Basic Response Properties of Auditory Nerve Fibers | 10223 | ||
| Responses of Auditory Nerve Fibers to Speech | 10224 | ||
| Steady-State Vowels | 10224 | ||
| Time-Varying Stimuli | 10226 | ||
| Representation of Speech by Cochlear Implants | 10228 | ||
| Further Reading | 10229 | ||
| Speech Production: Adult | 10230 | ||
| Introduction | 10230 | ||
| Vocal Tract Dynamics | 10230 | ||
| Measures of Muscle Output | 10230 | ||
| Methods and Studies of Speech Kinematics | 10230 | ||
| X-Ray Tracking of Orofacial Movements | 10230 | ||
| Orofacial Magnetometry | 10231 | ||
| Optical Three-Dimensional Tracking of the Face | 10231 | ||
| Tracking Tongue Movements | 10231 | ||
| Ultrasonic Imaging of the Tongue | 10232 | ||
| Tracking Velar and Laryngeal Movements | 10232 | ||
| Velopharynx | 10232 | ||
| Laryngeal Kinematics | 10233 | ||
| Videokymography | 10233 | ||
| Laryngeal Aerodynamics | 10234 | ||
| Chest Wall Kinematics | 10234 | ||
| Magnetometry | 10235 | ||
| Functional Neural Systems for Speech Motor Control | 10235 | ||
| Further Reading | 10237 | ||
| Speech Production: Development | 10238 | ||
| Introduction | 10238 | ||
| Developmental Anatomy and Physiology of Speech | 10238 | ||
| Methods for Studying Speech Development | 10239 | ||
| Speech Development in Infancy (0- 12 Months) | 10241 | ||
| Perceptual Findings | 10242 | ||
| Instrumental Findings | 10244 | ||
| Speech Development in Toddlers (12- 24 Months) | 10245 | ||
| e9780080446172v10 | 11213 | ||
| Front Cover | 11213 | ||
| Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | 11214 | ||
| Copyright Page | 11217 | ||
| Senior Editors | 11218 | ||
| Associate Editors | 11220 | ||
| Contributors | 11224 | ||
| Table of Contents | 11290 | ||
| Foreword | 11294 | ||
| Preface | 11296 | ||
| Volume 10 | 11296 | ||
| U | 11296 | ||
| Ubiquitin-Proteasome System and Plasticity | 11298 | ||
| The Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway | 11298 | ||
| Ubiquitin Conjugation | 11298 | ||
| Ubiquitin-Conjugating Enzymes: E1, E2, and E3 | 11298 | ||
| HECT domain E3s | 11299 | ||
| RING finger E3s | 11299 | ||
| The Proteasome | 11300 | ||
| The catalytic 20S core | 11300 | ||
| 19S RC | 11300 | ||
| Deubiquitinating Enzymes | 11300 | ||
| Ubiquitin and Endocytosis | 11301 | ||
| Regulation of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway | 11301 | ||
| Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway and Synaptic Plasticity | 11301 | ||
| Degradation of the R Subunits of PKA | 11301 | ||
| Synaptic Role of DUBs | 11302 | ||
| Role of the Proteasome in Synaptic Plasticity | 11303 | ||
| Presynaptic Role of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway: Degradation of Synaptic Vesicle Proteins | 11304 | ||
| Postsynaptic Role of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway: Modulation of Neurotransmitter Receptors, Structural Proteins, an | 11304 | ||
| Future Perspectives | 11305 | ||
| Further Reading | 11305 | ||
| Ultrastructural Analysis of Spine Plasticity | 11308 | ||
| Introduction | 11308 | ||
| Spine Structure and Function | 11308 | ||
| Spine Shape | 11308 | ||
| Localization of Organelles | 11308 | ||
| Postsynaptic Targets | 11308 | ||
| Amplification of Voltage in Spine Head | 11308 | ||
| Sharing of Postsynaptic Potential | 11308 | ||
| Biochemical Compartmentalization | 11309 | ||
| Enhanced Connectivity | 11310 | ||
| Synaptic Activity and Spine Organization | 11311 | ||
| Spine Stability and Turnover | 11311 | ||
| Perisynaptic Astroglia and Spine Structure | 11312 | ||
| Structural Synaptic Plasticity at Dendritic Spines | 11312 | ||
| Long-Term Potentiation | 11312 | ||
| Long-Term Depression | 11313 | ||
| Further Reading | 11313 | ||
| Relevant Website | 11314 | ||
| Ultrastructural Organization of Release Sites in the Calyx of Held | 11316 | ||
| Introduction | 11316 | ||
| Structural and Functional Maturation | 11316 | ||
| Distribution of Synaptic Contacts | 11316 | ||
| Ultrastructure of Synaptic Contacts at the P9 Calyx | 11317 | ||
| Ultrastructural Changes during Postnatal Maturation | 11318 | ||
| Ultrastructural Specializations of the Calyx | 11319 | ||
| Ultrastructure and Function | 11320 | ||
| Number of Releasable SVs | 11320 | ||
| Release Probability | 11320 | ||
| Molecular Composition of the AZ | 11320 | ||
| Comparison with Other Synaptic Contacts | 11320 | ||
| Conclusion | 11321 | ||
| Further Reading | 11321 | ||
| V | 11296 | ||
| Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease | 11322 | ||
| Introduction | 11322 | ||
| Clinical Features | 11322 | ||
| Clinical Investigations | 11323 | ||
| Neuropathology | 11324 | ||
| Peripheral Pathology | 11326 | ||
| PrPSc Biochemistry | 11327 | ||
| Animal Models for the Study of vCJD | 11327 | ||
| Transmission of vCJD by Blood Transfusion | 11328 | ||
| Current Developments | 11328 | ||
| See also | 11329 | ||
| Further Reading | 11329 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 11329 | ||
| Vascular Issues in Neurodegeneration and Injury | 11330 | ||
| Introduction | 11330 | ||
| Pathology of Vascular Disruption Following TBI | 11330 | ||
| Epidural Hematoma | 11330 | ||
| Subdural Hematoma | 11330 | ||
| Subarachnoid Hemorrhage | 11331 | ||
| Intraparenchymal Hematoma | 11331 | ||
| Alterations in Cerebral Blood Flow Following TBI | 11331 | ||
| Ischemia | 11332 | ||
| Uncoupling of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism | 11332 | ||
| Posttraumatic Vasospasm | 11332 | ||
| Molecular Mediators of Vascular Damage after TBI | 11332 | ||
| Calcium | 11333 | ||
| Prostanoid, Eicosanoid, and Reactive Oxygen Species | 11333 | ||
