BOOK
International Encyclopedia of Education
Penelope Peterson | Rob Tierney | Eva Baker | Barry McGaw
(2009)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
The field of education has experienced extraordinary technological, societal, and institutional change in recent years, making it one of the most fascinating yet complex fields of study in social science.
Unequalled in its combination of authoritative scholarship and comprehensive coverage, International Encyclopedia of Education, Third Edition succeeds two highly successful previous editions (1985, 1994) in aiming to encapsulate research in this vibrant field for the twenty-first century reader. Under development for five years, this work encompasses over 1,000 articles across 24 individual areas of coverage, and is expected to become the dominant resource in the field.
Education is a multidisciplinary and international field drawing on a wide range of social sciences and humanities disciplines, and this new edition comprehensively matches this diversity. The diverse background and multidisciplinary subject coverage of the Editorial Board ensure a balanced and objective academic framework, with 1,500 contributors representing over 100 countries, capturing a complete portrait of this evolving field.
- A totally new work, revamped with a wholly new editorial board, structure and brand-new list of meta-sections and articles
- Developed by an international panel of editors and authors drawn from senior academia
- Web-enhanced with supplementary multimedia audio and video files, hotlinked to relevant references and sources for further study
- Incorporates ca. 1,350 articles, with timely coverage of such topics as technology and learning, demography and social change, globalization, and adult learning, to name a few
- Offers two content delivery options - print and online - the latter of which provides anytime, anywhere access for multiple users and superior search functionality via ScienceDirect, as well as multimedia content, including audio and video files
"This updated second edition promises to be even more useful to the educational and scholarship community around the world. Drawing upon highly respected scholars in all the multifarious areas of education †ranging from the most technical empirical methods to the broadest aspects of educational policy making †this work can serve as the reference of first resort for both newcomers and veterans." --N. L. Gage, Stanford University, USA
"Such has been the rapid pace of change in education during the last decade that there is little need for the editors-in-chief of The International Encyclopedia of Education to justify a substantially rewritten second edition ten years, after the first. In recent years key areas such as curriculum, economics of education, evaluation and measurement, and, in particular, developments in teaching and teacher education, have all undergone substantial change. The Encyclopedia provides authoritative and well-researched surveys of these fields. The Encyclopedia should serve two particular audiences well. The first is the general readership of teachers in education faculties and their students requiring up-to-date overviews of developments in a particular field. The Encyclopedia will also be of great value to researchers because it provides, in ways not available elsewhere, an international perspective on current work. The last decade has shown us that many education problems are common to most countries, and educational research is increasingly being carried out within an international cooperatvive framework. The Encyclopedia should act as a further stimulus and provide invaluable support for these endeavours. I welcome its publication and will make use of it." --Maurice Galton, University of Leicester, UK
"This splendid second edition of The International Encyclopedia of Education is more than just a learned report on what has been happening in education. It is also formative and judgemental, and this is its real significance. The great merit of this Encyclopedia lies in its constructiveness. It helps to establish the foundations of the study of education †by being factual, reflective, and evaluative in a comprehensive way. Users of the Encyclopedia can see some of the best minds in each field selecting and assessing, in Matthew Arnold's words, ""the best that has been said and thought"" in those areas." --W. F. Connell, The University of Sydney, Australia
"... should be available in any self-respecting library with an interest in education ... Not only is it beautifully produced, but the cross-referencing between articles, the excellent development of themes and topics, and the extremely useful Volume 12, consisting of a list of contributors, subject and name indices, and the classified list of entries, make this a very user-friendly encyclopedia ... immensely readable ... informative and up-to-date." --International Journal of Educational Development, 1994
"The 2nd edition is even more impressive [than the first] and must be viewed as a premier resource when judged on virtually every criteria applied to a reference work." --Choice, October 1994
"... without question, the most complete and comprehensive reference source in the English language on education. ... The authors are among the top scholars in their fields, and they bring authority as well as knowledge to their subjects ...outstanding in their coverage of complex and rapidly changing disciplines. ... The entries are benchmarks for research as they are, generally, excellent, state-of-the-art discussions ... superbly edited, well organized, thoughtfully indexed, and clearly written." --ARBA, Philip G. Altbach, 1995
"... will be welcomed by those scholars of education who have come to rely on the Encyclopedia as an accessible first point of reference in their day-to-day work. ... Some 90% of the entries have been newly commissioned, with a rather larger percentage of new contributors. The work is therefore more than a substantial revision: it is effectively new ... the coverage of IEE is quite remarkable ... of high scholarly quality, not condescending in style, up-to-date, meticulously referenced and including a bibliography ... The main strength of the second edition of this remarkable publication lies in its proven ability to provide a quick and reliable introduction to most topics in education on which the specialist, the student, and the casual inquirer are likely to require information. ... While still finding the first edition of IEE of use, I have been using the second edition for several months now and have found it to be quite invaluable for my own purposes and for those of students. ... It is a most welcome successor to the first edition, and is likely to be a standard source of reference for many years to come." --Oxford Review of Education, David Phillips, 1995
"It should be emphasized that this work is not merely an updating of the old edition. Ninety percent of the articles and contributors are new, commensurate with the wide-ranging changes and developments that have taken place in the interval. ... For anyone concerned with education, this highly user-friendly publication will be immensely valuable as a research tool, an information source, and a stimulus to deeper study." --International Review of Education, Christopher McIntosh et al., 1995
"Overall this is a very successful updating of an already proven reference work, the new edition maintaining and if anything improving on the high standards set by the original ... an authoritative, well-balanced and well produced reference source which should be treated with respect as a major contribution in its field." --J. Gordon Brewer, Librarian, Institute of Education, University of London, 1995
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| e9780080448930v1 | 1 | ||
| Front Cover | 1 | ||
| International Encyclopedia of Education | 2 | ||
| Copyright Page | 5 | ||
| Preface | 6 | ||
| Editors | 8 | ||
| How to Use the Encyclopedia | 10 | ||
| Contents | 12 | ||
| VOLUME 1 | 44 | ||
| A | 44 | ||
| ADULT EDUCATION | 44 | ||
| Adult Education Overview | 44 | ||
| Introduction | 44 | ||
| Toward a Field of Adult Education | 44 | ||
| Concepts | 45 | ||
| Adult Education Domains and Provision | 47 | ||
| Adult Learning, Instruction, and Program Planning | 48 | ||
| Outcomes of Adult Education | 49 | ||
| Adult Education, Economy, and Society | 50 | ||
| Field of Study | 50 | ||
| Tensions Within the Field of Study | 52 | ||
| Concluding Comment | 53 | ||
| Biblography | 53 | ||
| Further Reading | 54 | ||
| ADULT EDUCATION – ADULT LEARNING, INSTRUCTION AND PROGRAM PLANNING | 55 | ||
| Adult Learning | 55 | ||
| The Individual Adult Learner | 55 | ||
| Andragogy | 56 | ||
| Self-Directed Learning | 56 | ||
| Transformational Learning | 57 | ||
| The Context of Adult Learning | 58 | ||
| Emotions, Body, and Spirit in Adult Learning | 58 | ||
| Emotions and Somatic Knowing | 59 | ||
| Spirituality and Learning | 59 | ||
| Summary | 59 | ||
| Bibliography | 60 | ||
| Further Reading | 60 | ||
| Adult Learning and Instruction: Transformative Learning Perspectives | 61 | ||
| Characteristics of Adult Learning | 61 | ||
| Instruction for Adult Learning | 61 | ||
| Transformative Learning: Overview of the Theory | 62 | ||
| Perspectives on Transformative Learning | 63 | ||
| Connected Knowing and Transformative Learning | 63 | ||
| Social Change as Transformative Learning | 63 | ||
| Group and Organizational Transformation | 64 | ||
| Intuition, Imagination, and Soul in Transformative Learning | 64 | ||
| Ecological View | 64 | ||
| Teaching for Transformation | 64 | ||
| Empowering Learners | 65 | ||
| Fostering Critical Self-Reflection and Self- Knowledge | 65 | ||
| Supporting Transformative Learning | 65 | ||
| Summary | 66 | ||
| Bibliography | 66 | ||
| Adult Learning in a Biographic Perspective | 68 | ||
| Glossary | 68 | ||
| Introduction | 68 | ||
| Some History | 68 | ||
| Mapping the Field | 69 | ||
| Learning: Lifewide and Lifelong | 69 | ||
| A New Paradigm of Learning? | 70 | ||
| An Interdisciplinary Imperative | 71 | ||
| Adult and Lifelong Learning: A Reconfiguration? | 72 | ||
| Conclusion: The Biographic Perspective | 72 | ||
| Bibliography | 73 | ||
| Further Reading | 73 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 73 | ||
| Adult Learning, Instruction and Programme Planning: Insights from Freire | 74 | ||
| Introduction | 74 | ||
| Praxis | 74 | ||
| Knowledge of the Community | 74 | ||
| Codification | 74 | ||
| Exile as Praxis | 74 | ||
| Antithesis of Praxis: Empty Theorizing and Mindless Activism | 75 | ||
| Dialectical Relations | 75 | ||
| Teacher Student and Student Teachers | 75 | ||
| Learner as Subject | 75 | ||
| Learners and Educators Not Equal | 75 | ||
| Directive Approach | 76 | ||
| Authority and Authoritarianism | 76 | ||
| Tact and Prudence | 76 | ||
| Collective Dimensions of Learning | 77 | ||
| Planning Together | 77 | ||
| Learning and Instruction | 77 | ||
| Learning Based on Action and Reflection | 77 | ||
| Dynamic Knowledge | 77 | ||
| Starting with the Learners' Existential Realities | 77 | ||
| Bibliography | 78 | ||
| Further Reading | 78 | ||
| Characteristics of Adult Learning | 79 | ||
| Basic Processes and Dimensions of Learning | 79 | ||
| Different Types of Learning | 80 | ||
| Barriers Toward Learning | 80 | ||
| Adult Learning | 81 | ||
| Differences in Relation to Children's Way of Learning | 81 | ||
| Adult Learning in the Content Dimension | 81 | ||
| Adult Learning in the Incentive Dimension | 82 | ||
| Adult Learning in the Interaction Dimension | 83 | ||
| Conclusion | 84 | ||
| Bibliography | 84 | ||
| Further Reading | 84 | ||
| Informal Learning: A Contested Concept | 85 | ||
| The Research Development of Informal Learning | 85 | ||
| The Political Development of Nonformal Education and Nonformal Learning | 85 | ||
| The Blurred Boundaries Between Formal and Informal Learning | 86 | ||
| Theoretical Differences | 86 | ||
| Informal Learning in Educational Courses | 87 | ||
| Formal Learning at Work | 88 | ||
| Is Informal Learning Becoming More Formalized? | 88 | ||
| Conclusion: The Value of Contestation | 89 | ||
| Bibliography | 89 | ||
| Further Reading | 89 | ||
| Organizational Learning | 90 | ||
| The Field of Organizational Learning | 90 | ||
| Dimensions of Organizational Learning | 90 | ||
| Levels of Analysis | 91 | ||
| Organizational Learning as Change and/or Stability | 91 | ||
| Content and Processes of Organizational Learning | 92 | ||
| Conditions and Practices of Organizational Learning | 93 | ||
| Power and Politics | 94 | ||
| Bibliography | 95 | ||
| Further Reading | 95 | ||
| Program Planning | 96 | ||
| Conventional Planning Theory | 96 | ||
| Deliberative Planning Theory | 97 | ||
| Critical Planning Theory | 98 | ||
| Conclusion | 99 | ||
| Bibliography | 100 | ||
| Workplace Learning Frameworks | 101 | ||
| Glossary | 101 | ||
| Emerging and Growing Interest in Workplace Learning | 101 | ||
| Purposes of Learning Through Workplace Experiences | 102 | ||
| Conceptions of Workplaces as Learning Environments | 102 | ||
| Conceptual and Procedural Advances | 104 | ||
| Self and Agency of Learners | 104 | ||
| Pedagogic Qualities of Workplaces | 104 | ||
| Workplace-Learning Frameworks | 105 | ||
| Bibliography | 106 | ||
| ADULT EDUCATION – AS A FIELD OF STUDY | 107 | ||
| Class Analysis in Adult Education | 107 | ||
| Class and Adult Education | 109 | ||
| Conclusion | 111 | ||
| Bibliography | 111 | ||
| Further Reading | 112 | ||
| Gender Analysis | 113 | ||
| Introduction | 113 | ||
| Theoretical Positionings of Gender Analysis | 113 | ||
| A Research Process | 115 | ||
| Data Collection and Analysis | 116 | ||
| Strategic Initiatives | 117 | ||
| Benefits | 117 | ||
| Challenges for the Future | 118 | ||
| Conclusion | 118 | ||
| Bibliography | 118 | ||
| Further Reading | 119 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 119 | ||
| Race and Ethnicity in the Field of Adult Education | 120 | ||
| A Historic Perspective of the West and the North | 120 | ||
| A Southern Focus of Adult Education | 123 | ||
| Summary | 124 | ||
| Bibliography | 124 | ||
| Further Reading | 125 | ||
| Trends in Workplace Learning Research | 126 | ||
| Definitions and Different Perspectives | 126 | ||
| Researching Processes of Learning in and Through Work | 126 | ||
| Individual Knowledge Acquisition | 126 | ||
| Reflection and Human Development | 127 | ||
| Network Utility Model | 127 | ||
| Levels of Learning | 127 | ||
| Communities of Practice Model | 127 | ||
| Co-Participation or Co-Emergence Model | 128 | ||
| Researching Identity and Literacy in Workplace Learning | 128 | ||
| Researching Power and Politics in Workplace Learning | 129 | ||
| Future Directions | 130 | ||
| Bibliography | 131 | ||
| Further Reading | 131 | ||
| ADULT EDUCATION – CONCEPTS | 132 | ||
| Lifelong Learning | 132 | ||
| From Social Optimism to Economic Survival? | 132 | ||
| Initial Education as a Platform for Learning through Life | 133 | ||
| Theoretical Perspectives | 133 | ||
| Institutional Structures for Lifelong Learning | 135 | ||
| Conclusions | 136 | ||
| Bibliography | 137 | ||
| Further Reading | 138 | ||
| Rewriting the History of Adult Education: The Search for Narrative Structures | 139 | ||
| Introduction | 139 | ||
| Circumscription of the Area of Study | 139 | ||
| Periods in the History of Adult Education | 140 | ||
| Conclusion | 143 | ||
| Further Reading | 143 | ||
| ADULT EDUCATION – DOMAINS AND PROVISION | 145 | ||
| Adult Basic Education: A Challenge for Vocational Based Learning | 145 | ||
| National Developments in ABE | 145 | ||
| The Link Between Education and Work in the Original Swedish Model of Komvux | 146 | ||
| Komvux Economic Crises and Changing Demands on Competence Development | 146 | ||
| New Forms of VBL in Formal Adult Education | 147 | ||
| Future Directions of ABE | 148 | ||
| Bibliography | 149 | ||
| Further Reading | 149 | ||
| Relevant Website | 149 | ||
| Adult Literacy Education | 150 | ||
| What is Adult Literacy? | 150 | ||
| Functional Literacy | 150 | ||
| Critical Literacy | 150 | ||
| Liberal Tradition of Literacy | 150 | ||
| Social-Practice and Skills Models of Literacy | 151 | ||
| Reconciling the Skills and Social-Practices Perspectives | 151 | ||
| The Role of Adult Literacy Education | 152 | ||
| Accountability and Assessment | 153 | ||
| Changes in the Literacy Education Workforce | 154 | ||
| Conclusion | 154 | ||
| Bibliography | 154 | ||
| Further Reading | 155 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 155 | ||
| Citizenship and Immigrant Education | 156 | ||
| Glossary | 156 | ||
| Introduction | 156 | ||
| Citizenship | 156 | ||
| Immigration | 158 | ||
| Citizenship and Immigrant Adult Education: Main Orientations | 159 | ||
| Concluding Remarks: Adult-Citizenship Education in Immigrant Societies | 160 | ||
| Bibliography | 161 | ||
| Further Reading | 162 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 162 | ||
| Community Based Adult Education | 163 | ||
| Glossary | 163 | ||
| Introduction | 163 | ||
| Historical Foundations | 163 | ||
| Facets of Community Education | 164 | ||
| International Examples | 165 | ||
| Contradictions and Ambiguities | 167 | ||
| Community Connotations | 168 | ||
| Conclusion | 168 | ||
| Bibliography | 169 | ||
| Further Reading | 169 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 169 | ||
| Continuing Professional Education: Multiple Stakeholders and Agendas | 170 | ||
| Systems of CE for the Professions | 170 | ||
| Social and Professional Agendas | 171 | ||
| Institutional Agendas | 171 | ||
| Educational Agendas | 173 | ||
| Conclusion | 174 | ||
| Bibliography | 175 | ||
| Further Reading | 175 | ||
| Financing of Adult and Lifelong Learning | 176 | ||
| Financiers and Funding Statistics | 176 | ||
| Some Statistics | 176 | ||
| Private financing | 176 | ||
| Public financing | 177 | ||
| Efficiency Principles and Financing Mechanisms | 177 | ||
| Efficiency | 177 | ||
| Distribution | 178 | ||
| Infrastructure | 178 | ||
| Financing Mechanisms | 178 | ||
| Increasing efficiency in direct public funding of institutions | 178 | ||
| Efficiency through partnership and co-financing | 178 | ||
| Individuals | 179 | ||
| Employers | 179 | ||
| Policy and Practice in OECD Countries | 179 | ||
| Closing the Gaps | 179 | ||
| Financing Lifelong Learning | 180 | ||
| Co-Financing | 180 | ||
| Promoting Adult Learning | 181 | ||
| Bibliography | 181 | ||
| Further Reading | 181 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 181 | ||
| Labor Education | 182 | ||
| Introduction | 182 | ||
| The Peculiarities of Union Education | 182 | ||
| Situating Union Education | 184 | ||
| Union Learning in the Knowledge Economy | 185 | ||
| Conclusions | 186 | ||
| Bibliography | 186 | ||
| Further Reading | 186 | ||
| Learning Cities and Regions | 187 | ||
| Glossary | 187 | ||
| The Learning City and the City-Region as a Social Construct | 187 | ||
| Two Different Meanings | 187 | ||
| Cities and Regions, Politics and Governance | 188 | ||
| Learning City Initiatives | 189 | ||
| Research and Implementation | 189 | ||
| Higher Education and the City | 190 | ||
| An Assessment of the Utility and the Likely Future of the Concept | 191 | ||
| Bibliography | 191 | ||
| Further Reading | 191 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 192 | ||
| Museums as Sites of Adult Learning | 193 | ||
| Educational Role of Museums | 193 | ||
| Educational Theories | 194 | ||
| Adult Learning in Museums | 195 | ||
| Nonformal Education | 196 | ||
| Free-Choice Learning | 196 | ||
| Conclusion | 197 | ||
| Bibliography | 197 | ||
| Further Reading | 197 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 198 | ||
| Overview of Lifelong Learning Policies and Systems | 199 | ||
| Three Models of Lifelong Learning Policy | 199 | ||
| Policy Applications of the Three Lifelong Learning Models | 200 | ||
| The State-Led Model | 200 | ||
| Sharing financial responsibility in Japan: Kameoka Lifelong Learning Foundation | 200 | ||
| Ensuring equity for immigrants in Finland | 201 | ||
| Continuing vocational education and training in France: Social partnership regulation | 201 | ||
| The Market-Led Model | 201 | ||
| Investment on employee training by Fraport AG in Germany: Qualification card | 202 | ||
| The Credit Bank System in South Korea: Nonformal educational institutions | 202 | ||
| The Social-Partnership-Led model | 202 | ||
| Vocational education and training in Germany: The dual system | 202 | ||
| Embracing older workers in Australia: The new apprenticeship program | 203 | ||
| Conclusions | 203 | ||
| Bibliography | 204 | ||
| Popular Adult EducationAdult Education - Domains and Provision | 205 | ||
| Glossary | 205 | ||
| Introduction | 205 | ||
| Different Meanings and Historical Traditions | 205 | ||
| Regional Differences | 206 | ||
| Nordic Popular Adult Education | 206 | ||
| Latin America | 207 | ||
| North American examples | 208 | ||
| Current Trends | 208 | ||
| Common Dimensions | 209 | ||
| Conclusion | 210 | ||
| Bibliography | 210 | ||
| Further Reading | 211 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 211 | ||
| Provision of Prior Learning Assessment | 212 | ||
| Introduction | 212 | ||
| Different Terms and Acronyms | 212 | ||
| The General Idea of PLAR | 212 | ||
| The History of PLA | 212 | ||
| Differing Aims and Approaches | 213 | ||
| A Broad Spectrum of PLA Methods | 213 | ||
| Different Methods in Practice | 214 | ||
| Theories of Learning Underpinning PLA | 214 | ||
| The Value of PLA | 215 | ||
| Critical Perspectives on PLA | 215 | ||
| Conclusion | 216 | ||
| Bibliography | 216 | ||
| Further Reading | 217 | ||
| The Age of Learning: Seniors Learning | 218 | ||
| The Age of Learning | 218 | ||
| Education and Learning | 218 | ||
| Definitions of an Older Person | 219 | ||
| Statistics | 219 | ||
| Retirement and Preretirement Education | 219 | ||
| Stereotypes of Old Age | 220 | ||
| Learning and Intelligence | 221 | ||
| Organizations That Promote Older Learning | 221 | ||
| Accreditation | 223 | ||
| Conclusion | 223 | ||
| Bibliography | 224 | ||
| Further Reading | 224 | ||
| Relevant Website | 225 | ||
| University Adult Continuing Education: The Extra-Mural Tradition Revisited | 226 | ||
| Introduction | 226 | ||
| Global Trends in Lifelong Learning and University Adult Education | 227 | ||
| International Patterns of Adult Participation in Higher Education | 228 | ||
| Historical Patterns of University ACE | 228 | ||
| Background to the Emergence of the Extramural Model of University ACE | 229 | ||
| Structural Tensions - Inside or Outside the Walls? | 229 | ||
| Global Trends in University ACE - Convergence or Divergence? | 230 | ||
| Bibliography | 231 | ||
| Further Reading | 232 | ||
| ADULT EDUCATION – ECONOMY AND SOCIETY | 234 | ||
| Adult Education and Civil Society | 234 | ||
| Civil Society: The Problem of Definition | 234 | ||
| Adult Education and Civil Society Today | 234 | ||
| Three Perspectives on Adult Education and Civil Society | 235 | ||
| The Communitarian Perspective: Learning for Membership | 235 | ||
| The Habermasian Perspective: Learning for Deliberation | 236 | ||
| The Gramscian Perspective: Learning for Activism | 237 | ||
| Toward a Global Civil Society? Roles for Adult Education | 238 | ||
| Conclusion | 238 | ||
| Bibliography | 239 | ||
| Further Reading | 239 | ||
| Adult Education and Nation-Building | 241 | ||
| Introduction | 241 | ||
| Nation Building | 241 | ||
| Adult Education and Nation Building in the SADC | 242 | ||
| Southern African Development Community (SADC) | 242 | ||
| Political and Socioeconomic Picture of the Region | 242 | ||
| Social Purposes of Adult Education in the SADC Region | 242 | ||
| Adult education for political and cultural development | 243 | ||
| Adult education for survival | 243 | ||
| Adult education for economic development | 244 | ||
| Adult education within lifelong learning | 244 | ||
| Conclusion | 245 | ||
| Bibliography | 245 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 246 | ||
| Economic Outcomes of Adult Education and Training | 247 | ||
| Glossary | 247 | ||
| Introduction | 247 | ||
| Methodological Issues in Evaluating Outcomes | 248 | ||
| Outcomes of Adult Education and Training | 249 | ||
| Government-Sponsored Ttraining | 249 | ||
| Private Sector Training | 250 | ||
| Bibliography | 252 | ||
| Further Reading | 253 | ||
| Health and Adult Learning | 254 | ||
| Health Literacy | 254 | ||
| Professional Continuing Education in the Health Sector: In Transition | 256 | ||
| Conclusion | 258 | ||
| Bibliography | 258 | ||
| Further Reading | 259 | ||
| Modernization Processes and the Changing Function of Adult Learning | 260 | ||
| Adult Education and Modernization | 260 | ||
| Literacy Education: Enabling Modern Societies | 260 | ||
| Community Education and Popular Education: Struggles about the Societal Atmosphere | 261 | ||
| Learning for Work, or Human Resource Development | 262 | ||
| Functions of Adult Learning in Historical Context | 263 | ||
| Bibliography | 264 | ||
| Further Reading | 264 | ||
| The Political Economy of Adult Education | 266 | ||
| Theories of Adult Education as Human Capital Formation | 266 | ||
| Human Capital in the KBE | 266 | ||
| Adult Education and the KBE | 267 | ||
| Beyond Theories of Adult Education and Human Capital | 267 | ||
| Adult Education, the Social Construction of Skills and Learner Identities | 267 | ||
| Adult Education and the Demand for Skills | 268 | ||
| The State and the KBE | 269 | ||
| Neoliberalism and Lifelong Learning | 269 | ||
| Government Strategies for Adult Education | 270 | ||
| The Value of Adult Education | 270 | ||
| Bibliography | 271 | ||
| Further Reading | 271 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 271 | ||