| Adenosine | 11334 | ||
| Nitric Oxide | 11334 | ||
| Endothelin-1 | 11335 | ||
| Neuropeptide Y | 11335 | ||
| Endothelium-Dependent Hyperpolarizing Factor | 11335 | ||
| Genetic Influences/Susceptibility to Vascular Changes after TBI | 11335 | ||
| Apolipoprotein E | 11335 | ||
| Summary | 11337 | ||
| Further Reading | 11338 | ||
| Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Peptide Receptors | 11340 | ||
| Structure | 11340 | ||
| Gene Regulation | 11340 | ||
| Mechanism of Action | 11340 | ||
| Receptors | 11340 | ||
| Cell Signaling | 11341 | ||
| Localization | 11341 | ||
| Physiology | 11342 | ||
| Developmental Role | 11342 | ||
| Gastrointestinal Effects | 11343 | ||
| Pulmonary Effects | 11344 | ||
| Cardiovascular Effects | 11344 | ||
| Endocrine System | 11344 | ||
| Immune System | 11344 | ||
| Behavioral Effects | 11344 | ||
| Neuroprotective Effects | 11345 | ||
| Pharmacology | 11345 | ||
| Transgenic Mice | 11346 | ||
| Role in Disease | 11346 | ||
| Therapeutic Potential | 11346 | ||
| Further Reading | 11347 | ||
| Vasopressin/Oxytocin and Receptors | 11348 | ||
| Introduction | 11348 | ||
| The Oxytocin and Vasopressin Peptides | 11348 | ||
| Gene Structures and Evolution | 11348 | ||
| OXT and AVP Gene Regulation and Functional Activity | 11349 | ||
| Pathological Conditions Related to OXT and AVP | 11352 | ||
| Vasopressin and Oxytocin Receptors | 11353 | ||
| Receptor Background | 11353 | ||
| Central Nervous System Distribution | 11353 | ||
| Experimental Approaches | 11355 | ||
| Further Reading | 11356 | ||
| Relevant Website | 11356 | ||
| Vegetative State | 11358 | ||
| Definition | 11358 | ||
| Occurrence, Etiology, and Time Course | 11358 | ||
| Neuropathology | 11358 | ||
| Therapy | 11359 | ||
| Electrophysiological Measures of Cortical Activity | 11359 | ||
| Metabolic Measures of Brain Activity | 11359 | ||
| Vegetative State and Neural Correlates of Consciousness | 11360 | ||
| The Problem of Pain Sensation | 11361 | ||
| Ethical Issues | 11361 | ||
| Further Reading | 11363 | ||
| VelociGene and VelociMouse: High-Throughput Approaches for Generating Targeted Mutations in Mice on a Genome-Wide Scale | 11364 | ||
| Introduction | 11364 | ||
| VelociGene: High-Throughput Gene Targeting in ES Cells | 11365 | ||
| Generating Large Targeting Vectors | 11365 | ||
| Using Large Targeting Vectors to Efficiently Target Mouse ES Cells | 11366 | ||
| VelociMouse: Rapid Generation of Genetically Modified Mice Suitable for Phenotyping | 11367 | ||
| VelociGene and VelociMouse Allow for High-Resolution Localization of Gene Expression, Thus Allowing Targeted Phenotyping for Fu | 11368 | ||
| Vergence Eye Movements | 11372 | ||
| Introduction | 11372 | ||
| The Near Response | 11372 | ||
| The Vergence System | 11375 | ||
| Vergence-Related Cortical Areas | 11375 | ||
| Vergence-Related Subcortical Areas | 11377 | ||
| Midbrain Premotor Neurons | 11377 | ||
| Behavior of Motoneurons | 11377 | ||
| The Accommodation System | 11377 | ||
| The Pupillary Near Response | 11378 | ||
| Further Reading | 11381 | ||
| Vertebrate Eyes: Evolution | 11382 | ||
| Introduction | 11382 | ||
| Structural and Functional Adaptations | 11382 | ||
| Photon Capture | 11382 | ||
| Lenses: Multiple Protein Types and Gene Sharing | 11383 | ||
| Origins of Eyes | 11384 | ||
| Functional Evidence about Eye Evolution | 11385 | ||
| How Did Eyes Evolve? | 11386 | ||
| Further Reading | 11386 | ||
| Vertigo | 11388 | ||
| Introduction | 11388 | ||
| Anatomy and Physiology of the Vestibular System | 11388 | ||
| Physical Examination of Vertigo and Imbalance | 11390 | ||
| Nystagmus and Lesion Localization | 11390 | ||
| Clinical Correlations | 11391 | ||
| Vertigo Lasting Days to Weeks | 11391 | ||
| Vertigo Lasting Minutes to Hours | 11391 | ||
| Vertigo Lasting Seconds | 11392 | ||
| Bilateral Vestibular Loss | 11392 | ||
| Vertigo of Variable Duration: Inner Ear Fistula and Superior Semicircular Canal Dehiscence Syndrome | 11392 | ||
| Inner ear fistula | 11392 | ||
| Superior semicircular canal dehiscence syndrome | 11393 | ||
| Vertigo of Central Origin | 11393 | ||
| Conclusion | 11393 | ||
| Further Reading | 11393 | ||
| Vesicle Pools | 11396 | ||
| The Concept of a Vesicle Pool | 11396 | ||
| Quantitative Treatments of the Readily Releasable Pool Concept | 11396 | ||
| Measurements of RRP Size | 11397 | ||
| RRP Measurement by Repetitive Stimulation | 11397 | ||
| RRP Measurement by Sustained Calcium Elevation | 11397 | ||
| RRP Measurement by Hypertonic Pressure | 11397 | ||
| RRP Measurement by Fluctuation Analysis | 11397 | ||
| On the Agreement between RRP Size Measurements | 11399 | ||
| Replenishment of the RRP | 11400 | ||
| Molecular Arrangement Underlying RRP Vesicles | 11400 | ||
| Other Vesicle Pools | 11400 | ||
| The Reserve Pool | 11400 | ||
| The Recycling Pool | 11400 | ||
| The Immediately Releasable Pool | 11401 | ||
| The Slowly Releasable or 'Reluctant' Pool | 11401 | ||
| The Docked but Unprimed Pool | 11401 | ||
| The High Calcium-Sensitive Pool | 11401 | ||
| The Spontaneously Released Pool | 11402 | ||
| Conclusion: The Pool Concept | 11402 | ||
| Further Reading | 11402 | ||
| Vesicular Neurotransmitter Transporters | 11404 | ||
| Introduction | 11404 | ||
| Vesicular Neurotransmitter Transport Is Driven by a Vesicular Proton Electrochemical Gradient | 11404 | ||
| Vesicular Monoamine Transport Is Mediated by Two Homologous Proteins | 11405 | ||
| The Vesicular Acetylcholine Transporter Is Structurally Related to the Vesicular Monoamine Transporters | 11407 | ||
| Vesicular GABA and Glycine Transport Activities Are Mediated by a Single Protein | 11408 | ||
| Vesicular Glutamate Transporters Define Glutamatergic Neurons | 11408 | ||
| Neuromodulators Are Also Stored in Vesicles and Released through Exocytosis | 11409 | ||
| Summary | 11410 | ||
| Further Reading | 11410 | ||
| Vesicular Sorting to Axons and Dendrites | 11412 | ||
| Neuronal Polarity - Axons versus Dendrites | 11412 | ||
| What Is Neuronal Polarity? | 11412 | ||
| Why Is Neuronal Polarity Important for Neuronal Function? | 11412 | ||
| Compartmentalizing the Plasma Membrane - Multiple Pathways | 11412 | ||
| The Secretory Pathway in Neurons | 11413 | ||
| Basic Features of Secretion | 11413 | ||
| Regulated versus Constitutive Secretion | 11413 | ||
| Endosomal Secretion | 11414 | ||
| Neuronal Adaptations of Secretion | 11414 | ||
| Polarized Membrane Traffic in Epithelial Cells - a Useful Analogy for Neurons? | 11414 | ||
| Mapping of Dendritic and Axonal Targeting Signals | 11415 | ||
| Dendritic Signals | 11415 | ||
| Axonal Signals | 11415 | ||
| A Role for Endosomes in Axonal Targeting Pathways | 11416 | ||
| Molecular Targeting Machinery | 11416 | ||
| Adaptor Complexes | 11416 | ||
| Exocyst Complex | 11416 | ||
| Rab Proteins | 11417 | ||
| Points of Regulation | 11417 | ||
| Further Reading | 11417 | ||
| Vestibular Influences on Cognition | 11418 | ||
| Vestibular Areas in the Cortex | 11418 | ||
| Influence of Body Tilt on Cognitive Tasks | 11418 | ||
| Body Tilt Influences on Visual Perception Tasks | 11418 | ||
| Body Tilt Influences on Mental Imagery Tasks | 11419 | ||
| Studies on mental rotation | 11419 | ||
| The subjective visual vertical | 11419 | ||
| Studies in microgravity | 11420 | ||
| Influence of Whole Body Movement on Cognitive Tasks | 11420 | ||
| Visual-Vestibular Interaction | 11421 | ||
| Further Reading | 11421 | ||
| Vestibular System | 11424 | ||
| Introduction | 11424 | ||
| Vestibular Sensory Organs and Afferents | 11424 | ||
| Otolith Organs | 11424 | ||
| Semicircular Canals | 11424 | ||
| Vestibular Afferents and Efferents | 11424 | ||
| Vestibular Nuclei and Their Projections | 11426 | ||
| Vestibular Reflexes | 11427 | ||
| Vestibulo-ocular Reflexes | 11427 | ||
| Vestibulospinal Reflexes | 11427 | ||
| Plasticity and Adaptability | 11428 | ||
| Further Reading | 11428 | ||
| Vestibulo-Autonomic Responses | 11430 | ||
| Necessity for Vestibulo-Autonomic Responses | 11430 | ||
| Studies of Vestibulo-Cardiovascular Responses in Animal Models | 11430 | ||
| Studies of Vestibulo-Respiratory Responses in Animal Models | 11432 | ||
| Studies of Vestibulo-Autonomic Responses in Humans | 11433 | ||
| Clinical Implications of Dysfunction of Vestibulo-Autonomic Responses | 11434 | ||
| Further Reading | 11435 | ||
| Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex | 11436 | ||
| Rotational or Angular Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex | 11436 | ||
| Translational Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex | 11440 | ||
| Tilt Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex | 11441 | ||
| Plasticity | 11441 | ||
| Neural Pathways | 11442 | ||
| Conclusion: Natural Behavior | 11442 | ||
| Further Reading | 11443 | ||
| Vestibulospinal System and Eye-Head/Neck Movement | 11444 | ||
| Introduction | 11444 | ||
| Anatomical Organization of Vestibulospinal Pathways | 11444 | ||
| Functional Physiology of Vestibulospinal System | 11445 | ||
| Other Descending Pathways Involved in Controlling Head Motion | 11446 | ||
| Biomechanical Comparisons of Eye and Head Movement | 11447 | ||
| Electromyographic Recordings of Neck Muscle Recruitment | 11449 | ||
| Afferent Information from Neck Muscles | 11449 | ||
| Summary | 11450 | ||
| Further Reading | 11451 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 11451 | ||
| Vibrissa Movement, Sensation and Sensorimotor Control | 11452 | ||
| Introduction | 11452 | ||
| Behavior | 11452 | ||
| Whisking | 11453 | ||
| Systems Description of the Sensorimotor Plant | 11454 | ||
| The Follicle | 11454 | ||
| The Mystacial Pad | 11454 | ||
| Brain Stem Loop | 11456 | ||
| Muscles of the Mystacial Pad | 11456 | ||
| Midbrain Loop | 11457 | ||
| Cerebellar Loops | 11460 | ||
| Thalamic-Forebrain Loop | 11462 | ||
| Neocortical Loop | 11462 | ||
| Back to the Brain Stem | 11465 | ||
| Mechanics of the Vibrissae | 11465 | ||
| Transmission of High-Frequency Signals | 11465 | ||
| Sensory Representation of Texture | 11466 | ||
| Sensory Representation of Object Location | 11468 | ||
| Neuronal Signals of Vibrissa Position | 11468 | ||
| Whisking-Dependent Contact Signals | 11470 | ||
| Sensory Modulation of Vibrissa Motion | 11472 | ||
| Brain Stem Mechanisms | 11472 | ||
| Cortical Mechanisms | 11472 | ||
| Epilog | 11473 | ||
| How Do Rats Map the Space about Their Vibrissa? | 11473 | ||
| How Do Rats Change Their Motor Output in Response to Vibrissa-Based Touch? | 11473 | ||
| Further Reading | 11474 | ||
| Viral Vectors in the CNS | 11476 | ||
| Applications of Viral Vectors in the CNS | 11476 | ||
| Viruses Used in CNS Studies | 11476 | ||
| RNA Viruses | 11477 | ||
| Retrovirus | 11477 | ||
| Lentivirus | 11478 | ||
| Alphavirus | 11480 | ||
| DNA Viruses | 11480 | ||
| Herpes virus | 11480 | ||
| Adenovirus | 11481 | ||
| Adeno-associated virus | 11481 | ||
| Experimental Applications for Viral Vectors in the CNS | 11481 | ||
| Modeling CNS Neurodegeneration in Animal Models | 11481 | ||
| Viral Vectors to Understand CNS Development and Organization | 11482 | ||
| CNS Diseases as Potential Targets for Gene Therapy | 11482 | ||
| Parkinson Disease | 11482 | ||
| Alzheimer Disease | 11482 | ||