| Wider Benefits of Adult Education | 272 | ||
| Introduction | 272 | ||
| Defining the Wider Benefits | 272 | ||
| Different Types and Purposes of Adult Learning | 272 | ||
| Channels through which Adult Learning Can Affect Outcomes | 273 | ||
| Effects on Economic Positions and Resources | 273 | ||
| Effects on the Self | 273 | ||
| Effects on Social Position | 273 | ||
| Effects via Context | 274 | ||
| Effects on Health | 274 | ||
| Effects on Civic and Social Engagement | 274 | ||
| Conclusions | 275 | ||
| Bibliography | 275 | ||
| Further Reading | 276 | ||
| ADULT EDUCATION – PARTICIPATION | 277 | ||
| Barriers to Participation in Adult Education | 277 | ||
| Introduction | 277 | ||
| Conceptual and Methodological Issues | 277 | ||
| Findings | 278 | ||
| Findings from Large-Scale Surveys | 278 | ||
| Results from Qualitative Studies | 279 | ||
| Theoretical Perspectives | 279 | ||
| Economic Theories | 280 | ||
| Adult Education | 280 | ||
| The Bounded-Agency Model | 281 | ||
| Conclusion | 281 | ||
| Bibliography | 282 | ||
| Further Reading | 282 | ||
| Participation in Adult Learning | 283 | ||
| Introduction | 283 | ||
| What Is the Extent of Participation? | 283 | ||
| Adult Education and Training | 283 | ||
| Changes in AET | 283 | ||
| Types of AET | 283 | ||
| Definitions and Measurement | 285 | ||
| Informal Learning | 285 | ||
| Who Is Participating? | 286 | ||
| Adult Education and Training | 286 | ||
| Informal Learning | 286 | ||
| Why Are Certain People or Groups Participating More than Others? | 286 | ||
| Determinants | 286 | ||
| Disciplinary Perspectives | 286 | ||
| Explanations Based on Psychological Perspectives | 286 | ||
| Personality traits and abilities | 286 | ||
| Motivational orientations and reasons | 290 | ||
| Attitudes and Intentions | 290 | ||
| Explanations Based on Social Perspectives | 290 | ||
| Explanations Based on Economic Perspectives | 291 | ||
| Cost limitations and credit constraints | 291 | ||
| Financial support and incentive-to-invest factor | 291 | ||
| Nature of work and skill-requirements factor | 291 | ||
| Explanations Based on Individuals' Interactions with Social Influences | 292 | ||
| Further Research | 292 | ||
| Bibliography | 293 | ||
| C | 294 | ||
| COMPARATIVE EDUCATION | 294 | ||
| Comparative and International Education: English-Language Scholarly Publications | 294 | ||
| Emergence of Scholarly Periodicals in Comparative and International Education | 294 | ||
| Trends and Challenges | 296 | ||
| The Role of the Academy | 296 | ||
| Manuscript Submission and Selectivity | 297 | ||
| Incentives for Reading and for Publication in Scholarly Journals | 297 | ||
| Balancing Permanent and Current Scholarship | 298 | ||
| Language of Publication | 298 | ||
| The Future of Publications in Comparative and International Education | 299 | ||
| Further Reading | 299 | ||
| Comparative Education: Philosophical Issues and Concepts | 300 | ||
| The Constitution and Definition of the Field | 300 | ||
| The Distinction of Comparative Education from Other Related Fields | 303 | ||
| Comparative Education and International Education | 303 | ||
| Comparative Education and Educational Development | 304 | ||
| Comparative Education and Foreign Education, or Area Studies | 304 | ||
| Cultures and Countries, or Nation-States, as Units of Analysis | 304 | ||
| The Concept of Culture in Comparative-Education Research | 305 | ||
| National Culture in Modern Societies | 306 | ||
| The Influence of Increasing Rates of Globalization on National Culture | 307 | ||
| Bibliography | 307 | ||
| Further Reading | 308 | ||
| Comparative Education: Societies and Associations | 309 | ||
| The Oldest Societies | 309 | ||
| The World Council of Comparative Education Societies | 309 | ||
| Names and Approaches | 310 | ||
| From Comparative to Comparative and International Education | 311 | ||
| From Foreign Education to Comparative Education | 312 | ||
| Other Comparative Education Societies | 313 | ||
| Conclusion | 313 | ||
| Further Reading | 313 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 314 | ||
| CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT | 315 | ||
| Curriculum and Religion | 315 | ||
| Recent Trends and Issues | 315 | ||
| Antiquity: Philosophical Ground | 316 | ||
| Premodernity: Institutional and Textual Ground | 317 | ||
| Industrialism and Beyond: The Secular Theology of Price | 318 | ||
| Bibliography | 319 | ||
| Further Reading | 319 | ||
| Gender and Curriculum | 320 | ||
| Glossary | 320 | ||
| Gender and the Construction of the Curriculum | 320 | ||
| Gendered Access to the Curriculum | 322 | ||
| Masculinities, Femininities, Sexualities, and Curriculum | 323 | ||
| Conclusion | 324 | ||
| Bibliography | 324 | ||
| Further Reading | 325 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 325 | ||
| Local Teacher-Based Curriculum Development | 326 | ||
| History and the Professionalization of Teaching | 326 | ||
| Discussion and Issues | 327 | ||
| Summary | 329 | ||
| Bibliography | 329 | ||
| Further Reading | 329 | ||
| CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT – CONTEXTS | 330 | ||
| Curriculum and Human Rights | 330 | ||
| Creating a Common Language: What Do We Understand by the Human Right to Education? | 331 | ||
| Availability | 332 | ||
| Access | 332 | ||
| Adaptability | 332 | ||
| Acceptability | 332 | ||
| Human Rights in Education | 332 | ||
| Children's Rights | 333 | ||
| Parent's Rights | 333 | ||
| Teacher's Rights | 333 | ||
| Prevention of Human Rights abuses in Education | 333 | ||
| Human Rights Education as Guiding Principle for Curriculum Development | 334 | ||
| Learning about Human Rights | 334 | ||
| Learning through Human Rights | 334 | ||
| Learning for Human Rights | 334 | ||
| Bibliography | 335 | ||
| Further Reading | 335 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 335 | ||
| Curriculum and the Education of Cultural and Linguistic Minorities | 336 | ||
| Glossary | 336 | ||
| Defining Bilingual/Immersion Education | 336 | ||
| Educational Effectiveness and Bilingual Students | 340 | ||
| Conclusion | 341 | ||
| Bibliography | 341 | ||
| Further Reading | 341 | ||
| Curriculum in Postcolonial Contexts | 342 | ||
| Glossary | 342 | ||
| Systemic Educational Inequity and Its Challengers | 343 | ||
| Assessment and the European Connection | 344 | ||
| The Curriculum and Cultural Identity | 344 | ||
| Whose Language? Whose Knowledge? | 345 | ||
| Discarding Colonially Tainted Understandings | 345 | ||
| Race, Representation, and Power | 346 | ||
| Feminism and Education: Postcolonial Views | 346 | ||
| What Would a Decolonized Curriculum Look Like? | 346 | ||
| The Cultural Interface | 347 | ||
| Conceptualizing Curriculum in Post-Postcolonial Contexts | 347 | ||
| Bibliography | 348 | ||
| Further Head | 349 | ||
| Curriculum, Economic and Cultural Development | 350 | ||
| Curriculum in Different Educational Traditions | 350 | ||
| The National within the Local-Global Dilemma | 351 | ||
| Issues of Relevance, Quality, or Efficiency | 352 | ||
| Work and Education | 352 | ||
| National Aims and Changing Contexts | 353 | ||
| Bibliography | 353 | ||
| Further Reading | 354 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 354 | ||
| Globalization and Curriculum | 355 | ||
| Glossary | 355 | ||
| Introduction | 355 | ||
| A Very Brief Ontology and Epistemology: A Common World Education Curriculum, or a Globally Structured Agenda for Education? | 356 | ||
| Globalization as Discourse | 357 | ||
| Globalization as a Condition, or State of Affairs | 357 | ||
| Globalization as Process | 358 | ||
| Globalization as a Project | 358 | ||
| Conclusion | 359 | ||
| Bibliography | 359 | ||
| Further Reading | 360 | ||
| Relevant Website | 360 | ||
| Popular Culture | 361 | ||
| Framing the Study of Popular Culture and Curriculum | 361 | ||
| The Relationship between Popular Culture and Curriculum | 362 | ||
| Current Work | 363 | ||
| Popular Culture as Curriculum | 363 | ||
| Interactions between Popular Culture and Curriculum | 363 | ||
| Future Directions | 364 | ||
| Bibliography | 365 | ||
| Further Reading | 366 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 366 | ||
| CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT – EVALUATION AND RESEARCH | 367 | ||
| An Overview of Research in Curriculum Inquiry | 367 | ||
| Introduction | 367 | ||
| Meanings/Definition of Terms Internationally | 367 | ||
| Characteristics of the Field and of Curriculum Inquiry | 368 | ||
| Structure(s) of the Field and Curriculum Inquiry | 368 | ||
| Practice-Context -Theory | 368 | ||
| Subject Matter, Topics and Preoccupations, and Curriculum Theory/ General Curriculum | 369 | ||
| Subject Matter | 369 | ||
| Topics and Preoccupations | 369 | ||
| Curriculum Theory/General Curriculum | 371 | ||
| Curriculum Inquiry Developments during the Last 10-20 Years | 372 | ||
| Expression/Expansion of Context in Curriculum Inquiry | 372 | ||
| Curriculum Subject-Matter Development | 374 | ||
| Movement to International Curriculum Inquiry | 374 | ||
| Development of a Theoretical Curriculum Inquiry Literature | 375 | ||
| A Focus on Practice and a Move Toward the Integration of Practice and Theory in Curriculum Inquiry | 375 | ||
| Ongoing Puzzles for Curriculum Inquiry | 376 | ||
| Bibliography | 376 | ||
| Further Reading | 377 | ||
| Curriculum Evaluation: Approaches and Methodologies | 378 | ||
| Glossary | 378 | ||
| Historical Overview | 379 | ||
| Approaches to Curriculum Evaluation | 380 | ||
| Developments in the Methodology of Curriculum Evaluation | 382 | ||
| Recent Trends in Curriculum Evaluation | 382 | ||
| Conclusion | 383 | ||
| Bibliography | 384 | ||
| Further Reading | 384 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 384 | ||
| Curriculum Studies, Discourse Analysis, and the Construction of Historical Time | 385 | ||
| Postmodernism and the Emergence of Curriculum as Discourse | 386 | ||
| Curriculum as International Discourse | 387 | ||
| Curriculum as Digital Discourse: The Virtual Materiality of Textbooks | 388 | ||
| Bibliography | 389 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 390 | ||
| Curriculum Use in the Classroom | 391 | ||
| Glossary | 391 | ||
| Teachers as Curriculum Users | 391 | ||
| Teachers as Users of Teacher-Proof Curriculum | 391 | ||
| Teachers as Curriculum Choice Makers | 391 | ||
| Teachers as Curriculum Adaptors | 391 | ||
| Teachers as Creators of Curriculum | 392 | ||
| The Notion of Curriculum Potential | 392 | ||
| Learners as Curriculum Users | 392 | ||
| Society as a Curriculum User | 393 | ||
| Social Class as Stakeholder | 393 | ||
| Curriculum as Political Text | 394 | ||
| Curriculum as Economic Text | 394 | ||
| Parents as Stakeholders | 394 | ||
| An Integrative Model for Analyzing Curriculum Use | 395 | ||
| Bibliography | 396 | ||
| Further Reading | 396 | ||
| The Roots and Routes of Teacher-Based Action Research and Curriculum Inquiry: An Historical Perspective | 398 | ||
| Uncovering Early Roots: Locating a Place to Begin | 398 | ||
| Route 1 - John Dewey and the Teachers of the University of Chicago Laboratory School (1896-1904) | 399 | ||
| Route 2 - Laboratory Schools: Blurring the Boundaries between Research, Theory, and Practice | 399 | ||
| Route 3 - Curriculum Inquiry Research and Teacher-Involved Action Research | 400 | ||
| Route 4 - Continuity, New Routes, and the Action Research Turn | 401 | ||
| Possibilities and Challenges for the Twenty-First Century | 402 | ||
| Bibliography | 403 | ||
| Further Reading | 403 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 403 | ||
| CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT – PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT | 405 | ||
| Curriculum and Syllabus Design | 405 | ||
| Defining Curriculum and Syllabus | 405 | ||
| Available Knowledge About Syllabus Design | 406 | ||
| Syllabus Design and Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language | 406 | ||
| Syllabus Design for Teaching in Higher Education: The USA Context | 407 | ||
| Curriculum Models and Syllabus Design for Schooling | 407 | ||
| The Outcomes-Based Model | 407 | ||
| The Process-Based Model | 407 | ||
| The Critical Model | 407 | ||
| The Traditional Content Model | 408 | ||
| The Technical Form of the Syllabus in High-Equity/High-Quality Systems | 408 | ||
| Conclusion | 409 | ||
| Bibliography | 409 | ||
| Further Reading | 410 | ||
| Curriculum and the Publishing Industry | 411 | ||
| Glossary | 411 | ||
| Deskilling, Control, and Discipline | 412 | ||
| An Overview of Curriculum Publishing in a Global Context | 412 | ||
| The Political Economy of Literacy Curriculum in the Contemporary US: A Case Example | 413 | ||
| America's forced choice | 414 | ||
| Conclusion | 415 | ||
| Bibliography | 416 | ||
| Further Reading | 416 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 416 | ||
| Curriculum and Teacher Change | 417 | ||
| Levers and Dimensions of Teacher Change | 418 | ||
| Instructional Techniques | 418 | ||
| Teacher Beliefs | 418 | ||
| Content Knowledge | 418 | ||
| Pedagogical Content Knowledge | 419 | ||
| Dispositions to Their Own and Others' Learning | 419 | ||
| Professional Communities of Teacher Learning | 419 | ||
| Organizational Change | 419 | ||
| Conclusion: Teacher Change as an Unintended Consequence of Policy Initiatives | 420 | ||
| Bibliography | 420 | ||
| Further Reading | 421 | ||
| Curriculum Governance and Planning | 422 | ||
| Introduction | 422 | ||
| Issues: Scope of the Politics of Curriculum | 422 | ||
| Actors: Who Is Involved? | 423 | ||
| Processes: How Are Curriculum Policy Decisions Made | 424 | ||
| Influences: What Shapes Decisions? | 425 | ||
| Results | 425 | ||
| Conclusion | 426 | ||
| Bibliography | 426 | ||
| Curriculum Planning and Systems Change | 427 | ||
| Three Levels of Curriculum Planning | 427 | ||
| Institutional Curriculum Planning | 427 | ||
| Programmatic Curriculum Planning | 427 | ||
| Classroom Curriculum Planning | 428 | ||
| The Interdependence of Three Levels of Curriculum Planning | 428 | ||
| Curriculum Planning for Systems Change | 429 | ||
| Top-Down Model | 430 | ||
| Bottom-Up Model | 430 | ||
| Combination | 431 | ||
| Conclusion | 431 | ||
| Bibliography | 431 | ||
| Further Reading | 432 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 432 | ||
| Curriculum, Digital Resources and Delivery | 433 | ||
| Recent Developments in Digital Technology | 433 | ||
| Expanded Access | 433 | ||
| Expanded Capacity | 433 | ||
| Personalized Publishing | 433 | ||
| Characteristics of Digital Technology and Impact on Curriculum | 433 | ||
| Multimedia | 433 | ||
| Interactivity | 434 | ||
| Socialization | 434 | ||
| Uses of Digital Technology in Curriculum Planning, Implementation, and Delivery | 435 | ||
| Digital Curriculum Resources for Teachers | 435 | ||
| Online curriculum standards | 435 | ||
| Curriculum planning tools | 435 | ||
| Lesson plans | 435 | ||
| Curriculum resources | 435 | ||
| Assessment tools | 436 | ||
| Online discussion forums | 436 | ||
| Digital Curriculum Resources for Students | 436 | ||
| E-textbooks | 436 | ||
| Educational software | 436 | ||
| Online learning systems | 437 | ||
| Online courses | 437 | ||
| Issues and Concerns | 437 | ||
| Ability to Use Digital Delivered Curriculum | 437 | ||
| Power Relationship in Developing and Using Digital Delivered Curriculum | 437 | ||
| Attitudes toward the Effectiveness of Digital- Delivered Curriculum | 438 | ||
| Bibliography | 438 | ||
| Further Reading | 439 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 439 | ||
| Textbook Development and Selection | 440 | ||
| A Global Focus | 440 | ||
| Research on School Textbooks | 441 | ||
| Work Knowledge about Textbooks | 442 | ||
| Interaction Knowledge | 443 | ||
| Power Knowledge | 443 | ||
| The State of Textbooks | 444 | ||
| Bibliography | 444 | ||
| Further Reading | 445 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 445 | ||
| CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT – SUBJECT MATTER | 446 | ||
| Curriculum and Globalization: Higher Education | 446 | ||
| Globalization: The Rise of the Knowledge Economy and University Education | 446 | ||
| Globalization and Curriculum Design: Some Major Underlying Values | 447 | ||
| Globalization and Major Curriculum Changes | 449 | ||
| Institutional Change in Promoting Curriculum Reforms | 449 | ||
| Contents | 449 | ||
| Instructional Strategies and Activities | 450 | ||
| Assessment Methods | 450 | ||
| Classroom Dynamics | 451 | ||
| Globalization and the Curriculum Reforms: Critical Reflections | 451 | ||
| Conclusion | 452 | ||
| Bibliography | 452 | ||
| Further Reading | 453 | ||
| Curriculum Development as Subject Matter: Social Studies | 454 | ||
| The Social Studies Curriculum Strand | 454 | ||
| Curricular Tensions That Cut Across Subjects | 454 | ||
| Competing Approaches to Social Studies | 454 | ||
| Competition for Curriculum Space among Interest Groups within Social Studies | 455 | ||
| NCSS Standards | 456 | ||
| Basal Textbook Series | 456 | ||
| Conclusion | 456 | ||
| Bibliography | 456 | ||
| Further Reading | 457 | ||
| Curriculum Development in the Area of Reading | 458 | ||
| Defining the Reading Curriculum: Traditional Content | 458 | ||
| Reading Curriculum in the Twenty-First Century | 460 | ||
| Changing Contexts | 461 | ||
| Changing Texts and Literacies | 461 | ||
| Changing Readers | 461 | ||
| (Re)Constructing the Reading Curriculum Today | 462 | ||
| Learning the SBC Process | 463 | ||
| Institutionalizing Schoolwide Reports | 464 | ||
| Constructing the School Literacy Curriculum | 464 | ||
| Student and Family Ownership | 464 | ||
| Summary | 464 | ||
| Bibliography | 464 | ||
| Further Reading | 465 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 465 | ||
| Curriculum in the Arts | 466 | ||
| Curriculum Development-Subject Matter: Curriculum in the Arts | 466 | ||
| Bibliography | 470 | ||
| Further Reading | 470 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 470 | ||
| Curriculum: Foreign Language Learning | 471 | ||
| The Production and Circulation of Received Knowledge about Foreign Language Curricula | 471 | ||
| Paradigm Shifts in Second and Foreign Language Education | 471 | ||
| From Structural/Grammatical to Notional/Functional Syllabuses | 472 | ||
| From Traditional Approaches to Communicative Language Teaching | 472 | ||
| Tension between Local Approaches and CLT in Diverse Contexts of the World | 472 | ||
| Crisscrossing of Statist and Capitalist Desires in English Language Teaching | 473 | ||
| Conflicts and Social Division | 474 | ||
| Whose Desire Counts? Students' Resistance in EFL Classrooms | 475 | ||
| The Critical Desire in Foreign Language Curriculum | 475 | ||
| Conclusion: Toward Internally Persuasive Discourses in Foreign Language Curricula | 476 | ||
| Bibliography | 477 | ||
| Further Reading | 477 | ||
| First Language Learning | 478 | ||
| Glossary | 478 | ||
| Factors Influencing Language and Literacy Curricula | 478 | ||
| Curriculum: First Language Teaching across Primary, Intermediate, and Secondary Schooling | 478 | ||
| Primary Language Curricula | 479 | ||
| Early literacy curricula | 479 | ||
| Reading in the Primary Schools | 479 | ||
| Literature Teaching in the Primary Schools | 480 | ||
| Writing Instruction in the Primary Years of Schooling | 480 | ||
| Secondary Language Curricula | 481 | ||
| The Literary Canon and Literature Instruction | 481 | ||
| Adolescent Literacies and Social Futures | 481 | ||
| Conclusion | 482 | ||
| Bibliography | 482 | ||
| Further Reading | 483 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 483 | ||
| Learning a Second Language in First Language Environments | 484 | ||
| Key Concepts in Foreign-Language Teaching and Learning | 484 | ||
| The Notion of Doing | 484 | ||
| Proficiency Orientation in the US | 484 | ||
| Common European Framework | 485 | ||
| Standards | 485 | ||
| The Notion of Meaning | 486 | ||
| Content-Based Instruction | 486 | ||
| Immersion | 486 | ||
| Supporting Language Teachers | 487 | ||
| Teacher Preparation | 487 | ||
| Infrastructure for Language Teaching | 487 | ||
| Ongoing Dilemmas in Language Teaching | 488 | ||
| Caveats | 488 | ||
| Bibliography | 488 | ||
| Further Reading | 489 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 489 | ||
| Literature | 490 | ||
| A Brief History of Literature and Its Teaching in the United States | 490 | ||
| From Primers to Anthologies: Literature Textbooks and the Purposes of Teaching | 490 | ||
| Text-Based Approaches to Literature Teaching | 490 | ||
| Reader-Centered Approaches | 490 | ||
| Critical Theory, Politics, and the Teaching of Literature | 491 | ||
| Literature and Its Teaching in International Perspective | 491 | ||
| Literature, Colonialism, and Revolution | 492 | ||
| Political Stability and the Literature Curriculum | 492 | ||
| Literature and the Economy | 493 | ||
| Literature in Crisis: War and Other National Emergencies | 493 | ||
| Literature and the Politics of Difference | 494 | ||
| Bibliography | 495 | ||
| Further Reading | 495 | ||
| Mathematics | 496 | ||
| Curriculum Selection | 496 | ||
| Curriculum Development and Revision | 497 | ||
| Exhibit A: Curriculum Development and Revision in Singapore | 498 | ||
| Exhibit B: Curriculum Development and Revision in the United States | 499 | ||
| Curriculum Implementation | 500 | ||
| Curriculum Reform | 500 | ||
| Bibliography | 501 | ||
| Further Reading | 501 | ||
| Physical Education and Sports | 502 | ||
| Glossary | 502 | ||
| National and State Curricula | 502 | ||
| Examination and Matriculation in Physical Education | 503 | ||
| Models-Based Instruction | 504 | ||
| Sports Education | 504 | ||
| Teaching Games for Understanding | 505 | ||
| Conclusion | 506 | ||
| Bibliography | 506 | ||
| Further Reading | 506 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 506 | ||
| Primary and Elementary/Middle Grades Reading | 507 | ||
| Glossary | 507 | ||
| Primary Reading | 507 | ||
| Issues in Primary Reading | 508 | ||
| Elementary/Middle-Grades Reading | 508 | ||
| Bibliography | 509 | ||
| Relevant Website | 510 | ||
| Science | 511 | ||
| Curriculum Development and Design-Based Research | 511 | ||
| Design Principles and Design Patterns: Complementary Approaches | 511 | ||
| The design principles approach | 512 | ||
| The design patterns approach | 512 | ||
| Design Principles and Patterns in the Thermodynamics Curriculum Unit | 513 | ||
| Using Principles and Patterns to Guide a Curriculum Design Process | 515 | ||
| Summary and Next Steps | 515 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 516 | ||
| Bibliography | 516 | ||
| Further Reading | 516 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 517 | ||
| CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT – THEORY | 518 | ||
| Bilingual Learning (Learning L1 and L2 in an L1 and L2 Environment) | 518 | ||
| Introduction | 518 | ||
| Models of Bilingual Education | 518 | ||
| The Importance of Families and Communities in Bilingual Learning | 519 | ||
| Bilingual Language Acquisition at Home and in the Neighborhood | 519 | ||
| Heritage-Language Instruction | 520 | ||
| Local Funds of Knowledge | 520 | ||
| Biliteracy | 520 | ||
| Continua of Biliteracy | 520 | ||
| Integrated Approach to Biliteracy | 520 | ||
| Common Misconceptions About Bilingual Learning | 521 | ||
| Language Transfer | 521 | ||
| Codeswitching | 521 | ||
| Cognitive Effects of Bilingualism | 522 | ||
| Summary | 522 | ||
| Bibliography | 522 | ||
| Further Reading | 523 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 523 | ||
| Curriculum and Complex Systems Theory | 524 | ||
| Modeling the Complexity of Social (Classroom) Interaction | 524 | ||
| Example 1 | 525 | ||
| A Model for Representing Social Processes | 525 | ||
| A Second Model for Representing Social Processes | 526 | ||
| A Third Model for Representing Social Processes | 527 | ||
| A Fourth Model for Representing Social Processes | 527 | ||
| A Fifth Model for Representing Social Processes | 528 | ||
| Limitations of Analogies and Metaphors in Curriculum Theorizing | 529 | ||
| Bibliography | 530 | ||
| Further Reading | 530 | ||
| Curriculum and Constructivism | 531 | ||
| Constructivist Theories | 531 | ||
| Metaphors and Images of Curriculum | 532 | ||
| Curriculum Informed by Constructivist Theories | 533 | ||
| Trans-Level Learning | 533 | ||
| Cognitive Conflict | 534 | ||
| Rethinking Errors and Evaluation | 534 | ||
| Collective Learning | 535 | ||
| Participation | 535 | ||
| Bibliography | 536 | ||
| Further Reading | 536 | ||
| Curriculum and Critical Theory | 537 | ||
| Glossary | 537 | ||
| Sociology of Knowledge and Curriculum as Ideological | 537 | ||
| Curriculum Theories: Bernstein and Bourdieu | 538 | ||
| Feminist and Critical Race Theories | 538 | ||
| Critical Theories and Poststructural Theories | 539 | ||
| Power, Agency, and Action | 540 | ||
| Recent Directions | 540 | ||
| Critical Theory and Curriculum Development | 541 | ||
| Bibliography | 541 | ||
| Further Reading | 541 | ||
| Curriculum and Poststructuralist Theory | 542 | ||
| Glossary | 542 | ||
| Poststructuralist Theory and the Field of Curriculum Studies | 543 | ||
| Structuralism and Poststructuralist Theory | 543 | ||
| Curriculum Reconceptualized in Relation to Poststructuralist Theory | 544 | ||
| Contributions of Feminist Poststructuralist Theorizing | 545 | ||
| Toward Further Ruptures | 546 | ||
| Bibliography | 546 | ||
| Further Reading | 547 | ||
| Curriculum and Structuralist Sociology: The Theory of Codes and Knowledge Structures | 548 | ||
| Glossary | 548 | ||
| The Theory of Codes | 549 | ||
| Anatomy of the School Code | 549 | ||
| Knowledge Structure | 551 | ||
| Knowledge and Curriculum | 551 | ||
| Conclusion | 552 | ||
| Bibliography | 552 | ||
| Further Reading | 552 | ||