| Expanded Trinucleotide Repeat Disorders | 11483 | ||
| Inborn Errors of Metabolism | 11483 | ||
| Ocular Diseases | 11483 | ||
| Tumors | 11484 | ||
| Epilepsy | 11484 | ||
| Trauma | 11484 | ||
| Conclusion | 11484 | ||
| Further Reading | 11485 | ||
| Visceral Pain | 11486 | ||
| Introduction | 11486 | ||
| Characteristics of Visceral Pain | 11486 | ||
| Visceral Innervation, Central Terminations, and Projections | 11486 | ||
| Supraspinal Projections | 11487 | ||
| Intrinsic (Enteric) Nerves | 11488 | ||
| Visceral Sensitivity and Hypersensitivity | 11488 | ||
| Mechanosensation and Nociceptors | 11488 | ||
| Sensitization | 11489 | ||
| Mediators and Modulators of Visceral Hypersensitivity | 11490 | ||
| Further Reading | 11491 | ||
| Viscero-Sensory Functions: Capsaicin | 11492 | ||
| Capsaicin as a Tool in Studies of Viscerosensory Function | 11492 | ||
| Capsaicin as a Selective Stimulating Agent | 11492 | ||
| Capsaicin as a Selective Desensitizing Agent | 11492 | ||
| Capsaicin as a Selective Neurotoxin | 11492 | ||
| Molecular Mechanism by which Capsaicin Affects Viscerosensory Functions | 11493 | ||
| Mechanism by which Capsaicin Excites and Sensitizes Visceral Afferent Neurons | 11494 | ||
| Mechanism by which Capsaicin Desensitizes or Kills Visceral Afferent Neurons | 11495 | ||
| Expression of Capsaicin-Sensitive TrpV1 Receptors in Viscerosensory Pathways | 11495 | ||
| TrpV1 Receptors in Extrinsic Visceral Afferent Pathways | 11495 | ||
| TrpV1 Receptors Expressed in Visceral Epithelium Cells | 11496 | ||
| Physiological and Pathophysiological Role of Capsaicin-Sensitive TrpV1 Receptors in Viscerosensory Functions | 11496 | ||
| Functions of TrpV1 Receptors in the Gastrointestinal Tract | 11496 | ||
| Role of TrpV1 in Bladder Function | 11497 | ||
| Role of TrpV1 in the Respiratory Tract | 11497 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 11498 | ||
| Further Reading | 11498 | ||
| Vision for Action and Perception | 11500 | ||
| Introduction | 11500 | ||
| Functional Models of the Two Visual Streams | 11500 | ||
| The Perception and Action Model | 11500 | ||
| Studies of Neurological Patients | 11500 | ||
| Studies in Nonhuman Primates | 11502 | ||
| Human Neuroimaging | 11503 | ||
| The Operating Principles of the Dorsal and Ventral Streams | 11503 | ||
| Conclusion | 11505 | ||
| Further Reading | 11507 | ||
| Vision: Light and Dark Adaptation | 11508 | ||
| Regimes of Adaptation | 11508 | ||
| Dark Adaptation | 11508 | ||
| Light Adaptation | 11510 | ||
| Rapid Adaptation Change | 11512 | ||
| Electrophysiological Evidence | 11512 | ||
| Further Reading | 11513 | ||
| Vision: Mechanisms of Orientation, Direction and Depth | 11514 | ||
| Primary Visual Cortex | 11514 | ||
| Orientation Tuning | 11514 | ||
| Functional Architecture | 11515 | ||
| Cortical Circuitry Underlying Orientation Selectivity | 11516 | ||
| Direction Selectivity | 11517 | ||
| Cortical Circuitry Underlying Direction Selectivity | 11518 | ||
| The Aperture Problem | 11518 | ||
| Disparity Tuning | 11518 | ||
| Conclusion | 11521 | ||
| Further Reading | 11522 | ||
| Vision: Surface Segmentation | 11524 | ||
| Introduction | 11524 | ||
| Boundary Detection | 11524 | ||
| The Feed-Forward Model of Surface Segmentation | 11525 | ||
| Surface Segmentation in Area V1 | 11526 | ||
| Influence of Recurrent Processing | 11528 | ||
| Lesion Studies | 11528 | ||
| Speed of Processing in the Visual System | 11528 | ||
| The Need for Recurrent Processing in Surface Segregation: Disambiguation | 11528 | ||
| The Need for Recurrent Processing in Surface Segregation: Object Identification | 11528 | ||
| Surface Segregation Is Part of a Dynamic Process | 11529 | ||
| Further Reading | 11529 | ||
| Visual Associative Memory | 11530 | ||
| Associative Memory in Vision: An Elementary Model for Declarative Memory Networks | 11530 | ||
| Neuronal Correlates of Associative Memory in the Monkey Inferior Temporal Cortex | 11530 | ||
| Inferior Temporal Neurons Establishing Visual Associative Links | 11530 | ||
| Forward Processing of Long-Term Associative Memory | 11531 | ||
| Retrieval Signaling in Visual Association Memory | 11533 | ||
| Two Types of Sustained Activities in the Delay Period | 11533 | ||
| Active Maintenance of Associative Mnemonic Signaling in the Monkey Inferior Temporal Cortex | 11534 | ||
| Global Network of Memory Retrieval | 11534 | ||
| Automatic Retrieval: Backward Spreading of the Memory-Retrieval Signal in the Temporal Cortex | 11534 | ||
| Active Retrieval: Top-Down Signal from the Prefrontal Cortex in Executive Control of Memory Retrieval | 11536 | ||
| Further Reading | 11538 | ||
| Visual Attention | 11540 | ||
| Selectivity | 11540 | ||
| Spatial Attention | 11540 | ||
| Directing attention into versus out of the receptive field | 11540 | ||
| Differential attentional effects inside the receptive field | 11540 | ||
| Attention can suppress responses | 11541 | ||
| Nonspatial Attention | 11541 | ||
| Feature-based attention | 11541 | ||
| Object-based attention | 11543 | ||
| Modulation | 11543 | ||
| Multiplicative Modulation of Tuning Curves | 11543 | ||
| Nonmultiplicative Consequences of Attention | 11543 | ||
| Saliency | 11544 | ||
| Comparing Response Modulation by Contrast and Attention | 11544 | ||
| Forming an Integrated Saliency Map by Spatial and Feature-Based Attention | 11545 | ||
| Top-Down and Bottom-Up Response Modulation | 11546 | ||
| Conclusion | 11546 | ||
| Further Reading | 11547 | ||
| Visual Cortex in Humans | 11548 | ||
| The Size and Location of Human Visual Cortex | 11548 | ||
| The Location of Primary Visual Cortex | 11548 | ||
| Measuring Visual Field Maps | 11549 | ||
| Anatomical | 11549 | ||
| Functional | 11550 | ||
| The Human V1 Map | 11550 | ||
| Extrastriate Visual Field Maps | 11551 | ||
| Visual Field Maps and Perception | 11553 | ||
| Visual Field Map Clusters | 11553 | ||
| Conclusions | 11554 | ||
| Further Reading | 11554 | ||
| Visual Cortex: Mapping of Functional Architecture Using Optical Imaging | 11556 | ||
| Introduction | 11556 | ||
| Properties of Optical Imaging of Intrinsic Signals | 11556 | ||
| Resolution | 11556 | ||
| Mapping of Multiple Visual Features | 11556 | ||
| Chronic Imaging: Development | 11556 | ||
| Chronic Imaging: Awake Preparation | 11557 | ||
| Combination with Other Methods | 11557 | ||
| Sources of Intrinsic Signals | 11557 | ||
| Functional Architecture of Visual Cortex | 11558 | ||
| Orientation Map | 11558 | ||
| Direction Selectivity | 11558 | ||
| Spatial Frequency | 11558 | ||
| Relationships between Maps | 11559 | ||
| Optimal Coverage | 11559 | ||
| Lateral Connections | 11561 | ||
| Development | 11562 | ||
| V2 | 11563 | ||
| Beyond V1/V2 | 11564 | ||
| Conclusion | 11564 | ||
| Further Reading | 11564 | ||
| Visual Cortical Models of Orientation Tuning | 11566 | ||
| Introduction | 11566 | ||
| Orientation Selectivity | 11566 | ||
| Feed-Forward Models | 11566 | ||
| Cortical Inhibition | 11567 | ||
| Feed-Forward Inhibition Model | 11568 | ||
| Cortical Excitation and Attractor Models | 11568 | ||
| NYU Models | 11568 | ||
| Untuned Suppression | 11570 | ||
| Spatial Phase in Models and in Experiments, and the Simple/Complex Dichotomy | 11570 | ||
| Gamma Frequency Oscillations in the Local Field Potential and V1 as Dynamical System | 11571 | ||
| Conclusions | 11571 | ||
| Further Reading | 11572 | ||
| Visual Deprivation | 11574 | ||
| Historical Perspective | 11574 | ||
| Normal Development | 11574 | ||
| Abnormal Development | 11575 | ||
| Binocular Deprivation | 11575 | ||
| Monocular Deprivation | 11576 | ||
| Orientation Selectivity | 11577 | ||
| Clinical Conditions | 11577 | ||
| Mechanisms | 11578 | ||
| Critical Period | 11578 | ||
| Competition | 11578 | ||
| Suppression | 11579 | ||
| Sensitivity of Nondeprived Eye | 11579 | ||
| Further Reading | 11579 | ||
| Visual Development | 11580 | ||
| Further Reading | 11587 | ||
| Visual Motion Detection | 11588 | ||
| Local Motion Processing | 11588 | ||
| Global Motion Processing | 11588 | ||
| Neural Structure and Motion Processing | 11590 | ||
| Motion Processing in Visual Cortex | 11590 | ||
| Further Reading | 11591 | ||
| Visual Motion Models | 11594 | ||
| Algorithmic Models of Motion Detection | 11594 | ||
| Cellular Models | 11595 | ||
| Common Properties of Motion Detector Models | 11597 | ||
| Performance of Motion Detectors | 11597 | ||
| Further Processing of Motion Detector Responses | 11599 | ||
| Motion in Two Dimensions | 11600 | ||
| Conclusions | 11601 | ||
| Further Reading | 11602 | ||
| Visual Signaling in Animals | 11604 | ||
| Introduction | 11604 | ||
| Behavioral Visual Signals | 11604 | ||
| Courtship Displays | 11604 | ||
| Parental Behavior and Aggression | 11605 | ||
| Morphological Visual Signals | 11606 | ||
| Colors and Patterns | 11606 | ||
| Enlarged Integumentary Features | 11607 | ||
| Body Size and Symmetry | 11607 | ||
| Extended Phenotypes: Where Morphology and Behavior Meet | 11607 | ||
| Signal Perception | 11608 | ||
| Further Reading | 11608 | ||
| Visual System Development: Invertebrates | 11610 | ||
| Introduction | 11610 | ||
| Evolution of Invertebrate Eyes | 11610 | ||
| Invertebrate Eye Types and Their Development | 11611 | ||
| Evolutionary Divergence among Invertebrate Eyes | 11611 | ||
| Mollusks and Arthropods | 11612 | ||
| Compound Eye Development in Drosophila | 11614 | ||
| The Eye's Connection with Its Visual Centers and Their Development | 11615 | ||
| Axonal Outgrowth and Pathfinding | 11616 | ||
| Synaptic Partner Selection and Synaptogenesis | 11617 | ||
| The Morphogenetic Interdependence of Eye and Visual Centers | 11618 | ||
| Plasticity | 11618 | ||
| Further Reading | 11618 | ||
| Visual System: Adaptive Regression and Progression in Subterranean Mammals | 11620 | ||
| Introduction | 11620 | ||
| Sensory and Brain Adaptations in Subterranean Mammals | 11620 | ||
| Sense Organs | 11620 | ||
| Visual Apparatus | 11620 | ||
| The Mosaic Evolution of the Spalax Eye: Morphology, Physiology, and Molecular Biology | 11621 | ||
| alphaA-Crystallin: Structure, Expression, and Evolution | 11624 | ||
| Adaptive Evolution of Small Heat Shock Protein/alpha B- Crystallin Promoter Activity of the Blind Mole Rat, Spalax ehrenbergi | 11624 | ||
| Retinal Photopigments in Spalax | 11624 | ||
| Coneopsin | 11624 | ||
| Rhodopsin | 11624 | ||
| Melanopsin | 11624 | ||
| Adaptive Loss of Ultraviolet-Sensitive/Violet-Sensitive Coneopsin | 11625 | ||
| The Evolution of Eyes and Photoreceptors | 11625 | ||
| Brain Evolution of Spalax | 11626 | ||
| Conclusions | 11626 | ||
| Prospects | 11626 | ||
| Further Reading | 11627 | ||
| Visual System: Functional Architecture of Area V2 | 11628 | ||
| Competing Local versus Global Views | 11628 | ||
| Functional Organization in V2 Is Modular | 11629 | ||
| Are There Functionally Distinct Domains in V2? | 11630 | ||
| Parallel Functional Channels in V2: A Useful Framework? | 11633 | ||
| Surface Properties | 11633 | ||
| Color Representation in V2 | 11633 | ||
| Color versus luminance preference domains | 11634 | ||
| Color: Topography of hue in V2 thin stripes | 11634 | ||
| Where is the blue response? | 11634 | ||