| Curriculum Reform | 553 | ||
| Contexts and Elements of Curriculum Reform | 553 | ||
| Two Examples of Curriculum Reform | 554 | ||
| The Efficacy of Curriculum Reform | 555 | ||
| The Politics of Curriculum Reform | 555 | ||
| Bibliography | 556 | ||
| Further Reading | 556 | ||
| Early Childhood Curriculum and Developmental TheoryCurriculum Development - Theory | 557 | ||
| Early Childhood Curriculum: Reflections of Images of Children | 557 | ||
| Child Unfolding: Early Conceptualizations of Curriculum | 557 | ||
| Child as Subject: Scientific Views and Curricula as Early Intervention | 558 | ||
| Child as Creative Player: A Psychodynamic and Developmental View | 558 | ||
| Child as Subject Redux: Concern for Economically Poor Children in the USA | 559 | ||
| Child as Active Thinker: Piagetian Theory and Its Curricular Offshoots | 559 | ||
| Developmentally Appropriate Practice and Its Critics | 559 | ||
| The Child as Relational and Cultural Agent | 560 | ||
| The Influence of Sociocultural Perspectives | 560 | ||
| Summing Up: Developmental Theories and Their Influence | 560 | ||
| Postmodernist Critique: Limitations of Developmental Theory and a View toward the Future | 561 | ||
| Bibliography | 562 | ||
| Further Reading | 562 | ||
| Relevant Website | 562 | ||
| D | 564 | ||
| DEMOGRAPHY AND SOCIAL CHANGE | 564 | ||
| An Evaluation Framework for E-Learning Effectiveness in the Arab World | 564 | ||
| Introduction | 564 | ||
| Critical Factors | 565 | ||
| Pedagogy | 565 | ||
| Learning Styles and Their Impact on the Quality of e-Learning | 565 | ||
| Appropriateness and Relevancy of Learning Styles to Course Goals and Learners' Needs | 565 | ||
| Clarity of Course Goals | 566 | ||
| Diversity of Learning Styles to Meet Course Goals and Learners' Needs | 566 | ||
| Pedagogy Is Not Only about Learning Styles | 566 | ||
| Interaction | 567 | ||
| Diversity of Interaction | 567 | ||
| Prompt Responsiveness of Faculty Feedback to Learners | 567 | ||
| Relevance of Interaction to Course Goals | 567 | ||
| Flexibility of Interaction Time and Place | 567 | ||
| Multimedia | 567 | ||
| Diversity of Multimedia Components | 567 | ||
| Relevancy of Multimedia Components to Course Goals | 567 | ||
| Faculty | 568 | ||
| Faculty Competency | 568 | ||
| Pedagogical proficiency | 569 | ||
| Administrative skills | 569 | ||
| Technical skills | 569 | ||
| Faculty Engagement | 569 | ||
| Faculty Innovativeness | 569 | ||
| Faculty Recognition | 570 | ||
| Technological Infrastructure | 570 | ||
| Appropriateness of Technology to the Pedagogical Requirements | 570 | ||
| Reliability | 570 | ||
| Accessibility | 571 | ||
| Learner Support | 571 | ||
| Appropriateness of Support Services to Learners' Needs | 571 | ||
| Responsiveness of Learner Support | 571 | ||
| Institution | 572 | ||
| Leadership Commitment to Effective Learning | 572 | ||
| Pervasiveness of Commitment to Quality and Continuous Improvement | 572 | ||
| Appropriateness of Processes to the e-Learning Environment | 572 | ||
| Financial Feasibility and Sustainability | 572 | ||
| Research Objectives and Methodology | 573 | ||
| Case-Study Analysis and Discussion | 573 | ||
| Average Comparative Ratings | 573 | ||
| Common Top-Rated Factors by Learners and Faculty Members | 575 | ||
| Dimensions Analysis | 575 | ||
| Pedagogy | 575 | ||
| Faculty | 575 | ||
| Technology | 575 | ||
| Learner Support | 576 | ||
| Institution | 576 | ||
| Conclusion | 576 | ||
| Bibliography | 576 | ||
| Further Reading | 578 | ||
| Globalization and Social Justice in Higher Education | 579 | ||
| Glossary | 579 | ||
| Introduction | 579 | ||
| Globalization from Above, Globalization from Below | 579 | ||
| Higher Education and Globalization from Above | 580 | ||
| Hierarchies Intensified | 580 | ||
| Privatization of Higher Education | 580 | ||
| Increasing Homogenization | 581 | ||
| Higher Education as Globalization from Below | 581 | ||
| International and Local Collaborations | 581 | ||
| Massification of Higher Education | 582 | ||
| Engaging in Social Responsible Practices | 582 | ||
| Conclusion | 583 | ||
| Bibliography | 584 | ||
| Racial Inequality and the Economic Payoffs of Higher Education | 585 | ||
| The Experiences of Nonwhites in Corporate America | 587 | ||
| Bibliography | 589 | ||
| Further Reading | 589 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 589 | ||
| e9780080448930v2 | 929 | ||
| Front Cover | 929 | ||
| International Encyclopedia of Education | 930 | ||
| Copyright Page | 933 | ||
| Preface | 934 | ||
| Editors | 936 | ||
| How to Use the Encyclopedia | 938 | ||
| Contents | 940 | ||
| VOLUME 2 | 972 | ||
| E | 972 | ||
| EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION THEORY | 972 | ||
| Early Childhood Care and Education: The Family, The Market, and The State | 972 | ||
| Introduction and Overview | 972 | ||
| The Role of the Family | 973 | ||
| Child Allowances and Tax Benefits | 973 | ||
| Leave Policies | 974 | ||
| The Role of the Market - The Private Sector | 975 | ||
| Private Provision of ECEC Services | 976 | ||
| Impact of the market on quality | 976 | ||
| Impact of the market on access | 977 | ||
| The Role of Government | 977 | ||
| Conclusions | 979 | ||
| Bibliography | 979 | ||
| Further Reading | 980 | ||
| Gender Issues in Early Childhood Education and Care | 982 | ||
| Glossary | 982 | ||
| Care and Women's Liberation | 982 | ||
| The Gender Contract: The Slow Decline of the Male Breadwinner | 983 | ||
| Complex, Competing Drivers for Increased ECEC | 983 | ||
| Who Should Care? Mothers, the State, and the Market? | 983 | ||
| Denmark | 984 | ||
| Iceland | 984 | ||
| Germany | 984 | ||
| Australia | 984 | ||
| Women's 'Choice' in Different Contexts | 984 | ||
| The Role of Men in Domestic Work and Care | 985 | ||
| Conceptualizing Gender Equity in a More Individualized World of Work | 985 | ||
| Work, Care, Gender, and Citizenship | 985 | ||
| Policy Directions for Gender Equity When Mothers Work | 986 | ||
| International Care Trades to Underpin Work | 986 | ||
| Bibliography | 987 | ||
| Further Reading | 987 | ||
| EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE GOVERNANCE | 988 | ||
| Early Childhood Risk, Protection and Abuse Prevention | 988 | ||
| Introduction | 988 | ||
| Forms of Child Maltreatment | 988 | ||
| Physical Abuse | 988 | ||
| Sexual Abuse/Exploitation | 989 | ||
| Emotional Abuse | 989 | ||
| Neglect | 989 | ||
| Parental Substance Abuse | 989 | ||
| Risk Factors in Early Childhood | 989 | ||
| Approaches to Assessing Risk and Need | 989 | ||
| Structured risk assessment | 990 | ||
| Ecological approaches to needs assessment | 990 | ||
| Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect | 991 | ||
| Responses to Child Maltreatment | 992 | ||
| Child Welfare and Child Protection | 992 | ||
| Early-childhood centers and schools | 992 | ||
| Responsibility for Child Welfare and Child Protection | 992 | ||
| The state | 992 | ||
| Interagency cooperation | 992 | ||
| Mandatory reporting | 993 | ||
| Abuse Prevention | 993 | ||
| Educational Responses | 993 | ||
| Further Reading | 994 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 994 | ||
| Evaluating Early Childhood Education and Care Programs | 996 | ||
| Types of Evaluation and Their Relevance to ECEC | 996 | ||
| Target of the Evaluation | 996 | ||
| Impact evaluation | 996 | ||
| Quality evaluation | 996 | ||
| Process evaluation | 996 | ||
| Confirmatory program evaluation | 997 | ||
| Evaluators | 997 | ||
| Data Sources | 997 | ||
| Intended Uses of the Evaluation | 997 | ||
| Formative evaluation | 997 | ||
| Summative evaluation | 997 | ||
| Programmatic evaluation | 997 | ||
| Methodologies | 998 | ||
| Quantitative Methodologies | 998 | ||
| Comparison group | 998 | ||
| Pre-test/post-test methodology | 998 | ||
| Comparison to standards | 998 | ||
| Group randomization | 998 | ||
| Qualitative Components | 999 | ||
| Challenges | 999 | ||
| Contextual Information | 999 | ||
| Policy Ramifications | 999 | ||
| Applied Research Perspective | 999 | ||
| Accountability Controversy | 1000 | ||
| Perspectives on Program Quality | 1000 | ||
| International Perspective | 1000 | ||
| Bibliography | 1001 | ||
| Further Reading | 1001 | ||
| EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE INVESTMENT | 1003 | ||
| Investing in Early Childhood Education and Care: The Health and Wellbeing Case | 1003 | ||
| Factors That Influence Child Health and Development | 1003 | ||
| Genetic Factors | 1003 | ||
| Familial Factors | 1004 | ||
| Poverty | 1004 | ||
| Maternal employment | 1004 | ||
| Parental education | 1004 | ||
| Family structure | 1004 | ||
| Parenting | 1004 | ||
| Community Factors | 1004 | ||
| Social support | 1004 | ||
| Societal Effects | 1004 | ||
| Social capital | 1005 | ||
| Social gradients | 1005 | ||
| Environmental Factors | 1005 | ||
| Climate change | 1005 | ||
| Environmental toxins | 1005 | ||
| Changes in urban environments | 1006 | ||
| Changes in home living environments | 1006 | ||
| Changes in food consumption | 1006 | ||
| Evidence of Long-Term Impacts of Early Experiences | 1006 | ||
| Latency or Sleeper Effects | 1006 | ||
| Cumulative Effects | 1007 | ||
| Pathway Effects | 1007 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 1008 | ||
| Bibliography | 1008 | ||
| Further Reading | 1008 | ||
| Cost-effective Early Childhood Programs from Preschool to Third Grade | 1009 | ||
| Scope of Review | 1009 | ||
| How ECD Programs Influence Outcomes | 1009 | ||
| Cumulative Evidence of Effects | 1010 | ||
| Effects and Economic Benefits of Three Preschool Programs | 1011 | ||
| CBA in ECD Programs | 1011 | ||
| Summary of Results of Three Cost-Benefit Analyses | 1012 | ||
| CBAs from Policy Simulations | 1013 | ||
| The Effects of Full-Day Kindergarten | 1014 | ||
| Class-Size Reductions | 1014 | ||
| Other School-Age Programs and Practices | 1014 | ||
| PK-3 Programs | 1015 | ||
| Summary of Cost Effectiveness | 1015 | ||
| Key Principles of Effectiveness of ECD Programs | 1016 | ||
| Bibliography | 1018 | ||
| Further Reading | 1019 | ||
| Early Childhood in Post-Modern Cultures: Thoughts and Some Concerns | 1020 | ||
| The Overriding Influences | 1020 | ||
| Stark Contrasts | 1020 | ||
| Intermediate Influences: The Meso-System | 1021 | ||
| Demography, Families, and Change | 1021 | ||
| The Close Inner Pressures | 1022 | ||
| Technology and the Media | 1022 | ||
| The Center | 1022 | ||
| Early Brain Development | 1022 | ||
| The Child, Happiness, and Early Pursuits | 1023 | ||
| Politics and Policies: Freedom, Risk, Accountability, and Control | 1023 | ||
| Bibliography | 1025 | ||
| Investing in Early Childhood Education and Care: Some Policy Implications | 1026 | ||
| The Childcare Transition: A Profound Social Change | 1026 | ||
| Childcare Outside the Home Brings Benefits to Economies, Women, and Young Children | 1026 | ||
| Government Investment in Childcare Remains Weak | 1027 | ||
| Countries Prefer to Invest in Early-Education Services | 1028 | ||
| To What Extent Do Governments Fund Early Education and Childcare? | 1028 | ||
| What Is the Actual Investment as a Share of Gross Domestic Product? | 1029 | ||
| What Share Should Countries be Investing if Quality is to be Achieved? | 1029 | ||
| What Funding Methods Do Governments Use? | 1030 | ||
| Funding in Early-Education Services for Children over 3 Years | 1030 | ||
| Funding for Children under 3 Years | 1031 | ||
| Controlling Costs | 1031 | ||
| Which Is More Effective: A Direct Funding-of-Services Model or a Parent Subsidy Model? | 1031 | ||
| Bibliography | 1032 | ||
| Further Reading | 1033 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1033 | ||
| Investing in Early Childhood Education and Care: The Economic Case | 1034 | ||
| Why Private Markets May Fail in the Provision of ECEC Services | 1034 | ||
| The Research on Benefits to Children | 1035 | ||
| Effects of ECEC on Parents' Employment Situation | 1037 | ||
| Government ECEC Policy Issues | 1038 | ||
| Concluding Observations | 1038 | ||
| Bibliography | 1038 | ||
| Further Reading | 1039 | ||
| EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE PROGRAMS | 1040 | ||
| Early Care and Education Programs for Infants and Toddlers | 1040 | ||
| Introduction | 1040 | ||
| Changing Patterns of Early Care and Education | 1041 | ||
| Research | 1042 | ||
| Changing Family Contexts for Childrearing | 1042 | ||
| Prevailing Theories, Policies, and Practices | 1043 | ||
| Conclusion | 1044 | ||
| Further Reading | 1044 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1045 | ||
| Literacies in Early Childhood: The Preschool Period | 1046 | ||
| Introduction | 1046 | ||
| Concept Formation in Early Literacy and Numeracy | 1046 | ||
| The Role of Adults in Everyday Practice | 1047 | ||
| Literacy and Numeracy: Opportunity and Development | 1047 | ||
| Early Literacies and Preschool Practices | 1048 | ||
| Demonstrating Interest/Awareness | 1048 | ||
| Reviewing Materials and Supports for Learning | 1049 | ||
| Using Appropriate Pedagogy | 1049 | ||
| Conclusion | 1049 | ||
| Bibliography | 1050 | ||
| Further Reading | 1051 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1051 | ||
| Participation in Early Childhood Education and Care Programs: Equity, Diversity and Educational Disadvantage | 1052 | ||
| Glossary | 1052 | ||
| Introduction | 1052 | ||
| The Problem: Disadvantage and Inequalities | 1052 | ||
| Policy Matters | 1053 | ||
| Quality Matters | 1053 | ||
| A Final Note on Participation | 1054 | ||
| Bibliography | 1055 | ||
| Further Reading | 1056 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1056 | ||
| Teaching in Early Childhood Centers Instructional Methods and Child Outcomes | 1057 | ||
| Glossary | 1057 | ||
| Introduction | 1057 | ||
| Researching the Effectiveness and Quality of Center-Based Practice | 1058 | ||
| Quality and Diversity | 1058 | ||
| The Qualitative Case Studies | 1058 | ||
| Pedagogical Practices Producing Improved Child Outcomes | 1059 | ||
| Adult-Child Interactions | 1059 | ||
| Differentiation and Formative Assessment | 1060 | ||
| Discipline and Adult Support in Talking Through Conflicts | 1060 | ||
| Parental Partnership | 1060 | ||
| Some Overriding Conditions for Success | 1060 | ||
| Knowledge of the Curriculum and Child Development | 1060 | ||
| Management and Staff | 1060 | ||
| Summary of Findings | 1061 | ||
| Conclusions | 1061 | ||
| Bibliography | 1062 | ||
| Further Reading | 1063 | ||
| EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE PROVISION | 1064 | ||
| Early Childhood Education and Care in the People's Republic of China | 1064 | ||
| Glossary | 1064 | ||
| The Recent Origin of ECEC in China | 1064 | ||
| Evolution of ECEC in China and the Propelling Drives Behind | 1065 | ||
| From 1978 to 1993: Consolidation of ECEC Provision | 1065 | ||
| From 1993 to 2002: Market Economy Weakened the Funding Basis of China's ECEC | 1066 | ||
| From 2002 to the Present: Private Providers are Emerging as a Major Player in China's ECEC Services | 1066 | ||
| Uncertain Reform of ECEC Provision Ahead in China | 1067 | ||
| Conclusion | 1067 | ||
| Bibliography | 1068 | ||
| Home-Based and Institutional Early-Childhood Education and Care Services | 1069 | ||
| Glossary | 1069 | ||
| Introduction | 1069 | ||
| Effectiveness of ECEC | 1069 | ||
| Home-Based Programs | 1070 | ||
| Center-Based Programs | 1071 | ||
| Combinations of Center-Based and Home-Based Programs | 1072 | ||
| Conclusion | 1072 | ||
| Limitations of Studies | 1073 | ||
| Bibliography | 1074 | ||
| Further Reading | 1074 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1074 | ||
| Integrated Early Childhood Education and Care Services - Care, Upbringing, Education and Health | 1075 | ||
| The Integration Continuum | 1075 | ||
| Countries with Administrative Amalgamation of ECEC Services | 1075 | ||
| Countries that Have Maintained the Historical Separation Between Public Education and Child Care | 1076 | ||
| Ingredients of Service Integration | 1077 | ||
| Reorganizing the Workforce | 1077 | ||
| Integrating Curricular and Pedagogical Frameworks | 1078 | ||
| Conclusion | 1079 | ||
| Bibliography | 1079 | ||
| Further Reading | 1079 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1080 | ||
| Issues of Access and Program Quality | 1081 | ||
| Glossary | 1081 | ||
| The Importance of Early Childhood Education and Care | 1081 | ||
| Several Decades of Steady Growth in ECEC | 1081 | ||
| Current Issues of Access to ECEC | 1082 | ||
| Issues of ECEC Program Administration and Governance | 1084 | ||
| Moving Beyond Enrolment Counts to Assure Access to High-Quality ECEC Programs | 1087 | ||
| Universal and Targeted ECEC Programs | 1088 | ||
| Conclusions | 1089 | ||
| Further Reading | 1089 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1090 | ||
| Kindergarten Transitions and Linkages to Primary School - Readiness Re-conceptualized | 1091 | ||
| Glossary | 1091 | ||
| Readiness and Preparedness | 1091 | ||
| Transition as a Single Time-Limited Change Event | 1092 | ||
| Transition as Set School Practices | 1092 | ||
| Transition as Continuity of Experience | 1093 | ||
| Transition as Multilayer Multiyear Process | 1093 | ||
| Transition as a Dynamic Relationship-Based Process | 1094 | ||
| Child and Family Resource and Resilience | 1095 | ||
| Conclusion | 1095 | ||
| Bibliography | 1095 | ||
| Further Reading | 1096 | ||
| Parent Support in Early Childhood - Approaches and Outcomes | 1097 | ||
| Glossary | 1097 | ||
| Early Start and Healthy Families | 1097 | ||
| Early Start, New Zealand | 1097 | ||
| Healthy Families America | 1097 | ||
| Jamaican Home-Visiting Programs and Nurse-Family Partnership | 1098 | ||
| Home Visiting, Jamaica | 1098 | ||
| Nurse-Family Partnership, United States | 1098 | ||
| Sure Start and Early Head Start | 1099 | ||
| Sure Start, United Kingdom | 1099 | ||
| Early Head Start | 1099 | ||
| The Incredible Years | 1100 | ||
| The Incredible Years, Wales | 1100 | ||
| The Incredible Years, United States | 1100 | ||
| Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngsters | 1100 | ||
| Turkish Early Enrichment Program | 1101 | ||
| Parenting Support and Education: Lessons Learned | 1101 | ||
| Bibliography | 1102 | ||
| Further Reading | 1102 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1102 | ||
| EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE RESEARCH | 1103 | ||
| Development and Implementation of Early Learning Standards in the United States | 1103 | ||
| Glossary | 1103 | ||
| The Momentum of the ELS Movement in Early Care and Education | 1103 | ||
| Development of ELS in the United States | 1104 | ||
| ELS Development Process | 1104 | ||
| Resources Used to Develop the Content of ELS | 1105 | ||
| The Content of ELS Documents | 1105 | ||
| The Content of Preschool ELS | 1106 | ||
| The Content of Infant-Toddler ELS | 1106 | ||
| Implementation of ELS | 1106 | ||
| Summary | 1107 | ||
| Further Reading | 1107 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1108 | ||
| Global Status of Early Learning and Development Standards | 1109 | ||
| Glossary | 1109 | ||
| Conceptual Background of ELDS | 1109 | ||
| Process for Developing and Implementing ELDS | 1110 | ||
| Phase 1: Making Initial Decisions | 1110 | ||
| Decision 1: Guiding principles | 1110 | ||
| Decision 2: Domains of development and learning | 1110 | ||
| Decision 3: Ages covered by ELDS | 1110 | ||
| Decision 4: Uses of ELDS | 1111 | ||
| Phase 2: Drafting the Standards | 1111 | ||
| Phase 3: Validation | 1111 | ||
| Phase 4: Implementation | 1112 | ||
| Status Report on Countries Participating in ELDS | 1112 | ||
| Lessons Learned | 1112 | ||
| Conceptual Gleanings | 1112 | ||
| Procedural Gleanings | 1113 | ||
| Implementation Gleanings | 1113 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 1113 | ||
| Further Reading | 1113 | ||
| Rethinking Early Childhood Education and Care: Implications for Research and Evaluation | 1115 | ||
| Introduction | 1115 | ||
| Changing Interests in ECEC Programs | 1115 | ||
| Defining Optimal Outcomes | 1117 | ||
| Access | 1117 | ||
| Benefit to All Children | 1117 | ||
| Long Effects | 1118 | ||
| Wide Effects | 1118 | ||
| Identifying Optimal Programs | 1118 | ||
| Deriving a Model of Quality in ECEC | 1118 | ||
| Evaluating Alternative Delivery and Access Modes for the Model | 1119 | ||
| Evaluating Delivery of a Derived Model | 1119 | ||
| Conclusion | 1120 | ||
| Bibliography | 1120 | ||
| Further Reading | 1121 | ||
| EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE THEORY | 1122 | ||
| Child Rearing and Early Education: Parents and Professionals: Theoretical and Historical Influences | 1122 | ||
| Diverse Families | 1122 | ||
| Working Mothers | 1122 | ||
| The Intimacies of Caring | 1123 | ||
| Mothering Styles and Children's School Outcomes | 1124 | ||
| Training for Work with Young Children | 1124 | ||
| Multidisciplinary Working | 1125 | ||
| Mothers and Professionals Working Together | 1125 | ||
| The Tensions of the Marketplace | 1126 | ||
| Conclusion | 1126 | ||
| Bibliography | 1126 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1127 | ||
| EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE WORKFORCE | 1128 | ||
| Early Childhood Education and Care Professional Profiles in the United Kingdom: Multiagency Teamwork and Transdisciplinary Changes | 1128 | ||
| Policy Context | 1128 | ||
| Policy | 1128 | ||
| Legislation to Support Policy Change | 1129 | ||
| Education | 1129 | ||
| Childcare | 1129 | ||
| Integrating Early Years Care and Education | 1130 | ||
| Multiagency and Transdisciplinary Teams | 1130 | ||
| Provision and Settings | 1130 | ||
| Workforce Reform | 1130 | ||
| Working in Multiagency and Transdisciplinary Teams | 1131 | ||
| Implications | 1132 | ||
| Bibliography | 1132 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1132 | ||
| Early Childhood Education and Care Staff Support: Mentoring and Professional Development in Finland | 1133 | ||
| Glossary | 1133 | ||
| The Need for Staff Support | 1133 | ||
| Mentoring in Professional Development | 1134 | ||
| What is Mentoring? | 1134 | ||
| Mentoring redefined | 1134 | ||
| Group and peer mentoring | 1134 | ||
| E-mentoring | 1135 | ||
| Mentoring and reflection | 1135 | ||
| Mentoring the Working Communities | 1135 | ||
| A Coordinating Mentor in the ECEC Curriculum Process | 1136 | ||
| The structure of the mentoring models | 1136 | ||
| Model 1 | 1136 | ||
| Model 2 | 1136 | ||
| Model 3 | 1137 | ||
| The mentors | 1137 | ||
| Web-based support | 1137 | ||
| Promoting Professional Development by Group- Based E-Mentoring | 1137 | ||
| Developing working communities | 1137 | ||
| Conclusion | 1138 | ||
| Bibliography | 1138 | ||
| Further Reading | 1139 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1139 | ||
| ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION | 1140 | ||
| Education and Health | 1140 | ||
| Glossary | 1140 | ||
| Overview of Causal Relationships | 1140 | ||
| Health, Education, and Poverty | 1141 | ||
| Stress | 1142 | ||
| Social Standing | 1143 | ||
| Social Deprivation | 1144 | ||
| Behavioral Risk Factors | 1145 | ||
| Genetic Risk Factors | 1145 | ||
| Health Insurance | 1146 | ||
| Enhanced Cognitive Ability | 1147 | ||
| Conclusions | 1147 | ||
| Bibliography | 1147 | ||
| Further Reading | 1148 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1148 | ||
| Data | 1149 | ||
| Introduction | 1149 | ||
| Overview | 1149 | ||
| National Data Systems | 1149 | ||
| CCD and SASS Databases | 1149 | ||
| NAEP Assessment Data | 1150 | ||
| National Longitudinal Studies: NLS-72, HS and B, NELS: 88, and ELS: 2002 | 1150 | ||
| Crime and Safety Surveys | 1151 | ||
| Accessibility | 1151 | ||
| State and School District Databases | 1152 | ||
| The National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research | 1153 | ||
| Florida | 1153 | ||
| Texas | 1153 | ||
| New York | 1153 | ||
| North Carolina | 1154 | ||
| Missouri | 1154 | ||
| Washington | 1154 | ||
| Other State and District Administrative Databases | 1154 | ||
| Chicago | 1154 | ||
| Arizona | 1154 | ||
| California | 1154 | ||
| Other states | 1155 | ||
| International Data Systems | 1155 | ||
| Conclusions | 1155 | ||
| Bibliography | 1155 | ||
| Further Reading | 1156 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1157 | ||
| Empirical Research Methods in the Economics of Education | 1158 | ||
| Introduction | 1158 | ||
| Common Research Terms | 1158 | ||
| Methods for Answering Causal Questions | 1158 | ||
| Statistical Controls for Observed Variables | 1158 | ||
| Regression analysis | 1159 | ||
| Propensity score matching | 1159 | ||
| Randomized Assignment | 1160 | ||
| Discontinuity Assignment | 1160 | ||
| Instrumental Variables | 1161 | ||
| Difference-in-Differences | 1161 | ||
| Combining Methods to Improve Causal Inference | 1162 | ||
| Conclusions | 1162 | ||
| Bibliography | 1163 | ||
| Further Reading | 1163 | ||
| Theoretical Concepts in the Economics of Education | 1164 | ||
| Introduction | 1164 | ||
| Economics Defined | 1164 | ||
| Human Capital | 1165 | ||
| Markets and Market Failure | 1165 | ||
| Education Production | 1167 | ||
| Concluding Thoughts | 1168 | ||
| Bibliography | 1168 | ||
| Further Reading | 1168 | ||
| ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION – COSTS AND FINANCING OF SCHOOLING | 1170 | ||
| Cost-Benefit Analysis and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis | 1170 | ||
| Economic Evaluation of Education | 1170 | ||
| Methodology | 1171 | ||
| Measuring Costs | 1171 | ||
| Benefits and Effects | 1172 | ||
| Examples of Applications | 1172 | ||
| Cost-benefit analysis | 1172 | ||
| Further application of CBA | 1173 | ||
| Cost-effectiveness analysis | 1173 | ||
| Further application of CEA | 1173 | ||
| Bibliography | 1174 | ||