| A midlevel role in simultaneous contrast and color constancy? | 11635 | ||
| Brightness Representation in V2 | 11636 | ||
| ON and OFF responses | 11636 | ||
| ON and OFF domains in V2 | 11636 | ||
| Contrast response in V2: Thin stripes have greater dynamic range | 11636 | ||
| Real and illusory brightness representation in V2 thin stripes | 11637 | ||
| V1 Sees Local, V2 Sees Global | 11638 | ||
| Stereoscopic Depth | 11638 | ||
| Topography for Near-Far Disparity | 11639 | ||
| Orthogonality of Disparity and Orientation | 11640 | ||
| Absolute versus Relative Disparity | 11640 | ||
| Summary | 11640 | ||
| V1 Sees Local, V2 Sees Global | 11641 | ||
| Visual Contours | 11641 | ||
| Cue Invariance | 11642 | ||
| V1 Sees Local, V2 Sees Global | 11642 | ||
| Local versus Global Networks | 11643 | ||
| How Is a Contour-Specific Paired V1-V2 Signal Achieved? | 11643 | ||
| A Competitive Balance | 11643 | ||
| Summary | 11644 | ||
| Further Reading | 11645 | ||
| Visual System: Invertebrates | 11648 | ||
| Introduction | 11648 | ||
| Invertebrate Visual Pigments | 11648 | ||
| General Properties of Visual Pigments | 11648 | ||
| Opsin Evolution, with Special Reference to Invertebrates | 11648 | ||
| Special Features of Invertebrate Visual Pigments | 11649 | ||
| Invertebrate Photoreceptor Cells | 11650 | ||
| Invertebrate Eyes and Visual Optics | 11651 | ||
| Simple Eyes | 11651 | ||
| Compound Eyes | 11652 | ||
| Other Optical Designs | 11652 | ||
| Visual System Properties | 11653 | ||
| Vision in Dim Light | 11653 | ||
| Color Vision | 11654 | ||
| Polarized-Light Vision | 11654 | ||
| Conclusions | 11654 | ||
| Further Reading | 11655 | ||
| Visual System: Multiple Visual Areas in Monkeys | 11656 | ||
| Historical Overview of Visual Cortical Organization | 11656 | ||
| Modern Methods to Study Visual Cortical Organization | 11656 | ||
| Occipital Lobe | 11658 | ||
| Area V1 | 11658 | ||
| Area V2 | 11658 | ||
| Areas V3 and VP | 11660 | ||
| Area V3A | 11660 | ||
| Area V4 | 11660 | ||
| Areas MT, V4t (MTc), MST Complex, and FST | 11661 | ||
| Temporal Lobe | 11661 | ||
| Historical Overview | 11661 | ||
| Posterior ITG | 11662 | ||
| Central and Anterior ITG | 11662 | ||
| Superior Temporal Sulcus | 11662 | ||
| Parietal Lobe | 11663 | ||
| Frontal Lobe | 11663 | ||
| Hierarchical Organization of Visual Cortex | 11664 | ||
| References | 11665 | ||
| Visually Guided Behavior | 11666 | ||
| Introduction | 11666 | ||
| Optic Flow | 11666 | ||
| Controlling Optic Flow | 11666 | ||
| Keeping Still | 11666 | ||
| Compensatory Eye, Head, and Body Movements | 11668 | ||
| Saccadic Locomotion | 11670 | ||
| Using Optic Flow | 11670 | ||
| Shaping Optic Flow | 11672 | ||
| Optic Flow while Tracking Targets | 11672 | ||
| Vision and the Organization of Behavior | 11674 | ||
| Further Reading | 11676 | ||
| Visual-Vestibular Interactions | 11678 | ||
| Introduction | 11678 | ||
| Visually Transduced Information Concerning Self-Motion and Orientation | 11678 | ||
| Vestibularly Transduced Information Concerning Self-Motion and Orientation | 11679 | ||
| Visual-Vestibular Interactions for Determining the Direction of Translation | 11680 | ||
| Visual-Vestibular Interactions for Determining the Magnitude and Velocity of Translation | 11681 | ||
| Visual-Vestibular Interactions for Determining Tilt | 11681 | ||
| Visual-Vestibular Interactions for Determining the Axis of Self-Rotation | 11682 | ||
| Visual-Vestibular Interactions for Determining the Amplitude of Rotation | 11682 | ||
| Suppression of Visual Responses by Vestibular Signals | 11683 | ||
| Suppression of Vestibular Responses by Visual Signals | 11683 | ||
| The Detection of Conflict in Visual- Vestibular Interactions | 11684 | ||
| Conclusions | 11684 | ||
| Further Reading | 11684 | ||
| Vocal Communication in Birds | 11686 | ||
| Introduction | 11686 | ||
| Vocal Learning | 11686 | ||
| Peripheral Mechanisms of Vocal Production | 11688 | ||
| Song Function | 11690 | ||
| Species Recognition | 11690 | ||
| Song matching | 11691 | ||
| Song overlapping | 11692 | ||
| Eavesdropping | 11692 | ||
| Further Reading | 11693 | ||
| Voltage Gated Potassium Channels: Structure and Function of Kv1 to Kv9 Subfamilies | 11694 | ||
| Structure of Kv Proteins | 11694 | ||
| The Fast-Activating Kv Subfamilies | 11696 | ||
| N- and C/P-Type Inactivation of Kv Channels | 11707 | ||
| Kv1 (Shaker) Subfamily | 11707 | ||
| Neuronal Kv1.1-Kv1.6 channels are complexes of Kv1 and Kvbeta subunits | 11707 | ||
| Functional properties of Kv1 channels | 11709 | ||
| Kv1 channels mediate dendrotoxin-sensitive K+ currents | 11709 | ||
| Mutations in the gene encoding Kv1.1 cause episodic ataxia type 1 and epilepsy | 11710 | ||
| Kv1 channels in axons | 11710 | ||
| Kv2 (Shab) Subfamily | 11710 | ||
| Kv2 channels mediate the delayed rectifier current IK | 11710 | ||
| Modulation of Kv2.1 channels | 11712 | ||
| Kv3 (Shaw) Subfamily | 11712 | ||
| Functional roles of Kv3 channels | 11712 | ||
| Kv3 channels and neurotransmitter release | 11714 | ||
| Mutations in Kv3.3 channels cause spinocerebellar ataxia | 11714 | ||
| The Kv4 (Shal) Subfamily | 11714 | ||
| Kv4 channels use novel inactivation mechanisms | 11715 | ||
| Auxiliary subunits | 11716 | ||
| Modulation of Kv4 channel function by phosphorylation | 11717 | ||
| Kv7 (KCNQ) Channels | 11718 | ||
| Structural Features of Kv7 Pore-Forming Subunits | 11718 | ||
| Subunit Assembly of Kv7 Proteins | 11718 | ||
| Expression and Function of Kv7 Channels: The 'M' Current | 11718 | ||
| Diseases Associated with Kv7 Channels | 11720 | ||
| KCNQ1 and LQTS/JLNS | 11720 | ||
| KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 in neonatal epilepsy | 11720 | ||
| KCNQ4 and inherited deafness | 11720 | ||
| Modulation of Kv7 Channels | 11721 | ||
| Further Reading | 11722 | ||
| Relevant Website | 11722 | ||
| Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels | 11724 | ||
| Native Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels | 11724 | ||
| alpha1 (Cav) Subunits | 11724 | ||
| beta Subunits | 11726 | ||
| alpha2delta Subunits | 11727 | ||
| gamma Subunits | 11728 | ||
| Low-Voltage-Activated (T-Type) Calcium Channels: Cav3.1-Cav3.3 | 11729 | ||
| Cav3.1 Subunit: CACNA1G Gene | 11729 | ||
| Cav3.2 Subunit: CACNA1H Gene | 11729 | ||
| Cav3.3 Subunit: CACNA1I Gene | 11732 | ||
| High-Voltage-Activated Calcium Channels | 11732 | ||
| L-Type Calcium Channels: Cav1.1-Cav1.4 | 11732 | ||
| Cav1.1 Subunit: CACNA1S Gene | 11733 | ||
| Cav1.2 Subunit: CACNA1C Gene | 11733 | ||
| Cav1.3 Subunit: CACNA1D Gene | 11733 | ||
| Cav1.4 Subunit: CACNA1F Gene | 11734 | ||
| P/Q-Type Channel - Cav2.1 Subunit: CACNA1A Gene | 11734 | ||
| N-Type Channel - Cav2.2 Subunit: CACNA1B Gene | 11735 | ||
| R-Type Channel - Cav2.3 Subunit: CACNA1E Gene | 11735 | ||
| Regulation of Calcium Channel Activity - Interacting Proteins | 11736 | ||
| Further Reading | 11738 | ||
| Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels (Kv10-Kv12) | 11740 | ||
| Introduction | 11740 | ||
| The Kv10 (EAG) Subfamily | 11741 | ||
| The Kv11 (ERG) Subfamily | 11742 | ||
| Human Kv11.1/ERG1 and Cardiac Excitability | 11742 | ||
| hERG1 Gating in the Cardiac Action Potential | 11743 | ||
| hERG1 Activation and Deactivation | 11744 | ||
| hERG1 Inactivation Mechanisms | 11744 | ||
| Mechanisms of hERG1 Drug Block | 11744 | ||
| Modulation of Gating by the N-Terminus | 11745 | ||
| Two hERG1 Subunits Contribute to IKr | 11745 | ||
| hERG Channels and Neuronal Function | 11745 | ||
| The Kv12 (ELK) Subfamily | 11746 | ||
| The Future: Functional Roles of Kv10-12 Channels in the Nervous System | 11746 | ||
| Further Reading | 11747 | ||
| Vomeronasal Accessory System | 11750 | ||
| The Accessory Olfactory System | 11750 | ||
| Basic Anatomical Organization of the VNO | 11750 | ||
| Stimulus Detection Strategies | 11750 | ||
| Diversity of Chemosignals Detected by the VNO | 11752 | ||
| VNO Signal Transduction: Transient Receptor Potential Channels and Phosphoinositide Signaling | 11753 | ||
| Functional Organization of the AOB | 11754 | ||
| VNO Sensing and the Modification of Behaviors | 11755 | ||
| Conclusion | 11755 | ||
| Further Reading | 11756 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 11756 | ||
| Vomeronasal System Evolution | 11758 | ||
| Introduction | 11758 | ||
| History | 11758 | ||
| Distribution across Vertebrates | 11758 | ||
| Morphological Diversity | 11758 | ||
| The Vomeronasal Organ | 11758 | ||
| The Accessory Olfactory Bulb | 11759 | ||
| Glandular Apparatus | 11760 | ||
| The Capsule | 11761 | ||
| The Receptor-Free Epithelium | 11762 | ||
| The Vomeronasal Nerves and Paravomeronasal Ganglia | 11763 | ||
| Development | 11763 | ||
| Vomeronasal Organ | 11763 | ||
| Do Humans Have a Vomeronasal Organ? | 11763 | ||
| Evolutionary Patterns | 11764 | ||
| Structural Diversity | 11764 | ||
| Variations of the Vomeronasal System | 11765 | ||
| Conclusions | 11766 | ||
| The VNO in Extant Tetrapods | 11766 | ||
| An Elusive Ancestral Function | 11766 | ||
| Further Reading | 11767 | ||
| Relevant Website | 11767 | ||
| Voxel Based Morphometry | 11768 | ||
| Introduction | 11768 | ||
| Preparing the Data | 11768 | ||
| Segmentation | 11768 | ||
| Spatial Normalization | 11769 | ||
| Jacobian Adjustment | 11769 | ||
| Smoothing | 11770 | ||
| Statistical Modeling and Inference | 11770 | ||
| Global Normalization and Other Confounds | 11772 | ||
| Inference | 11773 | ||
| VBM in Clinical Research | 11774 | ||
| Further Reading | 11774 | ||
| W | 11296 | ||
| Walking in Invertebrates | 11776 | ||
| Introduction | 11776 | ||
| Gaits | 11776 | ||
| Neural Control | 11777 | ||
| Generating Rhythmic Movement | 11777 | ||
| Coupling Rhythmic Generators | 11778 | ||
| Sensory Feedback and Rhythm Generation | 11779 | ||
| Control of Walking | 11779 | ||
| Modulation of Walking | 11780 | ||
| Practical Ramifications | 11780 | ||
| Further Reading | 11781 | ||
| Wallerian Degeneration | 11782 | ||
| Introduction | 11782 | ||
| Morphologic Changes during Wallerian Degeneration of Peripheral Nerve | 11782 | ||
| Axonal Changes Following Nerve Transection | 11782 | ||
| Schwann Cell Changes Following Nerve Transection | 11783 | ||
| Macrophage Recruitment and Action Following Nerve Transection | 11784 | ||
| Neuronal Regenerative Responses Following Nerve Transection | 11784 | ||
| Molecular Alterations Occurring during Wallerian Degeneration of Peripheral Nerve | 11785 | ||
| A Comparison of Wallerian Degeneration in the PNS and CNS | 11786 | ||
| Recent Findings Indicating that Axonal Degeneration Results from Active Self- Destruction Rather than Simple Atrophy of Severed | 11787 | ||
| Further Reading | 11788 | ||
| Wilson's Disease | 11790 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 11790 | ||
| Clinical Picture | 11791 | ||
| Treatment and Perspectives | 11792 | ||
| Further Reading | 11792 | ||
| Wnt Pathway and Neural Patterning | 11794 | ||
| Introduction | 11794 | ||
| Secretion of the Wnt Protein | 11794 | ||
| Canonical Pathway - Wnt Receptors and Alternative Ligands | 11794 | ||
| Canonical Pathway - Events in the Cytosol | 11795 | ||
| Canonical Pathway - Events in the Nucleus | 11796 | ||
| The Canonical Pathway in Xenopus Axis Specification | 11796 | ||