| Further Reading | 1174 | ||
| Economic Approaches to Adequacy | 1175 | ||
| Glossary | 1175 | ||
| Measuring the Costs of Adequacy | 1175 | ||
| Cost-Function Estimation | 1177 | ||
| Variables and Functional Form | 1177 | ||
| Efficiency | 1177 | ||
| Estimation Methods | 1178 | ||
| Data Requirements | 1178 | ||
| Cost-Function Results | 1178 | ||
| Bibliography | 1179 | ||
| Further Reading | 1180 | ||
| Economic Approaches to School Efficiency | 1181 | ||
| Glossary | 1181 | ||
| Efficiency in an Education Context | 1181 | ||
| Econometric Approaches | 1181 | ||
| Data Envelopment Analysis | 1181 | ||
| Stochastic Frontier Analysis | 1182 | ||
| Corrected OLS | 1182 | ||
| Specifications and Measurement | 1183 | ||
| School Outputs | 1183 | ||
| School Inputs | 1183 | ||
| Environmental Factors | 1184 | ||
| Findings Regarding School Efficiency | 1184 | ||
| The Determinants of School Inefficiency | 1185 | ||
| Conclusions | 1185 | ||
| Bibliography | 1186 | ||
| Further Reading | 1186 | ||
| School Finance Reform | 1187 | ||
| Glossary | 1187 | ||
| Introduction | 1187 | ||
| Effects of School Finance Reforms on Spending | 1187 | ||
| Impact of Reforms on the Distribution and Level of Spending | 1187 | ||
| How Are Additional Dollars Spent? | 1188 | ||
| Impact of School Finance Reform on Student Performance | 1188 | ||
| Other Effects of School Finance Reforms | 1189 | ||
| Spending on Other Public Services after Finance Reforms | 1189 | ||
| Finance Reforms and Community Composition | 1189 | ||
| Housing Prices and Finance Reforms | 1190 | ||
| Do Finance Reforms Lead to Shifts of Enrollment to Private Schools? | 1190 | ||
| Finance Reforms and Private Contributions to Public Schools | 1190 | ||
| Summary | 1191 | ||
| Bibliography | 1191 | ||
| Further Reading | 1191 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1192 | ||
| School Finance: An Overview | 1193 | ||
| Glossary | 1193 | ||
| Introduction | 1193 | ||
| School Finance in Context | 1193 | ||
| Raising Revenue: Multiple and Evolving Roles | 1194 | ||
| Distributing Resources: Multiple and Competing Goals | 1195 | ||
| Mechanisms for Distributing Revenue Across School Districts | 1195 | ||
| Equity and Adequacy | 1196 | ||
| Efficiency | 1197 | ||
| Utilization of Resources: Current Policy Issues for School Finance | 1197 | ||
| Teacher Compensation | 1197 | ||
| Special Education | 1197 | ||
| Expanding the Scope of Education | 1198 | ||
| Bibliography | 1198 | ||
| Further Reading | 1199 | ||
| The Economics of Tuition and Fees in Higher Education | 1200 | ||
| Glossary | 1200 | ||
| Introduction | 1200 | ||
| Tuition Keeps Rising in Private Higher Education | 1201 | ||
| Tuition Keeps Rising at Public Institutions | 1203 | ||
| Graduate and Professional Program Tuition and Fees | 1203 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 1204 | ||
| Bibliography | 1204 | ||
| Further Reading | 1204 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1205 | ||
| ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION – EXTERNAL BENEFITS OF SCHOOLING | 1206 | ||
| Education and Civic Engagement | 1206 | ||
| The Civic Returns to Educational Attainment | 1206 | ||
| Comparisons of Public and Private Schools | 1207 | ||
| Summary and Future Directions | 1209 | ||
| Bibliography | 1209 | ||
| Further Reading | 1209 | ||
| Education and Crime | 1210 | ||
| Glossary | 1210 | ||
| Introduction | 1210 | ||
| The Economics of Education and Crime | 1210 | ||
| The Effects of Education on Subsequent Crime Among Adults | 1210 | ||
| Contemporaneous Crime and Education Decisions Among Youth | 1211 | ||
| Empirical Evidence on Crime and Education | 1211 | ||
| The Effects of Education on Crime | 1211 | ||
| The Effects of Arrest and Incarceration on Education | 1214 | ||
| Education and Training in Prison | 1214 | ||
| Conclusions | 1215 | ||
| Bibliography | 1215 | ||
| Further Reading | 1215 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1215 | ||
| Education and Economic Growth | 1216 | ||
| Early Studies of Schooling Quantity and Economic Growth | 1216 | ||
| Initial Evidence on the Quality of Education and Economic Growth | 1217 | ||
| Recent Evidence on the Importance of Cognitive Skills for Economic Growth | 1219 | ||
| The Interaction of Educational Quality with Economic Institutions | 1221 | ||
| Simulating the Impact of Educational Reform on Economic Growth | 1221 | ||
| Summary | 1222 | ||
| Bibliography | 1223 | ||
| Further Reading | 1223 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1223 | ||
| Parental Socioeconomic Status, Child Health, and Human Capital | 1224 | ||
| Glossary | 1224 | ||
| Introduction | 1224 | ||
| Does Parental Socioeconomic Status Affect Child Health? | 1224 | ||
| External Benefits of Parental SES | 1224 | ||
| Evidence | 1225 | ||
| Correlation | 1225 | ||
| Causation | 1225 | ||
| Does Child Health Affect Future Outcomes? | 1226 | ||
| Possible Channels | 1226 | ||
| Evidence | 1226 | ||
| Conditions in utero | 1227 | ||
| Birth weight | 1227 | ||
| Nutrition | 1227 | ||
| Mental health | 1228 | ||
| Asthma | 1228 | ||
| Acute illnesses | 1228 | ||
| Environmental toxins | 1228 | ||
| Can Health Account for Gaps in Children's Educational Outcomes? | 1229 | ||
| Bibliography | 1229 | ||
| Further Reading | 1230 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1230 | ||
| The External Benefits of Education | 1231 | ||
| Distinguishing Private Market, Private Nonmarket, and Social Benefits | 1231 | ||
| The Market Benefits of Education | 1231 | ||
| The Private Nonmarket Benefits of Education | 1231 | ||
| The External Social Benefits of Education | 1232 | ||
| The Indirect Effects from Education | 1233 | ||
| Why Are Indirect Effects Externalities? | 1233 | ||
| The Evidence: Identifying and Valuing the External Social Benefits | 1233 | ||
| The Value of the Direct Nonmarket Public Benefits of Education | 1235 | ||
| Evidence Concerning Specific External Social Benefits | 1236 | ||
| Democratization | 1236 | ||
| Human rights | 1237 | ||
| Political stability | 1237 | ||
| Life expectancy | 1238 | ||
| Reduced inequality and lower poverty | 1238 | ||
| Lower crime rates | 1238 | ||
| Lower public health, welfare, and prison costs | 1238 | ||
| Increased tax receipts | 1238 | ||
| Environmental benefits | 1239 | ||
| Happiness and social capital | 1239 | ||
| Dissemination of technology | 1239 | ||
| The Value of External Indirect Effects | 1239 | ||
| The Total Value of Education's External Benefits | 1240 | ||
| Studies of Aggregate Externalities | 1240 | ||
| Implications | 1241 | ||
| Bibliography | 1241 | ||
| Further Reading | 1242 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1242 | ||
| ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION – LABOR MARKETS, EDUCATION AND EARNINGS | 1243 | ||
| Education and Inequality* | 1243 | ||
| Glossary | 1243 | ||
| Introduction | 1243 | ||
| Inequalities in Educational Outcomes | 1244 | ||
| Inequalities by Social Background | 1244 | ||
| Inequalities by Race, Ethnicity, and Immigrant Status | 1245 | ||
| Inequalities by Gender | 1246 | ||
| Education and Economic Outcomes | 1247 | ||
| Causality | 1248 | ||
| Wider Benefits of Education | 1249 | ||
| Changes over Time | 1251 | ||
| Conclusions | 1251 | ||
| Bibliography | 1252 | ||
| Further Reading | 1252 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1252 | ||
| Human Capital | 1253 | ||
| Introduction | 1253 | ||
| Private Returns to Education | 1253 | ||
| Theoretical Issues and Modeling | 1253 | ||
| Empirical Estimates and Methodology | 1254 | ||
| Topics in Empirical Estimation | 1255 | ||
| Primary and secondary education | 1255 | ||
| Post-secondary education | 1255 | ||
| On-the-job training and work experience | 1256 | ||
| Nonmonetary Returns to Education | 1256 | ||
| Social Returns to Education | 1256 | ||
| Conclusion | 1257 | ||
| Bibliography | 1257 | ||
| Further Reading | 1258 | ||
| Race Earnings Differentials | 1259 | ||
| Glossary | 1259 | ||
| Race and Ethnic Earnings Differences in the United States | 1260 | ||
| A Model for Explaining Earnings Differences | 1261 | ||
| Explaining Earnings Differences with Cross-Section Data | 1262 | ||
| Earnings Differences for Minority Women | 1263 | ||
| Do Ability/Educational Quality Differences Explain Race/Ethnic Earnings Differences? | 1264 | ||
| What Are the Sources of the Black/White Test-Score Gap? | 1265 | ||
| Explaining Changes in Earnings Differences over Time | 1266 | ||
| Comparing Results for Brazil and Israel | 1267 | ||
| Bibliography | 1268 | ||
| Returns to Education in Developed Countries | 1269 | ||
| Glossary | 1269 | ||
| Introduction | 1269 | ||
| Estimating Returns to Education via Schooling Equations | 1269 | ||
| Basic Schooling Equation | 1270 | ||
| Hourly Wages Versus Measures That Include Hours of Work | 1270 | ||
| Measurement Error in Schooling | 1270 | ||
| Ability Bias, Omitted Variables, and Selection Bias | 1271 | ||
| Include proxy measures of ability | 1271 | ||
| Twin studies | 1271 | ||
| Natural experiments based mainly on features of the education system | 1271 | ||
| Heterogeneous Returns | 1272 | ||
| Annual Returns, Signaling, and Sheepskin Effects | 1273 | ||
| Trends and Some International Evidence | 1273 | ||
| Summary | 1273 | ||
| Bibliography | 1274 | ||
| Further Reading | 1275 | ||
| Returns to Education in Developing Countries | 1276 | ||
| Introduction | 1276 | ||
| Earnings Differentials by Education | 1276 | ||
| Returns to Education | 1276 | ||
| Causality | 1280 | ||
| Cognitive Ability | 1281 | ||
| Conclusions and Policy Considerations | 1281 | ||
| Bibliography | 1282 | ||
| Further Reading | 1283 | ||
| School Quality and Earnings | 1284 | ||
| Glossary | 1284 | ||
| Estimation Methods Typically Used | 1284 | ||
| Methodological Weaknesses | 1285 | ||
| Summary of Findings | 1285 | ||
| Testing for a Significant Relation between School Resources and Earnings | 1285 | ||
| Results for US women and workers in the United Kingdom | 1286 | ||
| Estimating the Size of the Relation Between School Resources and Earnings | 1287 | ||
| Explanations for Variations in Results | 1287 | ||
| Age Dependence | 1289 | ||
| Structural Changes? | 1289 | ||
| Specific Problems Potentially Afflicting State-Level and School-Level Studies | 1289 | ||
| Issues That Require Further Research | 1290 | ||
| Bibliography | 1290 | ||
| Further Reading | 1291 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1291 | ||
| Signaling in the Labor Market | 1292 | ||
| The Signaling Model | 1292 | ||
| Empirical Evidence | 1293 | ||
| Conclusion | 1295 | ||
| Bibliography | 1295 | ||
| Further Reading | 1295 | ||
| The Economics of High School Dropouts | 1296 | ||
| Introduction | 1296 | ||
| Who Drops Out of High School? | 1296 | ||
| What Are the Consequences? | 1297 | ||
| Why Do Students Drop Out? | 1297 | ||
| Individual Factors | 1298 | ||
| Institutional Factors | 1298 | ||
| Families | 1298 | ||
| Schools | 1298 | ||
| Community and peers | 1299 | ||
| What Can Be Done? | 1299 | ||
| Programmatic Approaches | 1300 | ||
| Systemic Solutions | 1300 | ||
| Conclusions | 1300 | ||
| Bibliography | 1300 | ||
| Further Reading | 1301 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1301 | ||
| ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION – MARKETS, INCENTIVES AND SCHOOL CHOICE | 1302 | ||
| Competition and Student Performance | 1302 | ||
| Introduction | 1302 | ||
| Concepts and Empirical Background | 1302 | ||
| Competition Associated with the Presence of Private Schools | 1304 | ||
| Competition Among Public Schools | 1304 | ||
| Lessons from Research Using Non-US Data | 1305 | ||
| Summary | 1306 | ||
| Bibliography | 1307 | ||
| Further Reading | 1307 | ||
| Educational Privatization | 1308 | ||
| Introduction | 1308 | ||
| Privatization of Different School Types | 1308 | ||
| Privatization of School Services | 1309 | ||
| Financing Education and Privatization | 1309 | ||
| Evaluating Educational Privatization | 1310 | ||
| Evaluating Educational Privatization Approaches | 1311 | ||
| Tools of Educational Privatization | 1312 | ||
| Summary | 1312 | ||
| Bibliography | 1312 | ||
| Student Incentives | 1313 | ||
| Introduction | 1313 | ||
| Conceptual and Empirical Issues | 1313 | ||
| Incentives to Increase Student Effort and Performance | 1313 | ||
| Standards-Based Accountability | 1313 | ||
| Evidence | 1314 | ||
| Student Financial Incentives | 1315 | ||
| Evidence | 1315 | ||
| Teacher Financial Incentives | 1315 | ||
| Evidence | 1316 | ||
| Conclusion | 1316 | ||
| Bibliography | 1316 | ||
| Further Reading | 1317 | ||
| The Economic Role of the State in Education | 1318 | ||
| Glossary | 1318 | ||
| Constructing Education Systems | 1318 | ||
| Economics and the State's Role | 1319 | ||
| Is Education a Public Good? | 1319 | ||
| Market Failure in the Market for Education | 1319 | ||
| Externalities | 1319 | ||
| Information asymmetry | 1320 | ||
| Uncertainty and risk aversion | 1320 | ||
| Economies of scale | 1321 | ||
| Equity and Equal Opportunity | 1321 | ||
| Critique of State Provision | 1321 | ||
| Public Choice and Government Failure | 1321 | ||
| Inefficiency in production | 1321 | ||
| Inequity in opportunities and outcomes | 1322 | ||
| Standardization and enforced mediocrity | 1322 | ||
| Rent-seeking and corruption | 1322 | ||
| A Role for the State? | 1322 | ||
| Education and the Shrinking State | 1323 | ||
| Bibliography | 1323 | ||
| The Economics of Catholic Schools | 1325 | ||
| Glossary | 1325 | ||
| Introduction | 1325 | ||
| Overview | 1325 | ||
| History and Enrolment | 1325 | ||
| Teachers | 1325 | ||
| Students | 1325 | ||
| Location | 1326 | ||
| Tuition and Costs | 1326 | ||
| Market Served | 1326 | ||
| School Practices | 1326 | ||
| Vouchers | 1326 | ||
| Catholic Schools in Other Countries | 1327 | ||
| Demand | 1327 | ||
| Effects | 1328 | ||
| Academic Achievement and Educational Attainment | 1328 | ||
| Bad Behavior | 1329 | ||
| Civic Participation and Altruism | 1329 | ||
| Economic Effects | 1329 | ||
| Other Effects | 1329 | ||
| The Effect of Catholic School Attendance in Other Countries | 1329 | ||
| Conclusions | 1329 | ||
| Bibliography | 1330 | ||
| Further Reading | 1330 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1330 | ||
| The Economics of Charter Schools | 1331 | ||
| Glossary | 1331 | ||
| Introduction | 1331 | ||
| Policy Questions | 1331 | ||
| What Types of Students Do Charter Schools Serve? | 1332 | ||
| Are Charter and Traditional Schools Receiving Comparable Funding? | 1332 | ||
| How Do Charter Schools Affect the Performance of Charter Students? | 1333 | ||
| Is Charter School Competition Improving the Performance of Traditional Public Schools? | 1334 | ||
| Conclusions | 1335 | ||
| Bibliography | 1336 | ||
| Further Reading | 1337 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1337 | ||
| The Economics of Parental Choice | 1338 | ||
| Glossary | 1338 | ||
| The Basic Economics of Parental Choice | 1338 | ||
| Choice among Alternative Types of Schools | 1339 | ||
| Empirical Evidence on What Parents Care about | 1339 | ||
| School Demographics | 1339 | ||
| Academic Performance | 1340 | ||
| Location | 1341 | ||
| School Atmosphere: Safety, Discipline, Values, Class Size, and Friends | 1341 | ||
| Does Parental Choice Vary by Income and Ability of Parents? Or Is There Evidence of Sorting by Income and Ability? | 1341 | ||
| The Role of Information | 1342 | ||
| Conclusions | 1342 | ||
| Bibliography | 1343 | ||
| Further Reading | 1344 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1344 | ||
| The Economics of School Accountability | 1345 | ||
| Glossary | 1345 | ||
| The Rationale for School-Based Accountability | 1345 | ||
| Designing School Accountability Systems | 1346 | ||
| The Evidence on Student Achievement | 1347 | ||
| Evidence on Unintended Consequences | 1348 | ||
| Bibliography | 1349 | ||
| Further Reading | 1350 | ||
| The Efficacy of Educational Vouchers* | 1351 | ||
| Glossary | 1351 | ||
| Introduction | 1351 | ||
| Structure of Voucher Plans | 1351 | ||
| Domestic Voucher Programs | 1352 | ||
| Publicly Funded Programs | 1352 | ||
| The Milwaukee voucher program | 1352 | ||
| The Cleveland voucher program | 1352 | ||
| Other publicly funded voucher programs | 1354 | ||
| Domestic, Privately Funded Programs | 1354 | ||
| International Voucher Programs | 1355 | ||
| Colombia PACES Program | 1355 | ||
| Chile | 1355 | ||
| Summary and Conclusion | 1356 | ||
| Bibliography | 1357 | ||
| Further Reading | 1358 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1358 | ||
| Tiebout Sorting and Competition | 1359 | ||
| Residential Mobility, Capitalization, and Household Preferences for Education | 1359 | ||
| Tiebout Sorting and the Rationing of School Inputs | 1360 | ||
| Tiebout Competition to Enhance Productive Efficiency | 1362 | ||
| A Partial Divorce between Competition and Tiebout | 1362 | ||
| Conclusion | 1363 | ||
| Bibliography | 1363 | ||
| Further Reading | 1364 | ||
| ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION – PRODUCTION OF SCHOOLING | 1365 | ||
| Desegregation, Academic Achievement and Earnings | 1365 | ||
| Supreme Court Decisions and Desegregation Methods | 1365 | ||
| Trends in School Enrolment Patterns: 1968-2000 | 1365 | ||
| Desegregation and White Enrolment Decline | 1367 | ||
| Desegregation Program Effects on Academic and Economic Outcomes | 1369 | ||
| Methodological Issues | 1369 | ||
| Summary of Results | 1370 | ||
| Bibliography | 1371 | ||
| Education Production Functions: Concepts | 1373 | ||
| Glossary | 1373 | ||
| Introduction | 1373 | ||
| Production Function Models and Assumptions | 1373 | ||
| Basic Assumptions | 1374 | ||
| Additional Common Assumptions | 1374 | ||
| EPFs and Accountability | 1376 | ||
| Evidence on the Assumptions of the EPF | 1376 | ||
| Further Reading | 1377 | ||
| Relevant Website | 1377 | ||
| Education Production Functions: Developed Country Evidence | 1378 | ||
| Glossary | 1378 | ||
| Overview | 1378 | ||
| Measured School Inputs | 1379 | ||
| Study Quality | 1379 | ||
| Benefits and Costs | 1380 | ||
| Do Teachers and Schools Matter? | 1380 | ||
| Some Conclusions and Implications | 1381 | ||
| Bibliography | 1381 | ||
| Further Reading | 1381 | ||
| Education Production Functions: Evidence from Developing Countries | 1383 | ||
| Glossary | 1383 | ||
| Introduction | 1383 | ||
| The Education Production Function | 1383 | ||
| Estimation of Production Functions | 1384 | ||
| Omitted Variable Bias | 1385 | ||
| Selection and Attrition Bias | 1385 | ||
| Endogenous Program Placement Bias | 1385 | ||
| Measurement Error Bias | 1385 | ||
| Methods to Reduce or Remove Bias | 1386 | ||
| Evidence from Developing Countries | 1386 | ||
| Education in Developing Countries | 1386 | ||
| Demand Interventions | 1388 | ||
| Supply Policies | 1391 | ||
| Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research | 1392 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 1392 | ||
| Bibliography | 1392 | ||
| Further Reading | 1393 | ||
| Family Environment in the Production of Schooling | 1394 | ||
| Social-Class-Based Child-Rearing Practices | 1394 | ||
| Health Influences on Achievement | 1396 | ||
| Housing and Student Mobility | 1398 | ||
| Income and Wealth Differences that Influence Achievement | 1398 | ||
| Conclusion | 1399 | ||
| Bibliography | 1399 | ||
| Further Reading | 1401 | ||
| Neighborhoods and Peers in the Production of Schooling | 1402 | ||
| Why Peers and Neighborhoods Might Matter | 1402 | ||
| Evidence on Neighborhoods | 1403 | ||
| Evidence on Schoolmates and Classmates | 1406 | ||
| Discussion | 1407 | ||
| Bibliography | 1408 | ||
| Further Reading | 1408 | ||
| Teacher Quality in Education Production | 1409 | ||
| The Education Production Function | 1409 | ||
| What Is Teacher Quality? | 1409 | ||
| Teacher Experience | 1410 | ||
| Teacher Certification | 1410 | ||
| Degree Level and Subject-Matter Preparation | 1411 | ||
| Teacher Ability | 1411 | ||
| Conclusion | 1412 | ||
| Bibliography | 1412 | ||
| Further Reading | 1413 | ||
| The Economics of Class Size | 1414 | ||
| Introduction | 1414 | ||
| Why Class Size Might Matter | 1414 | ||
| Empirical Approaches to Studying the Impact of Class Size | 1414 | ||
| Nonexperimental Research | 1415 | ||
| Experimental Research | 1415 | ||
| Checks for Randomization | 1416 | ||
| Achievement Results | 1417 | ||
| Additional Caveats | 1418 | ||
| Quasi-Experimental Research | 1419 | ||
| Policy-Induced Variation | 1420 | ||
| Discussion | 1420 | ||
| Bibliography | 1420 | ||
| Further Reading | 1420 | ||
| The Economics of Early Childhood Interventions | 1421 | ||
| The Economic Rationale | 1421 | ||
| Market Failures | 1421 | ||
| Equity and Redistribution | 1421 | ||
| Types of Early Childhood Interventions | 1422 | ||
| Cognitive and Academic Outcomes | 1423 | ||
| Noncognitive Outcomes | 1424 | ||
| Indirect Effects | 1424 | ||
| Female Labor Supply | 1425 | ||
| Intergenerational Effects | 1425 | ||
| Conclusions | 1425 | ||
| Bibliography | 1425 | ||
| Further Reading | 1426 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1426 | ||
| ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION – TEACHING LABOR MARKETS | 1427 | ||
| An Overview of Teacher Labor Markets | 1427 | ||
| Teacher Labor Markets | 1428 | ||
| Methodological Issues | 1430 | ||
| Looking Ahead | 1432 | ||
| Bibliography | 1433 | ||
| Further Reading | 1434 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1435 | ||
| Compensating Differentials in Teacher Labor Markets | 1436 | ||
| Glossary | 1436 | ||
| Background | 1436 | ||
| Early Efforts | 1436 | ||
| Purchasing Power of the Educational Dollar and Hedonic Wage Model | 1437 | ||
| Empirical Estimates of Compensating Differentials across the US | 1438 | ||
| Correlations over Time | 1438 | ||
| Analysis of Differences between Public and Private Schools | 1438 | ||
| Problems with the Hedonic Wage Model | 1439 | ||
| Regional Factors and the Comparable Wage Index | 1439 | ||
| Measuring Teacher Quality | 1440 | ||
| Interpretation of Cost Factors | 1440 | ||
| Teacher Quality and Fixed-Effects Models | 1440 | ||
| Flexible Wages and the Nature of the Labor Market | 1440 | ||
| Location as a Factor | 1441 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 1441 | ||
| Bibliography | 1442 | ||
| Further Reading | 1442 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1443 | ||
| Economic Approaches to Teacher Recruitment and Retention | 1444 | ||
| Introduction | 1444 | ||
| The Supply of Teachers | 1444 | ||
| Wages | 1444 | ||
| Working Conditions | 1444 | ||
| Psychic Benefits and Costs | 1445 | ||
| School Location | 1445 | ||
| Barriers to Entry | 1446 | ||
| The Demand for Teachers | 1446 | ||
| Student Enrolment and Teacher Retirement | 1446 | ||
| Reduction in Student-to-Teacher Ratios | 1446 | ||
| Hiring Processes | 1446 | ||
| Institutional Constraints | 1447 | ||
| Recruitment and Retention Policies to Date | 1447 | ||
| Partnerships Between Districts and Local Colleges | 1447 | ||
| Monetary Incentives | 1447 | ||
| Changes in Entry Requirements | 1448 | ||
| Teacher Induction and Mentoring | 1448 | ||
| Performance-Based Pay | 1448 | ||
| Career Differentiation Through Ladders | 1449 | ||
| Improving Hiring Practices | 1449 | ||
| Reform of Due Process | 1449 | ||
| Conclusion | 1450 | ||
| Bibliography | 1450 | ||
| Further Reading | 1451 | ||
| e9780080448930v3 | 1863 | ||
| Front Cover | 1863 | ||
| International Encyclopedia of Education | 1864 | ||
| Copyright Page | 1867 | ||
| Preface | 1868 | ||
| Editors | 1870 | ||
| How to Use the Encyclopedia | 1872 | ||
| Contents | 1874 | ||
| VOLUME 3 | 1906 | ||
| E | 1906 | ||
| EDUCATION OF PROFESSIONALS | 1906 | ||
| An Overview of Accreditation, Certification, and Licensure Processes | 1906 | ||
| Introduction | 1906 | ||
| Accreditation | 1906 | ||
| Benefits of Accreditation | 1907 | ||
| Models of Accreditation | 1907 | ||
| Development of Accreditation Systems | 1908 | ||
| Evidence of Effectiveness | 1908 | ||
| Licensure and Certification | 1908 | ||
| Benefits of Licensure and Certification | 1909 | ||
| Models of Licensure and Certification | 1909 | ||
| Requirements | 1910 | ||
| Evidence of Effectiveness | 1910 | ||
| Summary | 1910 | ||
| Further Reading | 1911 | ||
| Educating America's Military Officers | 1912 | ||
| The Professional Military Officer | 1912 | ||
| Military Officer Development (Leader Education) | 1913 | ||
| The Professional Military Educational Continuum | 1913 | ||
| Pre-Commissioning | 1913 | ||
| Primary | 1913 | ||
| Intermediate | 1913 | ||
| Senior | 1913 | ||
| General/Flag Officer | 1913 | ||
| Officer/Leader Development at the United States Military Service Academies | 1914 | ||
| Core Officer/Leader Development Curriculum | 1914 | ||
| Leadership education | 1914 | ||
| Philosophy and ethics education | 1915 | ||
| Law education | 1915 | ||
| Professional Military Education | 1915 | ||
| International Military Education and Training | 1916 | ||
| Further Reading | 1916 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1916 | ||
| Education for Architecture in the United States and Canada | 1918 | ||
| Introduction | 1918 | ||
| Education | 1918 | ||
| Professional (Accredited) Architecture Degrees | 1919 | ||
| Characteristics of Professional (Accredited) Architecture Programs | 1920 | ||
| Students and faculty | 1920 | ||
| Admissions | 1921 | ||
| Coursework | 1921 | ||
| Design and graphics | 1921 | ||
| Technology | 1922 | ||
| History/theory | 1922 | ||
| Practice | 1922 | ||
| General education and electives | 1922 | ||
| Assessment | 1922 | ||
| Experience | 1922 | ||
| Examination | 1923 | ||
| Continuing Education | 1923 | ||
| Further Reading | 1923 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1923 | ||
| Education for Medicine | 1924 | ||
| Introduction | 1924 | ||
| Admission to Medical School | 1924 | ||
| The Medical School Curriculum | 1925 | ||
| Change | 1925 | ||
| Clinical Education | 1925 | ||
| How Medical Students Learn | 1926 | ||
| Simulations | 1926 | ||
| Problem-based learning | 1927 | ||
| Competency-based education | 1927 | ||
| Residency Education | 1927 | ||
| Licensure and Certification | 1928 | ||
| Accreditation | 1928 | ||
| Summary | 1928 | ||
| Further Reading | 1928 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1929 | ||
| Education for the Legal Profession | 1930 | ||
| Introduction and Comparative Context | 1930 | ||
| Lawyers and Their Roles | 1930 | ||
| Student Preparation | 1930 | ||
| Accreditation and Licensure | 1930 | ||
| Educational Institutions and Their Communities | 1931 | ||
| Pedagogy, Curriculum, and Delivery of Instruction | 1931 | ||
| Signature Pedagogy: The Case-Dialog Method and the Cognitive Apprenticeship | 1931 | ||
| Skills and Practice | 1932 | ||
| Evolving Expectations | 1932 | ||
| Common Models | 1932 | ||
| Professional Identity and Values | 1933 | ||
| Curriculum | 1934 | ||
| Delivery Strategies | 1934 | ||
| Assessment | 1934 | ||
| Further Reading | 1935 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1935 | ||
| Education of Clergy | 1936 | ||
| Influences on Clergy Education | 1936 | ||
| Three Patterns of Clerical Qualification and Authorization | 1936 | ||
| Implications for Contemporary Education of Clergy | 1937 | ||
| Characteristics of Education of Clergy | 1937 | ||
| Levels of Clerical Education | 1937 | ||
| Graduate professional theological education | 1937 | ||
| Baccalaureate and certificate education | 1937 | ||
| Educational levels outside North America | 1937 | ||
| Theological Curriculum | 1938 | ||
| Theological understanding | 1938 | ||
| Text and tradition | 1938 | ||
| Ministry contexts and broader culture | 1938 | ||
| Abilities requisite to ministry | 1938 | ||
| Spiritual awareness and moral sensibility | 1938 | ||
| The Educational Culture of Theological Schools | 1939 | ||
| Signature Pedagogies | 1939 | ||
| Interpretation | 1939 | ||
| Formation | 1939 | ||
| Contextualizing | 1939 | ||
| Performance | 1940 | ||
| Accreditation | 1940 | ||
| Graduate professional theological education | 1940 | ||
| Baccalaureate and certificate theological education | 1940 | ||
| Licensure and Continuing Education | 1940 | ||
| Further Reading | 1941 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1941 | ||
| Framing Professions Education | 1942 | ||
| Further Reading | 1943 | ||
| Issues in Accounting/Business Education | 1944 | ||
| Glossary | 1944 | ||
| Definition of a Profession | 1944 | ||
| Overview | 1944 | ||
| Historical Perspective | 1945 | ||
| Specialized Technical Knowledge, Habits of Mind (Academic Training) | 1946 | ||
| Tacit Body of Skills Shared by Competent Practitioners (Apprenticeships) | 1946 | ||
| Values and Attitudes Shared by Professional Community (Ethical and Moral Dimension) | 1946 | ||
| Cross-Cutting Issues | 1947 | ||
| Accreditation of Programs | 1947 | ||
| Licensure and Certification of Individual | 1947 | ||
| Certified public accountant | 1947 | ||
| Chartered financial analyst | 1948 | ||
| Certificate in investment performance measurement | 1948 | ||
| Financial risk management | 1948 | ||
| Professional Code of Conduct (Ethics) | 1948 | ||
| Globalization and Diversity: Progressive Responsibilities of the Professional | 1948 | ||
| Signature Pedagogy | 1948 | ||
| Further Reading | 1949 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1949 | ||
| Professions - Engineering | 1950 | ||
| Introduction | 1950 | ||
| Learned Societies and the Development of the Professional Associations | 1950 | ||
| The Chartered Engineer and Professional Engineer Qualifications | 1951 | ||
| An Innovative Merger | 1951 | ||
| The Origins of Validation (Accreditation) in the UK | 1951 | ||
| France and the Origins of the US System of Engineering Education | 1952 | ||
| The American Societies and the American Society for Engineering Education | 1952 | ||
| The Washington Accord and Developments in Europe | 1952 | ||
| Education, Occupation, and Professionalization | 1953 | ||
| Codes of Conduct and Professionalization | 1953 | ||
| Professional Autonomy | 1953 | ||
| Emerging Issues | 1954 | ||
| Further Reading | 1954 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1955 | ||
| Professions - Health-Related | 1956 | ||
| Glossary | 1956 | ||
| Introduction | 1956 | ||
| History of Allied Health | 1957 | ||
| Regulatory Issues | 1957 | ||
| Accreditation | 1957 | ||
| Historical Perspective | 1958 | ||
| Licensure and Practice Domains | 1958 | ||
| Practice Acts | 1958 | ||
| Professional Turfs | 1959 | ||
| Role of Assistants/Technical Personnel | 1959 | ||
| Ethics and Professional Responsibility | 1959 | ||
| Evolving Professional Responsibilities | 1959 | ||
| Access and Referral | 1959 | ||
| Educational Trends in Emerging Health Professions | 1960 | ||
| Educational Institutions and Degrees | 1960 | ||
| Faculty | 1960 | ||
| Curriculum | 1960 | ||
| Professional identity | 1960 | ||
| Curriculum shift from technical application to knowledge, skill, and decision making | 1960 | ||
| Pedagogy | 1961 | ||
| Assessment | 1961 | ||
| Clinical Specialization | 1961 | ||
| Interprofessional Education | 1961 | ||
| Further Reading | 1962 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1962 | ||
| Professions - Pharmacy | 1963 | ||
| Glossary | 1963 | ||
| Introduction | 1963 | ||
| Pharmacy Education at a Global Level | 1963 | ||
| Case Study - United States | 1964 | ||
| Licensure and Certification | 1964 | ||
| Professional Code of Conduct | 1965 | ||
| Progressive Responsibilities of the Professional | 1965 | ||
| Signature Pedagogy | 1967 | ||
| Special Topics and Emerging Issues | 1967 | ||
| Preprofessional Coursework | 1967 | ||
| Experiential Coursework | 1967 | ||
| Professionalism | 1968 | ||
| Outcomes Assessment | 1968 | ||
| Residencies as a Requirement for Practice | 1968 | ||
| Curricular Delivery Methods | 1968 | ||
| Further Reading | 1968 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1969 | ||
| Teaching for the Complex Practice of Nursing | 1970 | ||
| Glossary | 1970 | ||
| Introduction | 1970 | ||
| Domain and Practice-Specific Teaching and Learning: Nursing | 1971 | ||
| Teaching for a Sense of Salience, Situated Cognition, and Action | 1971 | ||
| Teaching Clinical Reasoning and Thinking in Multiple Ways | 1972 | ||
| Integrative Teaching | 1972 | ||
| Professional Formation | 1973 | ||
| Further Reading | 1974 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1975 | ||
| Veterinary Education | 1976 | ||
| Glossary | 1976 | ||
| Introduction and Context | 1976 | ||
| Requirements, Accreditation, and Licensure | 1976 | ||
| Impetus for Change in Veterinary Education | 1978 | ||
| Themes in Veterinary Education | 1979 | ||
| Challenges for Veterinary Education | 1980 | ||
| Further Reading | 1981 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1981 | ||
| EDUCATION RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: QUANTITATIVE METHODS AND RESEARCH | 1982 | ||
| Abductive Research Methods | 1982 | ||
| Exploratory Factor Analysis | 1982 | ||
| The Theory of Explanatory Coherence | 1983 | ||
| Grounded Theory | 1985 | ||
| Conclusion | 1986 | ||
| Bibliography | 1986 | ||
| Further Reading | 1987 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 1987 | ||
| Field Experimentation in Education | 1988 | ||
| Glossary | 1988 | ||
| Field Experimentation: An Overview | 1989 | ||
| Types of the Randomized Field Experiments Through the Lens of Internal Validity | 1990 | ||
| Planning and Implementation Issues | 1992 | ||
| Implementation Measures, Blocking, Design Effects, and Cluster Sampling | 1992 | ||
| Implementation Measures and the Fidelity of Interventions | 1993 | ||
| Blocking Prior to Randomization | 1993 | ||
| Cluster Sampling and Unit Congruence | 1993 | ||
| Intraclass Correlations and Design Effects | 1993 | ||
| Conclusion | 1994 | ||
| Bibliography | 1994 | ||
| Further Reading | 1994 | ||
| Internal Validity | 1995 | ||
| Glossary | 1995 | ||
| Threats to Internal Validity | 1996 | ||
| Ambiguous Temporal Precedence | 1996 | ||
| Selection | 1996 | ||
| History | 1997 | ||
| Maturation | 1997 | ||
| Regression to the Mean (also Referred to as Regression or Statistical Regression) | 1997 | ||
| Attrition | 1997 | ||
| Testing | 1998 | ||
| Instrumentation | 1998 | ||
| Additive and Interactive Threats to Internal Validity | 1998 | ||
| Design Features | 1998 | ||
| Designs that Improve Internal Validity | 1999 | ||
| Statistical Adjustments | 2000 | ||
| Bibliography | 2001 | ||
| Further Reading | 2001 | ||
| Methods for Approximating Random Assignment | 2002 | ||
| Glossary | 2002 | ||
| Random Assignment and the Search for 'What Works' | 2002 | ||
| The Role of Random Assignment in Investigating Relationships Among Variables | 2002 | ||
| Challenges and Costs of Employing Random Assignment in Field Settings | 2003 | ||
| Four Methods for Approximating Random Assignment | 2003 | ||
| Regression Discontinuity Designs | 2003 | ||
| Propensity Score Matching | 2005 | ||
| Instrumental Variables | 2005 | ||
| Fixed Effects Models | 2006 | ||
| Conclusion | 2007 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 2007 | ||
| Bibliography | 2007 | ||
| Further Reading | 2008 | ||
| Methods for Approximating Random Assignment: Regression Discontinuity and Propensity Scores | 2009 | ||
| Glossary | 2009 | ||
| Introduction | 2010 | ||
| Purpose of Randomization | 2011 | ||
| Methods of Randomization | 2012 | ||
| Is Randomization a Panacea? | 2012 | ||
| Propensity Score Method | 2013 | ||
| Regression Discontinuity | 2014 | ||
| Summary | 2014 | ||
| Bibliography | 2015 | ||
| Further Reading | 2015 | ||
| Multitrait-Multimethod Designs | 2016 | ||
| Glossary | 2016 | ||
| Campbell and Fiske's Approach | 2016 | ||
| Alternative Approaches | 2019 | ||
| Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model with Trait and Method Factors | 2019 | ||
| Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model with Correlated Uniquenesses | 2020 | ||
| Direct Product Model | 2020 | ||
| Illustration of Data Analyses | 2020 | ||
| Campbell and Fiske's Approach | 2021 | ||
| Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model with Trait and Method Factors | 2021 | ||
| Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model with Correlated Uniquenesses | 2023 | ||
| DP Model | 2023 | ||
| Further Reading | 2024 | ||
| Multivariate Longitudinal Data Analysis | 2025 | ||
| Multilevel Models for Multivariate Change | 2025 | ||
| Data Illustration | 2026 | ||
| Latent Growth Curves Model | 2027 | ||
| Data Illustration | 2028 | ||
| Structural Cross-Lagged Regression Model | 2029 | ||
| Data Illustration | 2030 | ||
| Conclusion | 2031 | ||
| Bibliography | 2031 | ||
| Further Reading | 2032 | ||
| Quasi-Experimentation: Two Group Design | 2033 | ||
| Glossary | 2033 | ||
| Two-Group Designs with Posttest-Only | 2034 | ||
| Posttest-Only Design with Nonequivalent Groups | 2034 | ||
| Posttest-only design using proxy pretests | 2034 | ||
| Posttest-only design using matching | 2035 | ||
| Posttest-only design using multiple control groups | 2035 | ||
| Two-Group Designs with Pretest and Posttest | 2036 | ||
| Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design | 2036 | ||
| Pretest-posttest control group design with multiple pretests | 2037 | ||
| Pretest-posttest control group design using switching replications | 2037 | ||
| Pretest-posttest control group design using a reversed-treatment control group or groups | 2038 | ||
| Conclusions | 2038 | ||
| Bibliography | 2038 | ||
| Further Reading | 2038 | ||
| Regression Discontinuity Designs | 2039 | ||
| The Principle of RD Designs | 2039 | ||
| Model Specification within the RD Design | 2039 | ||
| Requirements for the RD Design | 2040 | ||
| Assignment Variable | 2040 | ||
| Cutoff Point and Additional Requirements | 2041 | ||
| Extension of the Simple Basic RD Design | 2042 | ||
| Theory of the RD Design | 2042 | ||
| Link to Randomized Experiments | 2042 | ||
| RD as a Complete Model of the Selection Process | 2043 | ||
| Problems that May Arise | 2044 | ||
| The Combination of the RD Design with Randomized Experiments and Quasi- Experimental Designs | 2044 | ||
| Final Considerations | 2045 | ||
| Bibliography | 2045 | ||
| Further Reading | 2046 | ||
| Sampling | 2047 | ||
| Introduction | 2047 | ||
| Sampling Concepts and Terminology | 2047 | ||
| Population | 2047 | ||
| Sample Units | 2047 | ||
| Sampling Frame | 2048 | ||
| Selection Process | 2048 | ||
| Estimation Process | 2048 | ||
| Probability Sampling | 2048 | ||
| Simple Random Sampling | 2048 | ||
| Systematic Sampling | 2049 | ||
| Stratified Random Sampling | 2049 | ||
| Proportionate Sampling | 2049 | ||
| Cluster Sampling | 2049 | ||
| Multistage Sampling | 2050 | ||
| Double Sampling | 2050 | ||
| Nonprobability Sampling | 2050 | ||
| Sample Size and Power | 2051 | ||
| Conclusion | 2051 | ||
| Bibliography | 2051 | ||
| Further Reading | 2051 | ||
| Statistical Conclusion Validity | 2052 | ||
| Glossary | 2052 | ||
| Low Statistical Power | 2052 | ||
| Violated Assumptions of the Test Statistics | 2053 | ||
| Fishing and the Error-Rate Problem | 2053 | ||
| Unreliability of Measures | 2054 | ||
| Restriction of Range | 2054 | ||
| Unreliability of Treatment Implementation | 2054 | ||
| Extraneous Variance in the Experimental Setting | 2054 | ||
| Heterogeneity of Respondents | 2055 | ||
| Inaccurate Effect-Size Estimation | 2055 | ||
| Statistical Conclusion Validity in Meta- Analysis | 2055 | ||
| Conclusion | 2055 | ||
| Bibliography | 2056 | ||
| Further Reading | 2056 | ||
| Survey Research Methods | 2057 | ||
| Glossary | 2057 | ||
| Survey Research: Definitions and Uses | 2057 | ||
| Survey Objectives | 2058 | ||
| Straightforward Questions and Responses | 2058 | ||
| Survey Question Stems | 2059 | ||
| Responses | 2059 | ||
| Survey Instruments | 2059 | ||
| Self-Administered Questionnaires | 2059 | ||
| Interviews | 2059 | ||
| Structured Record Reviews | 2059 | ||
| Structured Observations | 2060 | ||
| Survey Sampling | 2060 | ||
| Eligibility Criteria | 2060 | ||
| Sampling Methods | 2060 | ||
| Sample Size | 2062 | ||
| Response Rate | 2062 | ||
| Reliable and Valid Survey Instruments | 2062 | ||
| Reliability | 2062 | ||
| Test-Retest Reliability or Stability | 2062 | ||
| Internal Consistency or Homogeneity | 2063 | ||
| Inter- and Intrarater Reliability | 2063 | ||
| Validity | 2063 | ||
| Content Validity | 2063 | ||
| Face Validity | 2063 | ||
| Criterion Validity | 2064 | ||
| Construct Validity | 2064 | ||
| Quality of Survey Data | 2064 | ||
| Bibliography | 2064 | ||
| Further Reading | 2065 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2065 | ||
| EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT | 2066 | ||
| An Overview of Educational Assessment | 2066 | ||
| Introduction | 2066 | ||
| Topics | 2067 | ||
| Key Relationships: Impact of Assessment | 2067 | ||
| Assessment Activities | 2067 | ||
| Assessment in Domains | 2068 | ||
| Quality and Use: Classroom Assessment in Policy Contexts | 2069 | ||
| Concepts and Issues | 2069 | ||
| Cross-Cutting Themes and Issues | 2070 | ||
| What Makes Assessment Educational? | 2070 | ||
| Practices Associated with Formative Assessment | 2070 | ||
| Relationships between Formative and Summative Assessment | 2071 | ||
| Models of Assessment and Models of Learning | 2071 | ||
| Support for the Development of Educational Assessment Practice | 2074 | ||
| Conclusion | 2075 | ||
| Bibliography | 2076 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2076 | ||
| Assessment and the Evaluation of Institutional Effectiveness | 2077 | ||
| Glossary | 2077 | ||
| Introduction | 2077 | ||
| The Problem with Raw League Tables | 2077 | ||
| The Value-Added Approach | 2078 | ||
| The Assessment of Institutional Effectiveness | 2078 | ||
| Data Collection Issues | 2079 | ||
| Student Outcomes | 2079 | ||
| Student Baselines | 2079 | ||
| Background and Contextual Information | 2079 | ||
| Educational and School Process Information | 2080 | ||
| How is Institutional Effectiveness Measured? | 2080 | ||
| Taking into Account of Different Types of Data | 2080 | ||
| Using Different Methods of Statistical Analysis | 2080 | ||
| Validity of Institutional Effectiveness Measures | 2082 | ||
| Using Value-Added Measures to Evaluate Institutional Effectiveness | 2083 | ||
| Conclusions | 2084 | ||
| Bibliography | 2085 | ||
| Further Reading | 2085 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2085 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Dispositions | 2086 | ||
| Glossary | 2086 | ||
| Introduction | 2086 | ||
| Conceptual Issues | 2086 | ||
| The Sociohistorical Location of Dispositions | 2087 | ||
| Related Concepts | 2087 | ||
| Potential Candidates for Education | 2088 | ||
| Issues in the Assessment of Dispositions | 2088 | ||
| Validity and Reliability - or Authenticity and Trustworthiness? | 2089 | ||
| Dispositions as Learning Outcomes | 2090 | ||
| Modes of Assessment of Dispositions | 2090 | ||
| Assessment Practices for the Formation of Dispositions | 2091 | ||
| Conclusions | 2092 | ||
| Further Reading | 2092 | ||
| Assessment in Schools Related To Literacy: Reading | 2094 | ||
| Glossary | 2094 | ||
| Teacher Use of Tests | 2094 | ||
| Authentic Assessment | 2095 | ||
| Group Discussions | 2095 | ||
| Affective and Motivational Aspects | 2095 | ||
| Pre-Reading Sub-Skills | 2096 | ||
| Phonic Skills | 2096 | ||
| Systematic Observation | 2096 | ||
| Informal Reading Inventories | 2096 | ||
| Reading Miscue Inventories | 2096 | ||
| Retellings | 2098 | ||
| Fluency | 2098 | ||
| Portfolios | 2098 | ||
| Computer-Aided Assessment of Real Books | 2098 | ||
| Self-Assessment | 2099 | ||
| Peer Assessment | 2099 | ||
| Conclusion | 2099 | ||
| Further Reading | 2100 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2100 | ||
| Impact of Assessment on Students' Learning Strategies and Implications for Judging Assessment Quality | 2101 | ||
| Glossary | 2101 | ||
| Introduction | 2101 | ||
| Evidencing Pre-Assessment Effects | 2102 | ||
| Evidencing Post-Assessment Effects | 2103 | ||
| Evidencing Pure Assessment Effects | 2103 | ||
| Quality Indicators of Assessment | 2104 | ||
| Conclusions | 2105 | ||
| Bibliography | 2105 | ||
| Further Reading | 2106 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2106 | ||
| EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT – ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES | 2107 | ||
| Alternative Assessment | 2107 | ||
| Glossary | 2107 | ||
| Definitions | 2107 | ||
| Level 1: Alternative Formats | 2108 | ||
| Level 2: Alternative Models of Assessment | 2108 | ||
| Performance Assessment | 2108 | ||
| Competency assessment in the workplace | 2108 | ||
| Realistic simulation | 2108 | ||
| Alternative Educational Assessment | 2109 | ||
| Portfolio assessment | 2109 | ||
| Extended assignments/projects | 2110 | ||
| Assessment by teachers for external purposes | 2110 | ||
| Summary | 2111 | ||
| Level 3: Alternative Purposes of Assessment | 2111 | ||
| What is the Purpose of Formative Assessment | 2111 | ||
| Feedback | 2112 | ||
| Diagnostic assessment | 2112 | ||
| Dynamic assessment | 2112 | ||
| Bibliography | 2113 | ||
| Further Reading | 2113 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2113 | ||
| Classroom Assessment Tasks and Tests | 2114 | ||
| Glossary | 2114 | ||
| What Is Assessment? | 2114 | ||
| Purposes of Assessment | 2114 | ||
| Assessment Design | 2115 | ||
| Learning Goals | 2115 | ||
| Interpreting Evidence | 2115 | ||
| Assessment Tasks | 2115 | ||
| Types of Assessment | 2116 | ||
| Classroom Assessment Methods | 2117 | ||
| Paper-and-Pencil Tests | 2117 | ||
| Selected response items | 2117 | ||
| Multiple-choice items | 2117 | ||
| Matching items | 2117 | ||
| True-false items | 2118 | ||
| Constructed-response items | 2118 | ||
| Short answer | 2118 | ||
| Essay or extended response | 2119 | ||
| Performance Assessment | 2119 | ||
| Portfolio Assessments | 2120 | ||
| Informal Classroom Observations | 2122 | ||
| Validity | 2122 | ||
| Conclusion | 2123 | ||
| Further Reading | 2124 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2124 | ||
| Dynamic Assessment | 2125 | ||
| Glossary | 2125 | ||
| The Need for a Dynamic Approach | 2125 | ||
| Forms of Assistance | 2126 | ||
| DA: Standardized or Clinical? | 2126 | ||
| What Are Dynamic Approaches Seeking to Achieve? | 2128 | ||
| Future Possibilities? | 2129 | ||
| Bibliography | 2129 | ||
| Further Reading | 2130 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2130 | ||
| Instructional System Provided Feedback | 2131 | ||
| Definition and Feedback Type and Timing | 2131 | ||
| Representation of Feedback | 2132 | ||
| Feedback Provided by Technology-Based System | 2133 | ||
| Effects of Feedback in Dynamic Testing | 2134 | ||
| Future Trends: The Formative Assessment Challenge | 2134 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 2134 | ||
| Bibliography | 2135 | ||
| Further Reading | 2135 | ||
| Peer and Self-assessment | 2136 | ||
| Introduction | 2136 | ||
| Peer and Self-Assessment in Practice | 2136 | ||
| Self-Assessment Is Intrinsic to Learning | 2137 | ||
| Self-Assessment Is Part of Lifelong Learning | 2138 | ||
| Summary | 2139 | ||
| Bibliography | 2140 | ||
| Further Reading | 2140 | ||
| Portfolio Assessment | 2141 | ||
| Glossary | 2141 | ||
| Introduction | 2141 | ||
| Definitions | 2141 | ||
| Overview | 2141 | ||
| Adult Learning | 2141 | ||
| Primary and Secondary Education | 2142 | ||
| Purposes | 2142 | ||
| Portfolio-Development Processes | 2143 | ||
| Selection and Collection | 2143 | ||
| Reflection and Connection | 2143 | ||
| Assessment and Teacher Judgment | 2143 | ||
| E-Portfolios | 2144 | ||
| Conclusion | 2146 | ||
| Bibliography | 2146 | ||
| Records of Achievement: Beyond Traditional Tests | 2148 | ||
| Glossary | 2148 | ||
| Reasons for Change | 2149 | ||
| The Evolution of Records of Achievement in England | 2149 | ||
| The National Record of Achievement | 2150 | ||
| Records of Achievement as a Formative Assessment Tool | 2150 | ||
| Personal Development Planning and Progress File | 2150 | ||
| More General Lessons | 2151 | ||
| A Success Story: Professional Portfolios | 2151 | ||
| Electronic Portfolios | 2151 | ||
| Transcripts and Transferability | 2152 | ||
| The Future for Records of Achievement? | 2152 | ||
| Practical Issues | 2152 | ||
| Tensions and Contradictions | 2153 | ||
| Bibliography | 2153 | ||
| Further Reading | 2153 | ||
| EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT – ASSESSMENT IN DOMAINS | 2154 | ||
| Assessment in Higher Education | 2154 | ||
| Introduction | 2154 | ||
| The Assessment Process | 2154 | ||
| Reference Frameworks | 2156 | ||
| Quality of Assessment Programs | 2157 | ||
| Group Assessment | 2158 | ||
| Technology and Assessment | 2158 | ||
| Conclusion | 2159 | ||
| Further Reading | 2159 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Affective Domain | 2161 | ||
| Glossary | 2161 | ||
| Affective Traits | 2161 | ||
| Neuroticism | 2161 | ||
| Coping with Stress | 2162 | ||
| Test Anxiety | 2162 | ||
| Extraversion | 2163 | ||
| State-Trait Measures of Mood (Positive and Negative Affect) | 2163 | ||
| Emotional Intelligence | 2163 | ||
| Assessment Methods | 2164 | ||
| Self-Report Assessments | 2164 | ||
| Other-Report Assessments | 2164 | ||
| Situational-Judgment Tests | 2165 | ||
| Other Measures | 2165 | ||
| Affective Assessments in School Settings | 2165 | ||
| Concluding Comments | 2166 | ||
| Bibliography | 2166 | ||
| Further Reading | 2166 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2166 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Creative Subjects | 2167 | ||
| Glossary | 2167 | ||
| Introduction | 2167 | ||
| Challenges and Common Practices | 2167 | ||
| Standardized Assessments in the Fine Arts | 2168 | ||
| The Standards Movement | 2168 | ||
| National Assessment of Educational Progress | 2169 | ||
| Classroom-Based Assessment | 2169 | ||
| Visual Arts | 2170 | ||
| Music | 2170 | ||
| Dance | 2171 | ||
| Drama | 2171 | ||
| Conclusion | 2171 | ||
| Bibliography | 2171 | ||
| Further Reading | 2172 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2172 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Learning to Learn | 2173 | ||
| Introduction | 2173 | ||
| History of L2 | 2173 | ||
| Early History | 2173 | ||
| Later History | 2174 | ||
| Current Trends in Assessment | 2174 | ||
| Variation and Individual Differences | 2174 | ||
| Collectively Weaved Definition: Social Practice Creating Meaning | 2175 | ||
| Examples of L2 projects | 2175 | ||
| Studies of Learning Low to Learn | 2175 | ||
| The Already Achieved Level of L2: EU L2-Pilot | 2176 | ||
| Transfer as an evidence for L2 | 2176 | ||
| So What? | 2176 | ||
| Bibliography | 2176 | ||
| Further Reading | 2177 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2177 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Literacy Writing (Extended) | 2178 | ||
| Introduction | 2178 | ||
| Evaluating Performance: Tests of Writing | 2178 | ||
| Moving Beyond Traditional Test Formats: Writing Portfolios | 2179 | ||
| Assessment of Writing for Teaching and Learning | 2179 | ||
| Potential for Formative Assessment: Responding to Developing Writers | 2180 | ||
| Conferencing as a Site for Responding to Writing | 2180 | ||
| Written Comments as Response to Writing | 2180 | ||
| Self and Peer-Assessment | 2181 | ||
| Supporting Formative Assessment Practices in the Classroom: Planned Assessment of Writing | 2181 | ||
| Conclusion | 2182 | ||