| Wnt Signaling in Synapse Development - Divergent Pathways and Diverse Mechanisms | 11796 | ||
| Wnt Signaling and Ca2 | 11798 | ||
| Summary | 11798 | ||
| Further Reading | 11799 | ||
| Word Learning | 11800 | ||
| Defining the Problem | 11800 | ||
| Word Learning across Development | 11801 | ||
| Word Learning as Induction | 11802 | ||
| Constraints and Biases on Hypothesized Meanings | 11802 | ||
| Social Cues to Reference | 11803 | ||
| Sentential Contexts as Cues to Word Meanings | 11804 | ||
| Final Words | 11804 | ||
| Further Reading | 11805 | ||
| Word Production | 11806 | ||
| Introduction | 11806 | ||
| The Functional Architecture of Word Production | 11806 | ||
| Conceptual Preparation | 11806 | ||
| Lexical Processing | 11807 | ||
| Phonological Processing | 11808 | ||
| Self-Monitoring | 11810 | ||
| Information Flow in the Functional Architecture: Modularity versus Interactivity | 11810 | ||
| Neural Correlates of the Functional Architecture | 11810 | ||
| Summary and Future Directions | 11811 | ||
| Further Reading | 11813 | ||
| Word Recognition | 11814 | ||
| Factors That Influence Word Recognition | 11814 | ||
| Frequency | 11814 | ||
| Neighborhood Effects | 11814 | ||
| Mapping from Spelling to Sound in Visual Word Recognition | 11815 | ||
| Word Recognition Influences Lower Levels of Processing | 11815 | ||
| Phoneme Restoration and the Ganong Effect | 11815 | ||
| The Reicher-Wheeler Effect and 'Interactive Activation' | 11816 | ||
| Word Recognition Models and Controversies in Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience | 11816 | ||
| Interactive Processing with Feedback or Autonomous, Feed-Forward Processing? | 11816 | ||
| 'Words and Rules' or 'Constraint Satisfaction'? | 11817 | ||
| Neuroanatomy of Word Recognition | 11818 | ||
| Superior Temporal Gyrus and Superior Temporal Sulcus | 11818 | ||
| Inferior Frontal Gyrus | 11818 | ||
| The 'Visual Word Form Area' | 11818 | ||
| Summary | 11819 | ||
| Further Reading | 11819 | ||
| Working Memory: Capacity Limitations | 11820 | ||
| Working Memory System | 11820 | ||
| Capacity Limits: Central or Modality-Specific? | 11820 | ||
| Overview and Approach | 11820 | ||
| Verbal Working Memory Capacity - Memory Span Tasks | 11820 | ||
| Chunking of Information | 11821 | ||
| Phonological Coding of Verbal Information | 11821 | ||
| Visual Working Memory Capacity: Whole Report | 11821 | ||
| Visual Working Memory Capacity: Features and Objects | 11822 | ||
| Units of Capacity: Objects or Information Load? | 11822 | ||
| Neural Measures of Working Memory Capacity | 11823 | ||
| Neuroimaging | 11823 | ||
| Electrophysiological measures | 11824 | ||
| Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity | 11825 | ||
| Intelligence and Working Memory Capacity | 11825 | ||
| Attentional Control and Working Memory Capacity | 11826 | ||
| Further Reading | 11828 | ||
| Writer's Cramp | 11830 | ||
| Background | 11830 | ||
| Clinical Presentation | 11830 | ||
| Demographics | 11830 | ||
| Clinical Features | 11830 | ||
| Differential Diagnosis | 11830 | ||
| Etiology | 11831 | ||
| Environmental factors | 11831 | ||
| Genetic factors | 11831 | ||
| Diagnostic Workup | 11831 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 11831 | ||
| Motor System | 11831 | ||
| Task specificity | 11831 | ||
| Increased excitability | 11831 | ||
| Abnormal plasticity | 11831 | ||
| Decreased inhibition | 11832 | ||
| Motor changes as an endophenotype | 11832 | ||
| Sensory System | 11832 | ||
| Clinical and subclinical sensory impairment | 11832 | ||
| Abnormal cortical sensory representation | 11832 | ||
| Increased excitability and reduced inhibition | 11832 | ||
| Abnormal sensorimotor integration | 11832 | ||
| Sensory changes as an endophenotype | 11833 | ||
| Prognosis and Treatment | 11833 | ||
| Behavioral Changes | 11833 | ||
| Oral Medications | 11833 | ||
| Botulinum Toxin Injections | 11833 | ||
| Surgical Treatment | 11833 | ||
| Disease Modification | 11833 | ||
| Further Reading | 11834 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 11834 | ||
| Z | 11296 | ||
| Zoster and Postherpetic Neuralgia | 11836 | ||
| Herpes Zoster | 11836 | ||
| Historical Background | 11836 | ||
| Incidence | 11836 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 11836 | ||
| Clinical Symptoms | 11837 | ||
| Physical Exam | 11837 | ||
| Therapy | 11837 | ||
| Topical applications | 11837 | ||
| Symptomatic treatment | 11837 | ||
| Antivirals | 11837 | ||
| Regional anesthetics and corticosteroids | 11837 | ||
| Postherpetic Neuralgia | 11838 | ||
| Definitions | 11838 | ||
| Incidence | 11838 | ||
| Disease Course | 11838 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 11838 | ||
| Preventing Conversion from Acute Herpes Zoster to Postherpetic Neuralgia | 11838 | ||
| Management of Chronic Cases | 11838 | ||
| Topical applications | 11838 | ||
| Antidepressant medications | 11838 | ||
| Tricyclic antidepressants | 11838 | ||
| Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors versus selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors | 11839 | ||
| Anticonvulsant medications | 11839 | ||
| Opioid medications | 11839 | ||
| Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation | 11839 | ||
| Regional blocks | 11840 | ||
| Surgical treatment | 11840 | ||
| Rhizotomy of the dorsal root entry zone | 11840 | ||
| Cryotherapy | 11840 | ||
| Spinal cord stimulation. | 11840 | ||
| Alternative medicine | 11840 | ||
| Acupuncture | 11840 | ||
| Herbal therapy | 11840 | ||
| Conclusions | 11840 | ||
| Further Reading | 11841 | ||
| Subject Index | 11842 |