| Further Head | 2182 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Mathematics | 2184 | ||
| Trends in Assessment in Mathematics: 1970-90 | 2184 | ||
| Trends in Assessment in Mathematics: 1990-2008 | 2185 | ||
| Assessment of Mathematics as Part of School Accountability | 2185 | ||
| The Use of ICT in Mathematics Assessment | 2186 | ||
| Practical Ways of Broadening Summative Forms of Assessment | 2186 | ||
| Formative Assessment | 2187 | ||
| Looking Forward | 2188 | ||
| Bibliography | 2188 | ||
| Further Reading | 2189 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2189 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Oracy | 2190 | ||
| Glossary | 2190 | ||
| Motivating the Need for Oral-Language Assessment in School | 2190 | ||
| Defining the Oral-Language Construct for Assessment Purposes | 2191 | ||
| Oral-Language Registers | 2192 | ||
| Domains of Oral Language | 2192 | ||
| Oral-Language Skills | 2192 | ||
| Phonological skills | 2193 | ||
| Lexical skills | 2193 | ||
| Grammatical skills | 2193 | ||
| Discourse and pragmatic skills | 2193 | ||
| Oral-Language Assessment: Development and Use | 2193 | ||
| Operationalization of Oral-Language Constructs | 2193 | ||
| Purposes and Uses of Oral-Language Assessment | 2193 | ||
| Instruction | 2193 | ||
| Diagnosis | 2194 | ||
| Accountability | 2194 | ||
| Approaches to Oral-Language Test Development and Administration | 2194 | ||
| Establishing test validity with oral-language assessments | 2194 | ||
| Threats to test validity | 2195 | ||
| Standards setting for oral language | 2195 | ||
| The Oral-Language Assessment of Diverse Learners | 2196 | ||
| The Future of Oral-Language Assessment | 2196 | ||
| Bibliography | 2196 | ||
| Further Reading | 2197 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2197 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Primary Science | 2198 | ||
| Introduction | 2198 | ||
| Learning in Science at the Primary School Level | 2198 | ||
| Assessment to Help Learning in Primary Science | 2199 | ||
| Specific and General Goals | 2199 | ||
| Gathering Evidence | 2199 | ||
| Interpreting Evidence | 2200 | ||
| Feedback to Students | 2201 | ||
| The Students' Role | 2201 | ||
| Reporting Individual Student Performance | 2201 | ||
| Special Tasks or Tests | 2201 | ||
| Summarizing Evidence from Regular Activities | 2202 | ||
| A Combination of Ongoing Work and Special Tasks | 2202 | ||
| Reporting the Performance of Groups | 2202 | ||
| Conclusion | 2203 | ||
| Bibliography | 2203 | ||
| Further Reading | 2204 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2204 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Secondary Science | 2205 | ||
| Glossary | 2205 | ||
| Introduction | 2205 | ||
| Question-Demonstration Assessments | 2206 | ||
| Performance Assessments | 2206 | ||
| Information Technologies and Assessment | 2209 | ||
| Conceptual Inventories and Item Clusters | 2210 | ||
| Concept Maps | 2211 | ||
| Science Notebooks | 2214 | ||
| Conclusion | 2214 | ||
| Further Reading | 2215 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2215 | ||
| Assessment in Schools - Technology Education and ICT | 2216 | ||
| Introduction | 2216 | ||
| Nature of Technology and Technology Education | 2216 | ||
| Technology Education and Assessment | 2216 | ||
| Assessment and Views of Learning in Technology and ICT | 2216 | ||
| Assessment of Technology Including ICT | 2217 | ||
| Role of the Teacher in Classroom Assessment | 2217 | ||
| Classroom Interactions and Assessment for Learning | 2218 | ||
| Classroom Summative Assessment | 2219 | ||
| Assessment and ICT | 2219 | ||
| Conclusion | 2220 | ||
| Further Reading | 2220 | ||
| Assessment in the Early Years | 2221 | ||
| Introduction | 2221 | ||
| Choices About Children | 2221 | ||
| Choices About Learning | 2222 | ||
| Choices About the Purposes of Early Education | 2224 | ||
| Choices About Assessment: Methods, Purposes, and Outcomes | 2225 | ||
| Conclusion | 2226 | ||
| Bibliography | 2226 | ||
| Further Reading | 2226 | ||
| Assessment in the History, Civics and Social Studies Domains | 2228 | ||
| Large-Scale Assessments | 2228 | ||
| Classroom-Level Assessments | 2230 | ||
| Issues and Challenges | 2231 | ||
| Bibliography | 2233 | ||
| Further Reading | 2233 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2234 | ||
| Assessment in the Workplace of Performance, Developing Expertise and Competence | 2235 | ||
| Glossary | 2235 | ||
| Introduction | 2235 | ||
| Workplace-Based Assessment of Performance in the Workplace | 2235 | ||
| Assessment of the Development of Expertise in Knowledge-Intensive Workplaces | 2236 | ||
| Competence-Based Assessment in the Workplace | 2237 | ||
| Formative Assessment and Critical Reflection in the Workplace Supporting Employees' Commitment to Lifelong Learning | 2237 | ||
| Workplace-Based Assessment Supporting Processes of Knowledge Transformation | 2238 | ||
| Assessment of Workplace Learning Supporting Lifelong Learning and Active Knowledge Transformation | 2239 | ||
| Summary | 2240 | ||
| Bibliography | 2240 | ||
| Further Reading | 2240 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2241 | ||
| Assessment in Vocational Education | 2242 | ||
| Introduction | 2242 | ||
| General Vocational Education | 2242 | ||
| Purposes | 2243 | ||
| Assessment Methods | 2243 | ||
| Shifts from Norm-Referenced to Criterion- Referenced Assessment | 2243 | ||
| A Hybrid Assessment Model | 2243 | ||
| Formative and Summative Activities and Processes | 2244 | ||
| The Effects of Assessment on Attitudes to Learning in General Vocational Education | 2245 | ||
| Uncertainty about Vocational Education | 2245 | ||
| Conclusions | 2246 | ||
| Bibliography | 2246 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2246 | ||
| EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT – CONCEPTS AND ISSUES | 2247 | ||
| Assessing Group Work | 2247 | ||
| Assessment: One Possible Impediment to the Use of Group Work | 2247 | ||
| What Aspects of Group Work Should Be Assessed? | 2248 | ||
| Assessing Individual Contributions to Group Work | 2248 | ||
| Assessing the Group's Contribution | 2249 | ||
| Procedures for Assessing Group Productivity | 2250 | ||
| A Final Comment | 2251 | ||
| Bibliography | 2251 | ||
| Further Reading | 2252 | ||
| Assessment and the Regulation of Learning | 2253 | ||
| Glossary | 2253 | ||
| Models of Regulation of Learning | 2253 | ||
| Contributions of Assessment to the Regulation of Learning | 2254 | ||
| Integrating Assessment in Teaching and Learning | 2254 | ||
| Providing Effective Feedback | 2255 | ||
| Involving Students in Assessment | 2256 | ||
| Continuity between Formative and Summative Assessment | 2256 | ||
| Bibliography | 2257 | ||
| Further Reading | 2257 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2257 | ||
| Challenges of Developing and Implementing Formative Assessment Practices in Schools | 2258 | ||
| Case-Study Approach | 2258 | ||
| From Principles to Practice | 2258 | ||
| Case Study 1: Ourtown Elementary School | 2258 | ||
| Making Formative Use of Summative Results | 2258 | ||
| Assessment Data and School Self-Review | 2259 | ||
| Using Triangulated Evidence | 2259 | ||
| Developing Formative Assessment | 2259 | ||
| Changing Teachers' Habits | 2260 | ||
| Case Study Two: Managing Assessment at Neartown High School | 2260 | ||
| Introduction to the Principles of Assessment for Learning | 2261 | ||
| Roadblocks | 2262 | ||
| School Change Is Influenced by System Change | 2263 | ||
| Conclusion | 2263 | ||
| Further Reading | 2263 | ||
| Formative Assessment | 2264 | ||
| The Early Development | 2264 | ||
| Policy Impact in the UK: The Task Group on Assessment and Testing Report | 2264 | ||
| The New Perspective - 1990-2000 | 2264 | ||
| Developing Practice | 2265 | ||
| The KMOFAP Project: Practices | 2265 | ||
| Basic Principles | 2265 | ||
| Areas of Practice | 2266 | ||
| Oral and Written Feedback | 2266 | ||
| Peer- and Self-Assessment | 2267 | ||
| Growing Points | 2267 | ||
| Why Is It Difficult? | 2268 | ||
| Bibliography | 2268 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2269 | ||
| Formative Assessment and Instructional Planning | 2270 | ||
| Introduction | 2270 | ||
| High Organization Based on Ideas | 2270 | ||
| Assessment and Instructional Planning in Practice | 2270 | ||
| The Regulation of Learning and Dialog | 2271 | ||
| Conclusion | 2273 | ||
| Bibliography | 2273 | ||
| Further Reading | 2273 | ||
| Progression and Assessment: Developmental Assessment | 2274 | ||
| Glossary | 2274 | ||
| Introduction | 2274 | ||
| Definitions and Conceptual Underpinnings | 2274 | ||
| Perspectives on School Learning | 2276 | ||
| Advances in Modern Measurement | 2276 | ||
| Progression | 2277 | ||
| Map Construction | 2277 | ||
| Assessment | 2278 | ||
| Reporting, Interpreting, and Monitoring Learning | 2279 | ||
| Advances in Learning Research | 2280 | ||
| Summary | 2281 | ||
| Further Reading | 2282 | ||
| Students' Rights in Assessment and Evaluation | 2283 | ||
| Purposes of Assessment | 2283 | ||
| Assessment as Support for Learning | 2283 | ||
| Assessment of Learning | 2283 | ||
| Accountability Purposes | 2284 | ||
| Credentialing Purposes | 2285 | ||
| United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child | 2286 | ||
| Academic Judgment | 2287 | ||
| Summary | 2287 | ||
| Bibliography | 2288 | ||
| Further Reading | 2288 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2288 | ||
| Summative Assessment by Teachers | 2289 | ||
| Introduction | 2289 | ||
| Why a Role for Teachers? | 2289 | ||
| Summative Assessment by Teachers in Practice | 2290 | ||
| Portfolio Assessment in a State-Wide Assessment Program: Vermont, USA | 2290 | ||
| Coursework Assessment in a National Qualification: The General Certificate of Secondary Education, England | 2291 | ||
| National Monitoring of Educational Achievement: New Zealand | 2291 | ||
| Overview | 2292 | ||
| Summative Assessment by Teachers: A Process | 2292 | ||
| Task Specification | 2293 | ||
| Task Conditions | 2293 | ||
| Which Teachers' Judgments? | 2293 | ||
| Criteria and Performance Standards | 2293 | ||
| What Inferences | 2294 | ||
| A Systematic Approach | 2294 | ||
| Conclusion | 2295 | ||
| Bibliography | 2295 | ||
| The Multiple Purposes of Assessment | 2297 | ||
| What Is an Assessment Purpose? | 2297 | ||
| What Does It Mean to Be Fit-For-Purpose? | 2297 | ||
| How Many Assessment Purposes Are There? | 2297 | ||
| Is It Useful to Classify Assessment Purposes? | 2298 | ||
| Tailoring Assessment Design to Assessment Purpose | 2299 | ||
| Can a Single Assessment Support Multiple Purposes? | 2300 | ||
| Dealing with Multiple Assessment Purposes | 2300 | ||
| Bibliography | 2301 | ||
| The Relationship between Assessment and the Organization and Practice of Teaching | 2302 | ||
| Glossary | 2302 | ||
| Introduction | 2302 | ||
| Diagnostic Assessment: From Tracking and Sorting to Classroom-Based Adaptation | 2302 | ||
| Accountability Assessment: From End Results to Data-Based Management | 2303 | ||
| Epistemologies of Learning and the Nature of Assessments | 2304 | ||
| Embedded Assessment in Two Epistemologies: Classroom Talk as Diagnostic Testing | 2305 | ||
| From Catechism to IRE: Associationist Teaching and Assessment | 2305 | ||
| Communities of Learners: Interpretive Teaching and Assessment | 2306 | ||
| Conclusion | 2307 | ||
| Bibliography | 2307 | ||
| Further Reading | 2307 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2307 | ||
| EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT – ENHANCING QUALITY AND USE | 2308 | ||
| Assessment Conversations: Reading and Writing Conferences with Students and with Parents | 2308 | ||
| Defining the Territory | 2308 | ||
| Purposes and Principles | 2308 | ||
| History of this Practice | 2309 | ||
| Conferences and Conferencing | 2309 | ||
| Assessment Conversations as Part of Informal Assessment Systems | 2310 | ||
| Links with Self-Assessment and Peer Assessment | 2311 | ||
| Links with Portfolio Assessment | 2311 | ||
| Assessment Conversations with Parents | 2311 | ||
| Recent Developments in Assessment Conversations | 2312 | ||
| The Learning Record | 2312 | ||
| Assessment Conversations in the New Zealand Education Monitoring Project | 2313 | ||
| The Validity of Assessment Conferences | 2313 | ||
| Bibliography | 2314 | ||
| Further Reading | 2314 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2314 | ||
| Assessment: Pre-service and In-service Teacher Education | 2315 | ||
| Classroom Assessment | 2315 | ||
| Research: Motivation | 2316 | ||
| Research: Classroom Assessment | 2316 | ||
| Research: Quality Feedback for Learning | 2316 | ||
| Research: Summative Assessment | 2316 | ||
| Professional Adult Learning | 2317 | ||
| Professional Learning | 2318 | ||
| Co-Constructing Criteria | 2318 | ||
| Giving and Receiving Specific, Descriptive Feedback | 2318 | ||
| Collecting, Selecting, Reflecting, and Presenting Evidence of Learning to Others | 2319 | ||
| Selecting Next Steps to Feed Forward Learning (Goal Setting) | 2319 | ||
| Summative Assessment: Assessment of Learning | 2320 | ||
| Bibliography | 2320 | ||
| Further Reading | 2321 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2321 | ||
| Classroom Assessment in Policy Context (Australia) | 2322 | ||
| Purposes of Classroom Assessment in Australia | 2322 | ||
| Policy Influences in Australian Education and Classroom Assessment | 2322 | ||
| Inclusivity and Diversity of the Classroom | 2322 | ||
| Professional Standards for All Teachers | 2323 | ||
| Control of Schools and Prescribed Curriculum | 2323 | ||
| Breadth of syllabus, dimensions and progressions, and classroom assessment | 2324 | ||
| K-10 syllabi and classroom assessment | 2324 | ||
| Senior schooling curriculum and classroom assessment | 2324 | ||
| Ensuring student work is their own | 2325 | ||
| Initiatives to assist professional practice in classroom assessment | 2325 | ||
| Increasing Federalization of Curriculum and Classroom Assessment | 2325 | ||
| Classroom Assessment and External Assessment in the K-10 Years | 2326 | ||
| Future Challenges | 2327 | ||
| Increasing Student Diversity in the Senior Years of Schooling | 2327 | ||
| Diagnosis of Special Learning Needs | 2327 | ||
| The Role of Technology in Classroom Assessment | 2327 | ||
| Assessing All Goals of Learning | 2327 | ||
| Conclusion | 2328 | ||
| Bibliography | 2328 | ||
| Further Reading | 2328 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2329 | ||
| Classroom Assessment in Policy Context (England and France) | 2330 | ||
| Introduction | 2330 | ||
| The Policy Context for Assessment in England and France | 2330 | ||
| England | 2330 | ||
| France | 2331 | ||
| Comparing National Assessment and Classroom-Assessment Practice in England and France | 2332 | ||
| Conclusion | 2335 | ||
| Bibliography | 2335 | ||
| Further Reading | 2336 | ||
| Classroom Assessment in Policy Context (French Sources) | 2337 | ||
| French Sources | 2337 | ||
| Classroom Assessment: French and English Meanings | 2337 | ||
| The Impact of Competency-Based Programs | 2338 | ||
| The Formative Function of Classroom Assessment | 2339 | ||
| Classroom Assessment as Communication | 2339 | ||
| The Influence of Standards and External Testing | 2340 | ||
| Conclusion | 2341 | ||
| Bibliography | 2341 | ||
| Further Reading | 2342 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2342 | ||
| Classroom Assessment in Policy Context (Hong Kong) | 2343 | ||
| Glossary | 2343 | ||
| Assessment Developments in Primary Schools | 2343 | ||
| Assessment Reform in the TOC | 2343 | ||
| Learning to Learn, Assessment for Learning and Basic Competency Assessments | 2344 | ||
| Assessment Developments in Secondary Schools | 2345 | ||
| School-Based Assessment | 2346 | ||
| Summary | 2346 | ||
| Bibliography | 2347 | ||
| Further Reading | 2347 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2347 | ||
| Classroom Assessment in Policy Context (New Zealand) | 2348 | ||
| School Curriculum Policy | 2348 | ||
| School Assessment Policy | 2349 | ||
| Classroom Assessment of Students in Primary Schools | 2349 | ||
| Classroom Assessment in New Zealand Secondary Schools | 2351 | ||
| Bibliography | 2352 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2353 | ||
| Classroom Assessment in Policy Context (Sub-Saharan Africa) | 2354 | ||
| Introduction | 2354 | ||
| Types of Assessments Undertaken in SSA | 2354 | ||
| National and International Assessments | 2354 | ||
| Public (External) Examinations in SSA | 2355 | ||
| Continuous Assessment in SSA | 2355 | ||
| Assessment Policy and Practice in South Africa | 2356 | ||
| Curriculum 2005 | 2356 | ||
| The Revised National Curriculum Statement | 2357 | ||
| Current National Assessment Policy in South Africa | 2357 | ||
| Classroom Assessment Under the RNCS (GET) and NCS (FET) | 2358 | ||
| A Final Word | 2359 | ||
| Bibliography | 2361 | ||
| Further Reading | 2361 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2361 | ||
| Moderation of Student Work by Teachers | 2362 | ||
| Glossary | 2362 | ||
| Definition | 2362 | ||
| Situations Where Moderation Is Applicable | 2362 | ||
| School-Based Certification (High Stakes) | 2363 | ||
| Other School-Based Assessments (Low Stakes) | 2363 | ||
| Vocational Training Assessments | 2363 | ||
| University Course Assessments | 2364 | ||
| Social Moderation versus Statistical Moderation | 2364 | ||
| Moderation as a Participative Process | 2364 | ||
| Moderation as a Proactive Process | 2364 | ||
| Achieving Consistency in the Application of Standards | 2365 | ||
| Factors Affecting Moderation Design | 2365 | ||
| Some Specific Moderation Processes | 2366 | ||
| Weak Quality Control (Low Stakes) | 2366 | ||
| Assessor meetings (consortium moderation) | 2366 | ||
| Assessor partnerships and conversations (moderation exchanges and networks) | 2366 | ||
| Self-audit and self-moderation | 2366 | ||
| Strong Quality Control (High Stakes) | 2366 | ||
| Group (consensus) moderation | 2366 | ||
| Expert moderation | 2366 | ||
| Panel moderation | 2366 | ||
| Issues and Alternatives | 2367 | ||
| Bibliography | 2367 | ||
| Further Reading | 2368 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2368 | ||
| School Policies and Practices to Support Effective Classroom Assessment for Learning | 2369 | ||
| Introduction | 2369 | ||
| Sources of Complexity and Challenge in Enhancing the Use of Effective Classroom Assessment | 2369 | ||
| The Classroom Environment | 2369 | ||
| Changes in Teachers' and Students' Conceptions of their Classroom Roles | 2370 | ||
| Fidelity and Flexibility | 2370 | ||
| The Importance of Teachers' Professional Learning for the Development of Effective Classroom Assessment | 2371 | ||
| School Policies and Practices to Support Promotion of Effective Classroom Assessment | 2372 | ||
| Conclusion | 2374 | ||
| Bibliography | 2376 | ||
| Further Reading | 2376 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2376 | ||
| Student Assessment: Policy and Practice in Eastern Europe | 2377 | ||
| Glossary | 2377 | ||
| Context | 2377 | ||
| Reform of School-Leaving and University Selection Examinations | 2378 | ||
| Establishing and Monitoring Educational Standards | 2380 | ||
| International Comparative Studies | 2380 | ||
| Classroom Assessment Practices | 2381 | ||
| Summary | 2382 | ||
| Bibliography | 2382 | ||
| Further Reading | 2383 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2383 | ||
| EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT – KEY RELATIONSHIPS | 2384 | ||
| Assessment Practice in Policy Context: Latin American Countries | 2384 | ||
| Background and First Steps | 2384 | ||
| Assessment Development since the 1990s | 2384 | ||
| Argentina | 2384 | ||
| Bolivia | 2385 | ||
| Brazil | 2385 | ||
| Chile | 2385 | ||
| Colombia | 2385 | ||
| Costa Rica | 2386 | ||
| Cuba | 2386 | ||
| Dominican Republic | 2386 | ||
| Ecuador | 2386 | ||
| El Salvador | 2386 | ||
| Guatemala | 2387 | ||
| Honduras | 2387 | ||
| Mexico | 2387 | ||
| Nicaragua | 2387 | ||
| Panamaacute | 2388 | ||
| Paraguay | 2388 | ||
| Peru | 2388 | ||
| Uruguay | 2388 | ||
| Venezuela | 2388 | ||
| Regional Participation in International Assessments | 2388 | ||
| Conclusion: Promises and Perils | 2389 | ||
| Further Reading | 2389 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2390 | ||
| Impact of Assessment on Learner Groups (Boys/Girls) | 2391 | ||
| Glossary | 2391 | ||
| Introduction | 2391 | ||
| Assessment and Learning - Identifying Links | 2391 | ||
| Views of Learning and Links to Assessment | 2391 | ||
| Assessment and Boys and Girls: Sex Group Differences and Fixed Notions of Learning | 2392 | ||
| Sex Differences on International Assessment Programs | 2392 | ||
| Explanations for Differences | 2393 | ||
| Limitations of the Sex-Group Approach | 2393 | ||
| Assessment and Boys and Girls: Social Considerations of Gender, Learning, and Assessment Tasks | 2393 | ||
| Assessment Technique and Gender Differences in Performance | 2394 | ||
| Limitations of Assessment-Technique Approach | 2394 | ||
| Future Directions | 2395 | ||
| Conclusions | 2395 | ||
| Bibliography | 2396 | ||
| Further Reading | 2396 | ||
| Impact of Assessment on Learner Groups (Disabilities) | 2397 | ||
| Introduction | 2397 | ||
| Disability Classification in Education: Purposes | 2397 | ||
| Disability Classification in Education: A Historical Overview | 2398 | ||
| Disability Classification: A Broader Perspective | 2398 | ||
| Assessment for Pedagogical Reasons | 2400 | ||
| Assessing and Classifying Special Educational NeedsSummary | 2400 | ||
| Including All Learners in National Systems of Assessment: The Impact on Students with Disabilities | 2400 | ||
| Conclusion | 2401 | ||
| Bibliography | 2402 | ||
| Further Reading | 2402 | ||
| Impact of Assessment on Students' Test Anxiety | 2403 | ||
| Introduction | 2403 | ||
| Stress, Anxiety, and Student Learning in the Framework of the Conservation of Resources Model | 2403 | ||
| Theoretical Concepts of Conservation of Resources Theory | 2404 | ||
| Conservation of Resources Theory: Application to Learning, Assessment, and Test Anxiety | 2404 | ||
| Resource Loss and Gain Spirals | 2406 | ||
| Different Assessment Approaches: A Comparison | 2406 | ||
| (Standardized) Written Tests | 2407 | ||
| Oral Examinations | 2407 | ||
| Online Assessment | 2407 | ||
| Portfolios | 2407 | ||
| Observation of Cooperative Learning Activities | 2407 | ||
| Product/Project Assessment | 2408 | ||
| Overview of Alternative Assessment Approaches | 2408 | ||
| Implications and Future Directions | 2408 | ||
| Summary | 2409 | ||
| Bibliography | 2409 | ||
| Further Reading | 2410 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2410 | ||
| Impact of Assessments on Classroom Practice | 2411 | ||
| Introduction | 2411 | ||
| Historical Perspective: Assessments for Selection and Improvement Purposes | 2411 | ||
| Assessment Impact in the Context of Overlapping Purposes | 2411 | ||
| Research on the Effects on High-Visibility External Tests | 2413 | ||
| Consistent Results on Potential Benefits | 2413 | ||
| Consistent Results on Problematic Effects | 2413 | ||
| Factors That Influence Assessment Impact | 2414 | ||
| The Effects of Assessment for Learning: Classroom Formative Assessment | 2415 | ||
| Conclusion | 2415 | ||
| Further Reading | 2416 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2416 | ||
| Social Practices in School Assessment and their Impact on Learner Identities | 2417 | ||
| Introduction | 2417 | ||
| Assessment as a Social Process and Product | 2418 | ||
| The Case of Elizabeth | 2420 | ||
| Conclusion | 2421 | ||
| Bibliography | 2422 | ||
| Further Reading | 2422 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2422 | ||
| EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION – CONCEPTS, PRACTICE, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS | 2423 | ||
| Educational Evaluation: Concepts, Practice, and Future Directions | 2423 | ||
| Glossary | 2423 | ||
| Content and Organization of the Section | 2424 | ||
| Evolution of Educational Evaluation in the Last 10-15Years | 2425 | ||
| Outcome-Based Accountability | 2425 | ||
| Stakeholder Involvement | 2427 | ||
| Globalization in Educational Evaluation | 2428 | ||
| Diversity | 2429 | ||
| Theory-Driven Evaluation | 2430 | ||
| Sustaining Challenges for Future Directions | 2431 | ||
| Bibliography | 2433 | ||
| EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION – CONTEMPORARY THEMES IN EVALUATION | 2435 | ||
| e9780080448930v4 | 2713 | ||
| Front Cover | 2713 | ||
| International Encyclopedia of Education | 2714 | ||
| Copyright Page | 2717 | ||
| Preface | 2718 | ||
| Editors | 2720 | ||
| How to Use the Encyclopedia | 2722 | ||
| Contents | 2724 | ||
| VOLUME 4 | 2756 | ||
| E | 2756 | ||
| EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT | 2756 | ||
| Ability Testing | 2756 | ||
| Glossary | 2756 | ||
| Introduction | 2757 | ||
| Historical Perspective | 2757 | ||
| Testing and Measurement | 2757 | ||
| Controversy | 2758 | ||
| Developed Ability | 2758 | ||
| Ability Testing by Psychologists and Teachers | 2758 | ||
| Dyslexia | 2759 | ||
| Monitoring | 2759 | ||
| School Effectiveness | 2760 | ||
| Consequences | 2760 | ||
| Conclusion | 2760 | ||
| Further Reading | 2761 | ||
| Admissions Testing | 2762 | ||
| Glossary | 2762 | ||
| Background | 2762 | ||
| Higher Education Admissions Testing in the USA | 2762 | ||
| Main Admissions Tests Used in the USA Today | 2762 | ||
| Today's SAT | 2763 | ||
| The ACT | 2763 | ||
| The GRE | 2763 | ||
| The MCAT | 2764 | ||
| The LSAT | 2764 | ||
| The GMAT | 2764 | ||
| The Use of Higher Education Admissions Tests in the USA | 2764 | ||
| Use of admissions tests at undergraduate institutions | 2764 | ||
| Use of admissions tests at graduate and professional schools | 2765 | ||
| Predictive Validity of Admissions Tests | 2765 | ||
| Use of personal characteristics to predict success in higher education | 2766 | ||
| Fairness of Admissions Tests to People of Color, Women, and Other Special Populations | 2767 | ||
| Higher Education Admissions Testing Around the World | 2767 | ||
| Bibliography | 2768 | ||
| Relevant Website | 2769 | ||
| Appropriateness Measurement: Person Fit | 2770 | ||
| Glossary | 2770 | ||
| Item Response Theory | 2770 | ||
| Studying Individual Item-Score Patterns | 2770 | ||
| Nonparametric IRT-Based and Group-Based Person-Fit Statistics | 2771 | ||
| Parametric IRT-Based Person-Fit Statistics | 2771 | ||
| Applications | 2773 | ||
| Misfitting Patterns and Person's Characteristics | 2773 | ||
| Computer Adaptive Testing | 2773 | ||
| Summary | 2774 | ||
| Bibliography | 2774 | ||
| Further Reading | 2774 | ||
| Automated Essay Scoring: Writing Assessment and Instruction | 2775 | ||
| Glossary | 2775 | ||
| Introduction | 2775 | ||
| AES Programs | 2776 | ||
| Reliability and Validity | 2777 | ||
| Transformations into New Applications | 2777 | ||
| Criterion Online Essay Evaluation Service | 2777 | ||
| Text Adaptor: Technology to Support ELLs | 2778 | ||
| Automated Scoring of Spoken Responses | 2779 | ||
| Conclusion | 2780 | ||
| Bibliography | 2780 | ||
| Further Reading | 2781 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2781 | ||
| Classical Test Theory Reliability | 2782 | ||
| Classical Test Theory | 2782 | ||
| Types of Reliability | 2783 | ||
| Standard Error of Measurement | 2784 | ||
| Magnitude of Reliability | 2784 | ||
| How to Increase Reliability | 2784 | ||
| Reliability and Aggregation | 2784 | ||
| Reliability and Growth Scores | 2784 | ||
| Relationship of Reliability and Validity | 2785 | ||
| Further Reading | 2785 | ||
| Criterion-Referenced Measurement | 2786 | ||
| Glossary | 2786 | ||
| Introduction | 2786 | ||
| Distinctions Within Criterion-Referenced Measurement | 2786 | ||
| Criterion-Referenced Test Development | 2787 | ||
| Domain Specification | 2787 | ||
| Item/Assessment Task Writing | 2787 | ||
| Content Validation | 2787 | ||
| Item Analysis and Selection | 2788 | ||
| Standard Setting | 2788 | ||
| Test Reliability | 2788 | ||
| Decision consistency | 2788 | ||
| Single-test administration | 2789 | ||
| Interrater reliability | 2789 | ||
| Concurrent Validation | 2789 | ||
| Reporting Test Results | 2789 | ||
| Application of Criterion-Referenced Measurement | 2789 | ||
| Emerging Issues | 2790 | ||
| Bibliography | 2790 | ||
| Further Reading | 2790 | ||
| Differential Item Functioning | 2791 | ||
| Glossary | 2791 | ||
| Introduction | 2791 | ||
| DIF, Bias, and Impact | 2792 | ||
| Types of DIF | 2792 | ||
| DIF Techniques: A Classification | 2792 | ||
| Nonparametric DIF Techniques | 2792 | ||
| Parametric DIF Techniques | 2794 | ||
| Purification of Matching Variables | 2795 | ||
| Guidelines to Detect DIF | 2796 | ||
| Summary | 2796 | ||
| Bibliography | 2797 | ||
| Further Reading | 2799 | ||
| Educational Measurement: Overview | 2800 | ||
| Major Functions of Educational Measurement | 2800 | ||
| Decisions about Students | 2800 | ||
| Monitoring Function | 2800 | ||
| Accountability Function | 2801 | ||
| Formative Function | 2801 | ||
| Educational Measurement Theory and Practice | 2802 | ||
| Validity | 2802 | ||
| Reliability | 2803 | ||
| Item Response Theory | 2803 | ||
| Testing Technology | 2804 | ||
| Conclusion | 2804 | ||
| Bibliography | 2804 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 2804 | ||
| Equating and Scaling | 2805 | ||
| Introduction | 2805 | ||
| Equating | 2805 | ||
| Scaling | 2806 | ||
| Observed-Score Equating Methods | 2806 | ||
| The Kernel Method of Test Equating | 2807 | ||
| IRT Linking and Equating | 2807 | ||
| IRT Linking Methods for the NEAT Design | 2808 | ||
| Estimation Methods | 2808 | ||
| Concurrent calibration | 2808 | ||
| Fixed parameters calibration | 2808 | ||
| Mean-mean and mean-var IRT calibrations | 2808 | ||
| Stocking-Lord and Haebara linkings | 2809 | ||
| Equating of Scores in the IRT Framework | 2809 | ||
| IRT true score equating | 2809 | ||
| Discussion | 2809 | ||
| Bibliography | 2810 | ||
| e9780080448930v5 | 3612 | ||
| Front Cover | 3612 | ||
| International Encyclopedia of Education | 3613 | ||
| Copyright Page | 3616 | ||
| Preface | 3617 | ||
| Editors | 3619 | ||
| How to Use the Encyclopedia | 3621 | ||
| Contents | 3623 | ||
| VOLUME 5 | 3655 | ||
| L | 3655 | ||
| LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT – LEADERSHIP TYPES | 3655 | ||
| A Distributed Perspective on School Leadership and Management | 3655 | ||
| A Distributed Perspective: Conceptual and Empirical Work | 3656 | ||
| Leader Plus Aspect | 3656 | ||
| Conceptual | 3656 | ||
| Empirical | 3656 | ||
| Practice Aspect | 3657 | ||
| Conceptual | 3657 | ||
| Empirical | 3657 | ||
| Effects | 3658 | ||
| The Problem with Synonyms | 3658 | ||
| Conclusion | 3659 | ||
| Bibliography | 3659 | ||
| Leadership: Authentic | 3661 | ||
| The Valuation Processes of Individuals | 3661 | ||
| Arenas of Leadership: Sources of Influence, Values, and Conflicts | 3663 | ||
| Complications | 3664 | ||
| Inauthentic or False Leadership | 3664 | ||
| Cross-Cultural Issues | 3664 | ||
| Conclusion | 3664 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 3665 | ||
| Bibliography | 3665 | ||
| Further Reading | 3665 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3665 | ||
| Leadership: Democratic | 3666 | ||
| Introduction | 3666 | ||
| Education for Democracy | 3666 | ||
| Conceptualizing School Leadership | 3667 | ||
| Comparing Democratic Leadership with Distributed Leadership | 3667 | ||
| Empirical Studies of Democratic School Leadership | 3668 | ||
| Summary | 3670 | ||
| Bibliography | 3670 | ||
| Further Reading | 3671 | ||
| Leadership: Instructional | 3672 | ||
| The Evolution of Instructional Leadership | 3672 | ||
| A Conceptual Definition of Instructional Leadership | 3673 | ||
| Empirical Research on Instructional Leadership | 3674 | ||
| Research Trends | 3675 | ||
| Research Findings on Instructional Leadership | 3675 | ||
| Toward Shared Instructional Leadership | 3676 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 3677 | ||
| Bibliography | 3677 | ||
| Further Reading | 3678 | ||
| Leadership: Transformative | 3680 | ||
| Origins | 3680 | ||
| Ethical Leadership | 3680 | ||
| Transactional Leadership | 3681 | ||
| Transforming Leadership: The Root of Confusion | 3681 | ||
| Transformative Leadership: Roots in Other Social Sciences | 3682 | ||
| Transformation in Education | 3682 | ||
| Transformative Leadership: The Evolution of a Theory | 3683 | ||
| Transformative Leadership Today: A Theory of Critique and Possibility | 3684 | ||
| The Current State of Transformative Leadership Theory: Problems and Promises | 3685 | ||
| Concluding Thoughts | 3685 | ||
| Bibliography | 3686 | ||
| Further Reading | 3687 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3687 | ||
| Strategic Leadership | 3688 | ||
| Introduction | 3688 | ||
| The Nature and Dimensions of Strategic Leadership | 3688 | ||
| Strategic Leaders Are Concerned with Developing Strategic and Organizational Processes | 3689 | ||
| Strategic Leaders Are Concerned with Leading and Developing People | 3689 | ||
| Strategic Leaders Are Concerned with Developing the Culture and Value System | 3690 | ||
| Strategic Leaders Are Concerned with Developing Distinctive Competencies | 3691 | ||
| Strategic Leaders Are Concerned with Developing Networks | 3691 | ||
| Is This All? | 3691 | ||
| Conclusion | 3692 | ||
| Bibliography | 3692 | ||
| Teacher Leadership and Organizational Development | 3694 | ||
| Introduction | 3694 | ||
| Teacher Leadership | 3694 | ||
| Defining Teacher Leadership | 3694 | ||
| The Impact of Teacher Leadership: The School Level | 3695 | ||
| The Impact of Teacher Leadership: The Teacher Level | 3696 | ||
| The Impact of Teacher Leadership: The Student Level | 3696 | ||
| Coda | 3697 | ||
| Bibliography | 3697 | ||
| Further Reading | 3698 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3698 | ||
| Understanding How Leadership Influences Student Learning | 3699 | ||
| Introduction | 3699 | ||
| A General Framework | 3699 | ||
| Leadership Practices | 3699 | ||
| Student Learning | 3701 | ||
| Variables Mediating Leadership Practices and Student Learning | 3701 | ||
| Variables Moderating Leadership Effects | 3702 | ||
| Conclusions | 3702 | ||
| Bibliography | 3703 | ||
| LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT – POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE | 3705 | ||
| Equity and Educational Effectiveness | 3705 | ||
| Glossary | 3705 | ||
| Defining Educational Disadvantage | 3706 | ||
| The Role of Early Education | 3707 | ||
| The Influence of Schools | 3707 | ||
| Characteristics of Effective Schools | 3709 | ||
| Characteristics of Ineffective Schools | 3709 | ||
| The Role of School Leadership | 3709 | ||
| Conclusions | 3710 | ||
| Bibliography | 3710 | ||
| Further Reading | 3711 | ||
| Leading/Managing Schools in Communities Made Poor | 3712 | ||
| The Challenges of Working with and for Poor Children and Families | 3712 | ||
| The Challenges of Everyday Life in Disadvantaged Schools | 3713 | ||
| The Challenges of Making a Difference | 3714 | ||
| Implications for Leader/Managers | 3715 | ||
| Bibliography | 3716 | ||
| Further Reading | 3719 | ||
| Principals Role in Restructuring Schools | 3720 | ||
| From Restructuring to New Structures | 3720 | ||
| Current Changes in the Nature of School Improvement | 3720 | ||
| Reculturing | 3720 | ||
| Professional Learning Community | 3720 | ||
| Distributed Leadership | 3721 | ||
| Social Justice | 3721 | ||
| Conflicts/Tensions in School Improvement | 3721 | ||
| Accountability and Professionalism | 3721 | ||
| New Expectations for Tight or Loose Coupling | 3722 | ||
| New Forms of Organization | 3722 | ||
| Resulting Changes in the Principal's Role | 3722 | ||
| New Roles | 3722 | ||
| Changes in the Political Role of Principal | 3722 | ||
| Changes in the Cultural Role of Principal | 3723 | ||
| Changes in the Environmental Role of Principal | 3723 | ||
| Changes in the Instructional Role of Principal | 3723 | ||
| New Relationships | 3723 | ||
| New Rules | 3723 | ||
| New Results | 3724 | ||
| Implications | 3724 | ||
| Bibliography | 3724 | ||
| Further Reading | 3725 | ||
| School Reform and Restructuring: Self Managing School | 3726 | ||
| Definition | 3726 | ||
| Trends | 3726 | ||
| Driving Forces | 3727 | ||
| Issues | 3728 | ||
| Link to Learning | 3728 | ||
| Needs-Based Funding | 3729 | ||
| Opportunities for Corruption | 3729 | ||
| Impact on the Workload of Principals | 3729 | ||
| Prognosis | 3730 | ||
| Bibliography | 3730 | ||
| System Leadership | 3732 | ||
| Introduction | 3732 | ||
| Defining System Leadership | 3732 | ||
| Taxonomy of Roles | 3733 | ||
| What Effective System Leaders Do | 3734 | ||
| Developing System Leadership | 3735 | ||
| A Final Word | 3737 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 3737 | ||
| Bibliography | 3738 | ||
| Further Reading | 3738 | ||
| LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT – SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY | 3739 | ||
| Educational Leadership and Social Capital | 3739 | ||
| Glossary | 3739 | ||
| Introduction | 3739 | ||
| Social Capital as an Intellectual Construct | 3740 | ||
| Defining Social Capital | 3741 | ||
| Implications for Systems and Schools | 3742 | ||
| Implications for Educational Leadership | 3743 | ||
| Bibliography | 3744 | ||
| Further Reading | 3745 | ||
| Networked Learning Communities School-to-School Collaboration as an Essential Component of a System Reform Strategy | 3746 | ||
| Glossary | 3746 | ||
| Some Things We Know | 3746 | ||
| Much We Do Not Yet Know | 3747 | ||
| The Networked Learning Communities Program | 3747 | ||
| Alternative Approaches to Incentivization and Implementation | 3749 | ||
| What Did We Learn? | 3750 | ||
| What Did We Learn about Implementing and Facilitating Networks? | 3751 | ||
| Conclusion | 3752 | ||
| Bibliography | 3752 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3753 | ||
| Networks and Communities of Knowledge | 3754 | ||
| Introduction | 3754 | ||
| Knowledge Production and Its Context | 3754 | ||
| New Knowledge Relationships | 3755 | ||
| Social Capital and Communities of Knowledge | 3756 | ||
| High Levels of Bonding: Communities of Practice | 3756 | ||
| High Levels of Bridging: Open Source Communities | 3757 | ||
| System Level Networks: The Triple-Helix and Brokerage Institutions | 3758 | ||
| Conclusions | 3758 | ||
| Bibliography | 3759 | ||
| School Community Relations | 3760 | ||
| A Sense of Place and a Pedagogy of Place | 3760 | ||
| The Importance of Community Capacity and Social Capital in Learning | 3761 | ||
| Communities and Families as Instructional Resources | 3763 | ||
| A Local Politics of Partnership and Empowerment | 3763 | ||
| Summary | 3764 | ||
| Bibliography | 3765 | ||
| Further Reading | 3766 | ||
| Social Capital, Educational Institutions and Leadership | 3767 | ||
| What Is Social Capital? | 3767 | ||
| Building and Using Social Capital | 3768 | ||
| Why Should Educational Institutions Build Community/Regional Social Capital? | 3769 | ||
| How to Build Social Capital between Education Community and Broader Community | 3769 | ||
| Models | 3769 | ||
| The Process | 3770 | ||
| Leadership and Social Capital | 3771 | ||
| Social Capital and Education in the Future | 3771 | ||
| Bibliography | 3772 | ||
| Further Reading | 3773 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3773 | ||
| LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT – SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS AND IMPROVEMENT | 3774 | ||
| Leadership and Technology | 3774 | ||
| Reshaping Education | 3774 | ||
| The Need for Leadership | 3775 | ||
| Teacher Leadership | 3776 | ||
| Technology and Leadership Development | 3777 | ||
| Social and Legal Challenges | 3778 | ||
| Conclusion | 3779 | ||
| Bibliography | 3780 | ||
| Further Reading | 3781 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 3781 | ||
| Leadership in the Implementation of Innovations | 3782 | ||
| A Brief History of Change Theory | 3782 | ||
| Complex Systems' Frameworks | 3784 | ||
| Re-Conceptualizing Educational Innovation | 3785 | ||
| Beyond Societal and Institutional Barriers | 3785 | ||
| The Progress of Educational Change: A New Integration | 3786 | ||
| Conclusion | 3787 | ||
| Bibliography | 3787 | ||
| Leadership: School Improvement | 3789 | ||
| Overview of Leadership for School Improvement | 3789 | ||
| Conceptualizing School Improvement | 3789 | ||
| Conceptualizing Leadership | 3790 | ||
| Frames for Understanding Leadership for School Improvement | 3790 | ||
| Rational-Technical Perspectives on School Improvement | 3790 | ||
| Political Perspectives on School Improvement | 3791 | ||
| Cultural Perspectives on School Improvement | 3791 | ||
| Challenges in Facilitating School Improvement | 3792 | ||
| Bibliography | 3794 | ||
| Further Reading | 3795 | ||
| Organizational Learning in Schools | 3797 | ||
| Introduction | 3797 | ||
| What Is OL? | 3797 | ||
| Why Is OL Important? | 3798 | ||
| What Are the Effects of OL? | 3799 | ||
| Constraints | 3801 | ||
| Conclusion | 3802 | ||
| Bibliography | 3803 | ||
| Further Reading | 3804 | ||
| Professional Learning Community | 3805 | ||
| Glossary | 3805 | ||
| Meaning and Purpose | 3805 | ||
| Community | 3805 | ||
| Professional | 3805 | ||
| Learning | 3806 | ||
| Nature of Membership | 3806 | ||
| Professional Learning Community Characteristics | 3807 | ||
| Impact | 3807 | ||
| Enhancing Teacher Morale | 3807 | ||
| Teacher Learning and Improvement in Practice | 3807 | ||
| Organizational Capacity Building and Improvement | 3808 | ||
| Student Outcome Oriented | 3808 | ||
| Development of Professional Learning Community | 3808 | ||
| Processes of Professional Learning Community Development | 3808 | ||
| Leadership of learning | 3808 | ||
| Principal leadership | 3809 | ||
| Distributed leadership and leadership of professional learning | 3809 | ||
| Other social resources | 3809 | ||
| Structural resources | 3809 | ||
| Promotion of learning | 3809 | ||
| Professional development, work-based learning, and inquiry-based learning | 3809 | ||
| Collective learning through knowledge creation and transfer | 3810 | ||
| Developmental Process over Time | 3810 | ||
| Summary | 3810 | ||
| Bibliography | 3811 | ||
| Further Reading | 3811 | ||
| Transformational School Leadership | 3812 | ||
| Introduction | 3812 | ||
| The Roots of Transformational Leadership | 3812 | ||
| Effects of Transformational Leadership | 3812 | ||
| Transformational Leadership for Schools | 3813 | ||
| Setting Directions | 3813 | ||
| Building a shared vision | 3813 | ||
| Fostering the acceptance of group goals | 3813 | ||
| High-performance expectations | 3813 | ||
| Developing People | 3813 | ||
| Providing individualized support/consideration | 3814 | ||
| Intellectual stimulation | 3814 | ||
| Providing an appropriate model | 3814 | ||
| Redesigning the Organization | 3814 | ||
| Building collaborative cultures | 3814 | ||
| Restructuring | 3815 | ||
| Building productive relationships with families and communities | 3815 | ||
| Connecting the school to its wider environment | 3815 | ||
| Managing the Instructional Program | 3815 | ||
| Staffing the program | 3815 | ||
| Providing instructional support | 3816 | ||
| Monitoring school activity | 3816 | ||
| Buffering staff from distractions to their work | 3816 | ||
| Conclusion | 3816 | ||
| Bibliography | 3816 | ||
| Further Reading | 3818 | ||
| LEARNING AND COGNITION – ISSUES AND CONCEPTS | 3819 | ||
| Attention in Cognition and Early Learning | 3819 | ||
| Attention in Infancy | 3819 | ||
| Selective Attention | 3820 | ||
| Phases of Attention | 3820 | ||
| Behavioral Phases | 3820 | ||
| Attention: Brain Networks | 3821 | ||
| Aspects of Attention | 3822 | ||
| Novelty | 3822 | ||
| Visual Recognition Memory | 3822 | ||
| Face Processing | 3822 | ||
| Attention and Learning | 3823 | ||
| The Directed-Attention Model | 3823 | ||
| Dyadic Attention | 3823 | ||
| Triadic Attention/Joint Attention | 3824 | ||
| Understanding Intentions | 3824 | ||
| Compensatory Systems and Plasticity | 3824 | ||
| Conclusion | 3824 | ||
| Bibliography | 3825 | ||
| Further Reading | 3825 | ||
| Concept Learning | 3826 | ||
| Theories of Concept Representation and Learning | 3826 | ||
| The Classical View | 3826 | ||
| The Probabilistic View | 3826 | ||
| Typicality: Central tendency versus ideality | 3826 | ||
| Prototype versus exemplar theories | 3827 | ||
| The Theory View | 3827 | ||
| Domain Specificity | 3828 | ||
| Concept Learning in the Domain of Biology | 3828 | ||
| Concept Learning in the Domain of Mathematics | 3829 | ||
| Conclusions | 3830 | ||
| Further Reading | 3830 | ||
| Cooperative Learning | 3831 | ||
| Theoretical Perspectives on Cooperative Learning | 3831 | ||
| Four Major Theoretical Perspectives on Cooperative Learning and Achievement | 3832 | ||
| Motivational Perspectives | 3832 | ||
| Empirical support for the motivational perspective | 3833 | ||
| Social Cohesion Perspective | 3833 | ||
| Empirical support for the social cohesion perspective | 3834 | ||
| Cognitive Perspectives | 3834 | ||
| Developmental perspectives | 3834 | ||
| Empirical evidence for the developmental perspective | 3835 | ||
| Cognitive elaboration perspectives | 3835 | ||
| Empirical evidence for the cognitive elaboration perspective | 3835 | ||
| Structuring Group Interactions | 3835 | ||
| Reconciling the Four Perspectives | 3835 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 3836 | ||
| Bibliography | 3836 | ||
| Intelligence | 3838 | ||
| Glossary | 3838 | ||
| Theories of Intelligence | 3838 | ||
| Implicit Theories | 3838 | ||
| Psychometric Theories | 3839 | ||
| Cognitive-Contextual Theories | 3840 | ||
| Biological Theories | 3841 | ||
| Development of Intelligence | 3841 | ||
| The Theory of Jean Piaget | 3841 | ||
| The Theory of Lev Vygotsky | 3841 | ||
| Measuring Intelligence | 3841 | ||
| Early Historical Background | 3841 | ||
| The Intelligence Quotient Test | 3842 | ||
| The Distribution of IQ Scores | 3842 | ||
| The Heritability and Malleability of Intelligence | 3842 | ||
| Further Head | 3843 | ||
| Learning from Multiple Information Sources | 3845 | ||
| Introduction | 3845 | ||
| Integrating Information from Multiple Sources | 3845 | ||
| Mental Representation of Multiple Information Sources | 3846 | ||
| Learning from Multiple Information Sources | 3847 | ||
| The Importance of Expertise | 3847 | ||
| Personal Epistemology | 3848 | ||
| The Reading Task | 3848 | ||
| Multiple Information Sources at the World Wide Web | 3848 | ||
| Educational Implications | 3849 | ||
| Conclusion | 3849 | ||
| Bibliography | 3850 | ||
| Further Reading | 3850 | ||
| Memory | 3851 | ||
| Glossary | 3851 | ||
| Varieties of Human Memory | 3852 | ||
| Metaphors and Models of Memory - Strategies of Research | 3853 | ||
| The Seven Sins of Memory | 3853 | ||
| Memory in Everyday Contexts | 3854 | ||
| False Autobiographical Memories | 3855 | ||
| Memory in the Classroom | 3855 | ||
| The Future for Memory Research | 3856 | ||
| Bibliography | 3856 | ||
| Further Reading | 3857 | ||
| Metacognition | 3858 | ||
| Glossary | 3858 | ||
| Definitional Issues | 3858 | ||
| Origins of Metacognition | 3859 | ||
| Methods for Assessing Metacognition | 3859 | ||
| Verbal Reports | 3859 | ||
| Online Processing Measures | 3860 | ||
| Judgments of Learning and Predictions of Performance | 3860 | ||
| Metacognition in Specific Academic Domains | 3860 | ||
| Metacognition in Reading | 3860 | ||
| Studies of metacognitive knowledge | 3860 | ||
| Studies of comprehension monitoring | 3861 | ||
| Studies aimed at fostering metacognitive skills | 3861 | ||
| Metacognition in Writing | 3861 | ||
| Metacognition in Mathematics | 3862 | ||
| Metacognition in Science | 3862 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 3862 | ||
| Further Reading | 3863 | ||
| Personal Epistemology in Education: Concepts, Issues, and Implications | 3865 | ||
| What Is Personal Epistemology? | 3865 | ||
| How Does Personal Epistemology Develop? | 3865 | ||
| What Are the Dimensions of Personal Epistemology? | 3865 | ||
| Is Personal Epistemology Domain General, Domain Specific, or Both? | 3866 | ||
| The Role of Personal Epistemology in Student Motivation, Cognition, and Performance | 3867 | ||
| How Can Personal Epistemology Be Assessed? | 3868 | ||
| Educational Implications | 3869 | ||
| Bibliography | 3870 | ||
| Further Reading | 3871 | ||
| Piaget: Recent Work | 3872 | ||
| Glossary | 3872 | ||
| The Story So Far | 3873 | ||
| Recent Work in Education | 3873 | ||
| Piaget's Pedagogy | 3873 | ||
| Recent Research on Assessment and Intervention | 3874 | ||
| Piaget's Constructivist Program | 3875 | ||
| Formation of Knowledge | 3875 | ||
| Norms | 3875 | ||
| Actions | 3876 | ||
| Frameworks | 3876 | ||
| Reasons | 3876 | ||
| Ways Forward in the Future | 3877 | ||
| Bibliography | 3878 | ||
| Further Reading | 3878 | ||
| The Adult Development of Cognition and Learning | 3879 | ||
| Introduction | 3879 | ||
| Theories of Life-Span Development | 3879 | ||
| Multidirectionality in Cognition and Intellectual Function | 3879 | ||
| Selectivity | 3880 | ||
| Self-Regulation | 3880 | ||
| Learning through Adulthood | 3881 | ||
| Memory and Aging | 3881 | ||
| Learning from Text | 3881 | ||
| Understanding words | 3881 | ||
| Textbase processing | 3881 | ||
| Situation model | 3882 | ||
| Discourse structures and context | 3882 | ||
| Cognitive Reserve: Lifelong Effects of Education | 3882 | ||
| Differential Developmental Trajectories as a Function of Education | 3882 | ||
| Cognitive and Neural Plasticity | 3883 | ||
| Conclusion | 3883 | ||
| Further Reading | 3884 | ||
| Vygotsky and Recent Developments | 3885 | ||
| Genetic Analysis | 3885 | ||
| Mediated Nature of Human Mental Functioning | 3886 | ||
| Social Origins of Individual Mental Functioning | 3887 | ||
| Conclusion | 3889 | ||
| Bibliography | 3889 | ||
| Further Reading | 3890 | ||
| LEARNING AND COGNITION – ISSUES AND CONCEPTS – FOCUS ON COGNITION | 3891 | ||
| Cognition and Emotion | 3891 | ||
| Introduction | 3891 | ||
| The Problem of Definition | 3892 | ||
| Cognition as a Cause of Emotion | 3893 | ||
| Emotion as a Cause of Cognition | 3894 | ||
| Conclusion | 3896 | ||
| Summary | 3896 | ||
| Bibliography | 3897 | ||
| Further Reading | 3898 | ||
| Cognition: Overview and Recent Trends | 3899 | ||
| The Cognitive Revolution | 3899 | ||
| The Birth of Cognitive Psychology | 3900 | ||
| Overview of Research in Cognition | 3901 | ||
| Perception and Attention | 3901 | ||
| Language Acquisition and Reading | 3901 | ||
| Memory | 3902 | ||
| Comprehension and Conceptual Understanding | 3902 | ||
| Problem Solving and Reasoning | 3902 | ||
| Metacognition | 3902 | ||
| Recent Trends | 3903 | ||
| Transfer | 3903 | ||
| Spatial Thinking and Gesture | 3903 | ||
| Culture and Cognition | 3903 | ||
| Collaboration | 3903 | ||
| Bibliography | 3904 | ||
| Development of Creativity | 3905 | ||
| Glossary | 3905 | ||
| Nature and Nurture in Development | 3906 | ||
| Models, Motivation, and Values as Influences on Creative Development | 3906 | ||
| Family Structure | 3907 | ||
| Final Comments | 3908 | ||
| Further Reading | 3908 | ||
| Knowledge Domains and Domain Learning | 3909 | ||
| Glossary | 3909 | ||
| The Development of Disciplines | 3910 | ||
| Domain Learning | 3912 | ||
| Reading | 3913 | ||
| Writing | 3913 | ||
| History | 3914 | ||
| Mathematics | 3914 | ||
| Science | 3915 | ||
| Concluding Thoughts | 3916 | ||
| Bibliography | 3916 | ||
| Further Reading | 3917 | ||
| Problem Solving and Human Expertise | 3919 | ||
| Glossary | 3919 | ||
| Methods | 3919 | ||
| Expert Problem Solving: Major Findings | 3920 | ||
| Problem Categorization | 3921 | ||
| Construction of a Representation | 3922 | ||
| Application of Problem-Solving Procedures | 3923 | ||
| Solution Evaluation and Storage | 3923 | ||
| Summary | 3923 | ||
| Acquisition of Expertise | 3923 | ||
| Current Directions | 3925 | ||
| Conclusions | 3925 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 3925 | ||
| Bibliography | 3925 | ||
| Further Reading | 3926 | ||
| Problem Solving and Reasoning | 3927 | ||
| Definitions | 3927 | ||
| Types of Problems | 3927 | ||
| Cognitive Processes and Types of Knowledge in Problem Solving | 3928 | ||
| Rigidity in Thinking | 3929 | ||
| Problem-Solving Transfer | 3929 | ||
| The Distinction between Productive and Reproductive Thinking | 3929 | ||
| The Nature of Insight | 3930 | ||
| Problem Space and Search Processes | 3930 | ||
| Problem Solving in Realistic Situations | 3931 | ||
| Bibliography | 3931 | ||
| Reasoning, Moral and Social | 3933 | ||
| Glossary | 3933 | ||
| Introduction | 3933 | ||
| Historical Background | 3933 | ||
| Preschool and Early Childhood | 3934 | ||
| Middle Childhood | 3934 | ||
| Adolescents | 3935 | ||
| Culture | 3936 | ||
| Stereotypes and Social Reasoning | 3937 | ||
| Educational Implications | 3937 | ||
| Conclusions | 3937 | ||
| Bibliography | 3937 | ||
| Further Reading | 3938 | ||
| Remembering as Social Activity | 3939 | ||
| Glossary | 3939 | ||
| Introduction | 3939 | ||
| Interactive and Sequential Organization of Memory | 3940 | ||
| Inference and Co-Option in Socially Organized Settings | 3941 | ||
| Membership | 3941 | ||
| Summary | 3942 | ||
| Bibliography | 3943 | ||
| Further Reading | 3943 | ||
| Relevant Website | 3943 | ||
| LEARNING AND COGNITION – ISSUES, CONCEPTS, TYPES | 3944 | ||
| Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning: Basic Concepts, Multiple Perspectives, and Emerging Trends | 3944 | ||
| Introduction | 3944 | ||
| Background | 3945 | ||
| Research Approaches in CSCL | 3945 | ||
| Systemic Approach | 3945 | ||
| Dialogic Approach | 3946 | ||
| Design-Based Research | 3947 | ||
| Pedagogical Design | 3947 | ||
| Technology Design | 3947 | ||
| Open issues and Directions for Further Work | 3948 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 3949 | ||
| Bibliography | 3949 | ||
| Further Reading | 3950 | ||
| e9780080448930v6 | 4558 | ||
| Front Cover | 4558 | ||
| International Encyclopedia of Education | 4559 | ||
| Copyright Page | 4562 | ||
| Preface | 4563 | ||
| Editors | 4565 | ||
| How to Use the Encyclopedia | 4567 | ||
| Contents | 4569 | ||
| VOLUME 6 | 4601 | ||
| P | 4601 | ||
| PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION | 4601 | ||
| Philosophy of Education: Overview | 4601 | ||
| How Do Philosophers of Education Contribute to Educational Enquiry | 4601 | ||
| The Role of Definitions | 4601 | ||
| Philosophy of Education as Expressions of Personal or Group Beliefs | 4602 | ||
| Schools of Thought | 4602 | ||
| Great Thinkers | 4603 | ||
| Philosophy of Education as a Distinctive Type of Educational Inquiry | 4603 | ||
| Philosophy of Education Since the Mid-Twentieth Century: Analytic Philosophy and Beyond | 4604 | ||
| Twentieth-Century Trends in Philosophy | 4604 | ||
| R. S. Peters and the London School | 4605 | ||
| Beyond Conceptual Analysis | 4606 | ||
| Prospects for Philosophy of Education: The Challenges of Diversity | 4607 | ||
| Bibliography | 4609 | ||
| Further Reading | 4609 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4609 | ||
| PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION – CONTEMPORARY ISSUES | 4611 | ||
| Neoliberalism, the Market and Performativity | 4611 | ||
| Glossary | 4611 | ||
| Introduction: The Birth of Neoliberalism | 4612 | ||
| The Centrality of Friedrich von Hayek | 4612 | ||
| The Rise of the New Right | 4613 | ||
| Neoliberalism, Performativity, and the Culture of Performance | 4614 | ||
| The 'Age of Performativity' | 4615 | ||
| Bibliography | 4616 | ||
| Further Reading | 4616 | ||
| Parents and Children's Rights | 4617 | ||
| Glossary | 4617 | ||
| Children's Rights | 4617 | ||
| Parents' Rights | 4619 | ||
| Conclusion | 4620 | ||
| Bibliography | 4621 | ||
| Further Reading | 4621 | ||
| Peace Education | 4622 | ||
| The Uniqueness and Aims of Peace Education | 4622 | ||
| Central Trends in Current Peace Education | 4622 | ||
| The Concept of Peace | 4624 | ||
| Contradictions Between Explicit and Implicit Aims of Peace Education | 4626 | ||
| Counter-Education for Peace? | 4626 | ||
| Bibliography | 4627 | ||
| Further Reading | 4628 | ||
| Philosophy and Educational Research | 4629 | ||
| Glossary | 4629 | ||
| The Contributions of Philosophy to Educational Research | 4629 | ||
| Philosophy as Educational Research | 4629 | ||
| Philosophy of Educational Research | 4630 | ||
| Research and Educational Practice | 4630 | ||
| Research and Educational Policy | 4630 | ||
| The Qualitative/Quantitative Debate | 4631 | ||
| Objectivity and Subjectivity in Educational Research | 4632 | ||
| The Ethics and Politics of Educational Research | 4633 | ||
| Conclusion | 4634 | ||
| Bibliography | 4634 | ||
| Further Reading | 4634 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4634 | ||
| Race, Critical Race Theory and Whiteness | 4636 | ||
| Race as a Social Construction | 4636 | ||
| Definitions of Racism | 4637 | ||
| Identity Politics, Recognition, and Essentialist Notions of Race | 4639 | ||
| Whiteness, White Privilege, and Critical Whiteness Studies | 4640 | ||
| Bibliography | 4642 | ||
| Further Reading | 4643 | ||
| Relevant Website | 4643 | ||
| School Choice and the Common School | 4644 | ||
| Glossary | 4644 | ||
| Common Schools and Separate Schools | 4644 | ||
| School Choice | 4646 | ||
| Values Underlying the Arguments | 4647 | ||
| The Common School as an Object of Choice | 4648 | ||
| Bibliography | 4649 | ||
| Further Reading | 4649 | ||
| PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION – PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE | 4650 | ||
| African Philosophy of Education | 4650 | ||
| Glossary | 4650 | ||
| Introduction: Modes of African philosophy | 4650 | ||
| African Traditional Education | 4651 | ||
| Critical, Academic, or Professional Philosophy: The Content of African Philosophy of Education | 4652 | ||
| Indigenous (African) knowledge systems | 4652 | ||
| African communalism, ubuntu, and consensus | 4653 | ||
| The ethical responsiveness of African philosophy | 4653 | ||
| The legacy of colonialism | 4654 | ||
| The Promise of African Philosophy of Education | 4654 | ||
| Bibliography | 4655 | ||
| Further Reading | 4655 | ||
| Feminism | 4656 | ||
| Glossary | 4656 | ||
| Introduction | 4656 | ||
| Framework One: Wave Feminisms | 4657 | ||
| Framework Two: Feminism in Philosophy | 4658 | ||
| Recent Exemplars One | 4658 | ||
| Framework Three: Feminist Theory and Education | 4658 | ||
| Recent Exemplars Two | 4659 | ||
| Current Considerations | 4660 | ||
| Conclusion | 4660 | ||
| Bibliography | 4660 | ||
| Further Reading | 4662 | ||
| Hermeneutics | 4663 | ||
| Hermeneutic Precedents | 4663 | ||
| Related Hermeneutic Theories | 4664 | ||
| Conservative Hermeneutics | 4664 | ||
| Critical Hermeneutics | 4665 | ||
| Radical Hermeneutics | 4665 | ||
| Moderate Hermeneutics and Educational Thought | 4665 | ||
| Questioning | 4666 | ||
| World-historical situation | 4666 | ||
| Language | 4666 | ||
| Disciplinary knowledge | 4667 | ||
| Summary | 4667 | ||
| Bibliography | 4667 | ||
| Further Reading | 4668 | ||
| Islamic Education | 4669 | ||
| Glossary | 4669 | ||
| Islamic Philosophy of Education and Universal Justice | 4669 | ||
| Cultivating Acts of Justice | 4670 | ||
| Conceptualizations of Islamic Education | 4671 | ||
| Bibliography | 4673 | ||
| Further Reading | 4673 | ||
| Liberalism and Education | 4674 | ||
| Prehistory of Liberalism | 4674 | ||
| Types of Liberalism | 4674 | ||
| The Rise of Contemporary Liberalism | 4675 | ||
| Contemporary Liberalism | 4676 | ||
| Education and Contemporary Liberalism | 4676 | ||
| Milton Freedman and John Rawls | 4677 | ||
| Critics | 4678 | ||
| Conclusion | 4678 | ||
| Bibliography | 4678 | ||
| Further Reading | 4679 | ||
| Phenomenology and Existentialism | 4680 | ||
| Glossary | 4680 | ||
| From Epistemology to Method and Upbringing | 4682 | ||
| Existentialism: How to Live? | 4682 | ||
| Freedom and Responsibility in Upbringing and Education | 4684 | ||
| Bibliography | 4684 | ||
| Further Reading | 4685 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4685 | ||
| Pragmatism | 4686 | ||
| Glossary | 4686 | ||
| Introduction | 4686 | ||
| Classic Pragmatism | 4686 | ||
| Conclusion | 4691 | ||
| Bibliography | 4691 | ||
| Further Reading | 4691 | ||
| Psychoanalysis and Education | 4692 | ||
| Reconsidering Psychoanalysis | 4692 | ||
| Freud | 4692 | ||
| Lacan | 4693 | ||
| Implications for Education | 4694 | ||
| Bibliography | 4696 | ||
| Social and Cultural Capital in Education | 4697 | ||
| Glossary | 4697 | ||
| Social Capital | 4697 | ||
| Defining Social Capital | 4697 | ||
| Types of Social Capital | 4698 | ||
| Appeal of Social Capital | 4698 | ||
| Education and Social Capital | 4699 | ||
| Schools and Social Capital | 4699 | ||
| Formal Curriculum | 4699 | ||
| Informal Curriculum | 4699 | ||
| Issues in Social Capital | 4700 | ||
| Cultural Capital | 4700 | ||
| Types of Cultural Capital | 4700 | ||
| Cultural Capital and Education | 4701 | ||
| Issues in Cultural Capital | 4701 | ||
| Bibliography | 4701 | ||
| Further Reading | 4702 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4702 | ||
| The Aims of Education | 4703 | ||
| Introduction | 4703 | ||
| Knowledge for Knowledge's Sake | 4703 | ||
| Education and Preparation for Work | 4704 | ||
| Education for Well-Being | 4705 | ||
| Bibliography | 4707 | ||
| Further Reading | 4707 | ||
| The Analytical Tradition | 4708 | ||
| The Analytical Tradition in Philosophy | 4708 | ||
| Analytical Philosophy of Education | 4709 | ||
| Criticisms of Conceptual Analysis and of Analytical Philosophy of Education | 4711 | ||
| Recent Philosophy of Education | 4712 | ||
| Bibliography | 4713 | ||
| PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION – PHILOSOPHICAL THEMES | 4714 | ||
| Adult Learning: Philosophical Issues | 4714 | ||
| Experience and Andragogy | 4714 | ||
| Shaping Foundations | 4715 | ||
| Embracing Diversity | 4716 | ||
| Know-How at Work | 4716 | ||
| Livelihoods, Competencies, and the New Model Worker | 4717 | ||
| Knowing That, Knowing Howhellip, and Knowing Why | 4717 | ||
| Practices and Identities | 4718 | ||
| The Project of the Self: Always Work In Progress | 4718 | ||
| Bibliography | 4719 | ||
| Further Reading | 4719 | ||
| Autonomy | 4721 | ||
| The Concept of Autonomy | 4721 | ||
| Autonomy as an Educational Aim | 4721 | ||
| Some Reservations Regarding Rational Autonomy and its Place in Education | 4723 | ||
| In Defense of Rational Autonomy as an Educational Aim | 4724 | ||
| Bibliography | 4725 | ||
| Further Reading | 4726 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4726 | ||
| Bildung | 4727 | ||
| The History of Bildung | 4727 | ||
| Semantic Field | 4728 | ||
| The Anthropological Matrix | 4729 | ||
| The Present Use of the Concept | 4730 | ||
| Some Questions | 4731 | ||
| Bibliography | 4732 | ||
| Further Reading | 4732 | ||
| Critical Theory and Pedagogy | 4733 | ||
| Critical Theory and the Frankfurt School | 4733 | ||
| Critical Pedagogy | 4736 | ||
| Bibliography | 4739 | ||
| Further Reading | 4739 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4740 | ||
| Critical Thinking | 4741 | ||
| Critical Thinking: What Is It? | 4741 | ||
| Normativity | 4741 | ||
| Skills/Abilities and Dispositions | 4741 | ||
| The reason assessment component | 4742 | ||
| The critical spirit | 4742 | ||
| Critical Thinking as a Fundamental Educational Ideal | 4743 | ||
| Justification of the Ideal | 4743 | ||
| Criticisms of the Ideal | 4744 | ||
| Bibliography | 4745 | ||
| Further Reading | 4745 | ||
| Environmental Education | 4746 | ||
| Introduction | 4746 | ||
| General Issues Concerning the Aims of Environmental Education | 4746 | ||
| The Idea of the Environment | 4747 | ||
| Education for Sustainable Development | 4748 | ||
| Knowledge, Behavior, and Action | 4749 | ||
| The Social/Political Dimension | 4750 | ||
| Summary | 4750 | ||
| Bibliography | 4750 | ||
| Further Reading | 4751 | ||
| Identity | 4752 | ||
| Identity Defined | 4753 | ||
| Identity Formation | 4754 | ||
| Philosophical Trends | 4755 | ||
| Bibliography | 4757 | ||
| Further Reading | 4757 | ||
| Inclusion | 4758 | ||
| A Brief Conceptual History of Inclusive Education | 4758 | ||
| Segregation Versus Integration | 4758 | ||
| Inclusion Versus Integration | 4758 | ||
| Medical Versus Social Model of Disability | 4759 | ||
| Inclusion (Mainstream Provision) Versus Exclusion (Special Provision) | 4760 | ||
| Inclusion (Feeling Included) Versus Exclusion (Feeling Excluded) | 4760 | ||
| The Inclusion Debate: A Philosophical Perspective | 4761 | ||
| Bibliography | 4763 | ||
| Further Reading | 4763 | ||
| Justice and Care | 4764 | ||
| Glossary | 4764 | ||
| Introduction | 4764 | ||
| The Ethics of Justice | 4765 | ||
| Conceptions of Justice | 4765 | ||
| The Argument for Justice as Fairness | 4765 | ||
| The Ethics of Care | 4766 | ||
| A Different Voice | 4766 | ||
| The Particularity of Caring | 4766 | ||
| A Conflict? | 4767 | ||
| A Possible Synthesis: Extending the Boundaries and Justifications of Care | 4768 | ||
| Educational Applications | 4768 | ||
| Bibliography | 4769 | ||
| Further Reading | 4769 | ||
| Lifelong Learning | 4770 | ||
| Policies for Lifelong Learning | 4770 | ||
| MacIntyre's Educated Public | 4771 | ||
| Habermas | 4772 | ||
| A Panopticon Society | 4772 | ||
| Theories of Learning | 4773 | ||
| Bibliography | 4774 | ||
| Further Reading | 4774 | ||
| Post-Structuralism and Education | 4775 | ||
| Structuralism, Post-Structuralism, and Postmodernism | 4775 | ||
| Post-Structuralism, Critical Theory, and Reason | 4776 | ||
| Post-Structuralism and Language, Knowledge, and Truth | 4776 | ||
| Post-Structuralism and Power | 4777 | ||
| Post-Structuralism and Subjectivity | 4777 | ||
| Post-Structuralism and Critique | 4777 | ||
| Critical Challenges | 4778 | ||
| Post-Structuralism and Critical Pedagogy | 4778 | ||
| Conclusion | 4780 | ||
| Bibliography | 4781 | ||
| Further Reading | 4782 | ||
| Reason and Rationality | 4783 | ||
| Introduction | 4783 | ||
| Some Central Issues | 4783 | ||
| Educational Consequences and Effects | 4786 | ||
| Bibliography | 4788 | ||
| Further Reading | 4788 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4788 | ||
| Religious and Spiritual Education | 4789 | ||
| Religious Education - Contested Concept and Competing Expectations | 4789 | ||
| Models of Religious Education | 4790 | ||
| Confessional Approach | 4790 | ||
| The Phenomenological Approach to Religious Education | 4791 | ||
| The Interpretive Approach to Religious Education | 4791 | ||
| Key Issues for Religious Education in the Twenty-First Century | 4792 | ||
| Concluding Comments | 4793 | ||
| Bibliography | 4793 | ||
| Further Reading | 4793 | ||
| The Capabilities Approach | 4794 | ||
| Glossary | 4794 | ||
| Normative Insights | 4794 | ||
| Sen's Capability Approach | 4794 | ||
| Martha Nussbaum's Capabilities Approach | 4795 | ||
| The Capabilities Approach and Education | 4796 | ||
| The Value and Functions of Education | 4797 | ||
| The Capabilities Approach and Justice in Education | 4797 | ||
| Pedagogy and Curriculum | 4798 | ||
| Summary | 4798 | ||
| Bibliography | 4798 | ||
| Further Reading | 4798 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4799 | ||
| PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION – LEARNING AND TEACHING IN SCHOOL AGE EDUCATION | 4800 | ||
| Class Size - Arguments and Evidence | 4800 | ||
| Introduction | 4800 | ||
| Class Size and Educational Performance | 4800 | ||
| Correlational Designs | 4801 | ||
| Student Achievement Guarantee in Education | 4801 | ||
| California | 4801 | ||
| Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio | 4801 | ||
| Class Size and Pupil-Adult Ratio | 4801 | ||
| Some issues connected to class-size effects on attainment | 4802 | ||
| Overall class sizes | 4802 | ||
| Age of student | 4802 | ||
| Other characteristics of students | 4802 | ||
| Threshold effects? | 4802 | ||
| Alternatives to CSR | 4802 | ||
| School and cultural effects | 4802 | ||
| Effects of Class Size in Relation to Classroom Processes | 4803 | ||
| Teacher's Individual Attention to Pupils | 4803 | ||
| Easier Classroom Control and Management | 4803 | ||
| Less Teacher Stress and Better Morale | 4803 | ||
| Better Relationships with and Knowledge of Pupils | 4803 | ||
| Active Involvement with Teacher | 4803 | ||
| Pupil Attentiveness/On-Task Behavior | 4803 | ||
| Peer Relations | 4804 | ||
| Size and Number of within-Class Groups | 4804 | ||
| Curriculum Effects | 4804 | ||
| Implications for Practice | 4804 | ||
| Bibliography | 4805 | ||
| Further Reading | 4806 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4806 | ||
| Continuing Professional Development of Teachers | 4807 | ||
| What is CPD? | 4807 | ||
| An Entitlement to CPD | 4809 | ||
| What is Effective CPD? | 4809 | ||
| The Impact of Teachers' CPD | 4811 | ||
| Conclusion | 4812 | ||
| Bibliography | 4812 | ||
| Further Reading | 4813 | ||
| Homeschooling | 4814 | ||
| An Introduction to Homeschooling | 4814 | ||
| Why Do People Choose to Homeschool? | 4814 | ||
| Policy Context and Issues | 4814 | ||
| Approaches to Homeschooling | 4814 | ||
| Teaching and Learning in Homeschooling | 4817 | ||
| Teaching Children of Different Ages at the Same Time | 4817 | ||
| Addressing Each Child's Unique Way of Learning | 4817 | ||
| Encourage Independent Learning | 4818 | ||
| Engage the Children to Help Each Other | 4818 | ||
| Research about Homeschooling | 4818 | ||
| Summary | 4819 | ||
| Bibliography | 4819 | ||
| Further Reading | 4819 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4820 | ||
| Innovations and Early Intervention in the Teaching of Literacy | 4821 | ||
| Beginning-Reading Programs | 4821 | ||
| Beginning Reading: Curricula | 4821 | ||
| Beginning Reading: Technology | 4822 | ||
| Beginning Reading: Instructional-Process Approaches | 4822 | ||
| Beginning Reading: Combined Curriculum and Instructional Process Approaches | 4822 | ||
| Kindergarten-Only Studies | 4823 | ||
| Conclusions: Beginning-Reading Studies | 4823 | ||
| Cost Effectiveness | 4823 | ||
| Beyond the Basics: Programs for the Upper-Elementary Grades | 4823 | ||
| Upper-Elementary Reading: Curricula | 4823 | ||
| Upper-Elementary Reading: CAI | 4824 | ||
| Upper-Elementary Reading: Instructional- Process Programs | 4824 | ||
| Upper-Elementary Reading: Combined Curriculum and Instructional-Process Programs | 4825 | ||
| Programs for Struggling Readers | 4825 | ||
| Conclusions | 4825 | ||
| Bibliography | 4825 | ||
| Personalized Learning in School Age Education | 4827 | ||
| What Is Personalized Learning? | 4827 | ||
| Toward the Personalized Curriculum | 4829 | ||
| Meta-Cognition and Learning How to Learn | 4830 | ||
| Coda - Moving Personalized Learning to Scale | 4831 | ||
| Bibliography | 4832 | ||
| Perspectives on Schooling in the Middle Years | 4833 | ||
| Introduction: Betwixt and Between | 4833 | ||
| Increasing Interest in the Middle Years | 4833 | ||
| Reduced Progress During the Middle Years | 4833 | ||
| Declining Engagement During the Middle Years | 4833 | ||
| Adolescence | 4834 | ||
| Deeper Understanding of Learning Processes | 4834 | ||
| Changing Contexts and the Goals of Learning | 4834 | ||
| Approaches to Schooling in the Middle Years | 4834 | ||
| Middle School Structures | 4835 | ||
| Middle Schooling as Practice | 4835 | ||
| High-Quality Middle Schooling | 4836 | ||
| The Evidence Base | 4838 | ||
| Extent of Implementation | 4838 | ||
| Effectiveness | 4839 | ||
| Concluding Comments | 4839 | ||
| Bibliography | 4840 | ||
| Further Reading | 4840 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4841 | ||
| Reform of the School Workforce | 4842 | ||
| Introduction | 4842 | ||
| England: A Study in Rapid Reform | 4842 | ||
| Remodelling the School Workforce | 4842 | ||
| Performance Leadership | 4843 | ||
| Explanations for Workforce Reform | 4844 | ||
| Functional Position | 4844 | ||
| Socially Critical | 4845 | ||
| Summary | 4846 | ||
| Bibliography | 4846 | ||
| Further Reading | 4848 | ||
| Secondary Education in Developing Countries | 4849 | ||
| Glossary | 4849 | ||
| Education in the Developing Countries - A Changing Scene | 4849 | ||
| A Broader Concept of EFA | 4850 | ||
| Issues in Secondary Education | 4852 | ||
| Access and Expansion | 4852 | ||
| Content and Context | 4853 | ||
| Delivery and Relevance | 4853 | ||
| Where to Go? | 4853 | ||
| Bibliography | 4854 | ||
| Further Reading | 4854 | ||
| PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION – SOCIAL JUSTICE ISSUES IN SCHOOL AGE EDUCATION | 4855 | ||
| Community Focused Schools | 4855 | ||
| Introduction | 4855 | ||
| What Do Community-Focused Schools Do? | 4856 | ||
| Rationales | 4856 | ||
| Evidence of Impact | 4858 | ||
| Beyond the Community-Focused School | 4859 | ||
| Bibliography | 4860 | ||
| Further Reading | 4860 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4860 | ||
| PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION – THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS | 4861 | ||
| Reforming the American School System | 4861 | ||
| Introduction | 4861 | ||
| Section 1: The Past | 4861 | ||
| Section 2: The Present | 4863 | ||
| Section 3: The Future | 4865 | ||
| Conclusion | 4867 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 4867 | ||
| Further Reading | 4867 | ||
| School Effectiveness in Developed Societies | 4869 | ||
| The History of School Effectiveness | 4869 | ||
| The Methodology of SE | 4870 | ||
| Key Findings of SE | 4870 | ||
| The Process of Effective Schooling | 4871 | ||
| From SE to SI | 4872 | ||
| Contemporary Developments in SE | 4872 | ||
| Conclusions and Future Research/Practice Needs | 4873 | ||
| Bibliography | 4873 | ||
| Further Reading | 4873 | ||
| School to School Collaboration: Innovation and Improvement | 4874 | ||
| A Recent History of School Collaboration in England | 4874 | ||
| Leading Edge | 4875 | ||
| Collaborative Advantage | 4876 | ||
| Transferring Knowledge and Innovating Collaboratively | 4877 | ||
| Leading Innovation Partnerships | 4878 | ||
| Building Capacity | 4878 | ||
| New Models of Leadership | 4879 | ||
| Lateral Accountability | 4879 | ||
| Partnership Ethos | 4879 | ||
| Conclusion: Collaboration and Improvement | 4880 | ||
| Bibliography | 4880 | ||
| Further Reading | 4880 | ||
| Relevant websites | 4880 | ||
| Studies of School Improvement in Developing Countries | 4881 | ||
| Basic Resource-Capacity Building | 4881 | ||
| Adoption and Implementation of Changes in Curriculum and Instruction | 4881 | ||
| Changing the Support System for Innovation | 4882 | ||
| Decentralization and SBM | 4884 | ||
| School Choice and Privatization | 4885 | ||
| Comprehensive School Reform | 4886 | ||
| Conclusion | 4886 | ||
| Bibliography | 4887 | ||
| Further Reading | 4887 | ||
| Relevant Website | 4888 | ||
| Sustainable Educational Reform | 4889 | ||
| Education for Sustainable Development | 4889 | ||
| Three Ages of Unsustainability | 4890 | ||
| A Fourth Age of Sustainability | 4891 | ||
| Sustainable Reform in Practice | 4892 | ||
| Conclusion | 4893 | ||
| Bibliography | 4894 | ||
| Further Reading | 4894 | ||
| The Role of the District in Tri Level Reform | 4895 | ||
| The Role of the District | 4895 | ||
| Getting Somewhere | 4895 | ||
| Not So Fast | 4896 | ||
| What's Next? | 4898 | ||
| The District and the State | 4901 | ||
| Bibliography | 4902 | ||
| Further Reading | 4902 | ||
| Relevant Website | 4902 | ||
| Whole School Designs for Enhancing Student Achievement | 4903 | ||
| Introduction | 4903 | ||
| The United States as Context | 4903 | ||
| Large-Scale School Improvement Studies in the United States | 4903 | ||
| Findings from Large-Scale School Improvement Efforts | 4905 | ||
| Sustainability and Fidelity/Reliability | 4906 | ||
| Implications for Practice | 4907 | ||
| Implications for Research | 4908 | ||
| Summary | 4908 | ||
| Bibliography | 4908 | ||
| Further Reading | 4908 | ||
| Relevant Website | 4909 | ||
| Q | 4911 | ||
| QUALITATIVE RESEARCH | 4911 | ||
| Action Research in Education | 4911 | ||
| Glossary | 4911 | ||
| Introduction: Situating Action Research | 4912 | ||
| The History of Action Research in Education | 4912 | ||
| Defining Action Research | 4913 | ||
| Orientations to Action Research | 4913 | ||
| Applications of Action Research in Educational Settings | 4915 | ||
| Representation in Educational Action Research: Theater, the Arts, and Media | 4915 | ||
| Website Resources | 4916 | ||
| Action Research in Higher Education | 4917 | ||
| International Educational Action Research | 4917 | ||
| Conclusion | 4917 | ||
| Bibliography | 4917 | ||
| Further Reading | 4919 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4919 | ||
| Classroom Ethnography | 4920 | ||
| Introduction | 4920 | ||
| Origins of General Ethnography | 4920 | ||
| Classroom Ethnography | 4921 | ||
| Conclusion | 4923 | ||
| Bibliography | 4924 | ||
| Further Reading | 4925 | ||
| Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis | 4926 | ||
| Glossary | 4926 | ||
| Introduction | 4926 | ||
| Qualitative Tasks Supported by CAQDAS Packages | 4926 | ||
| Project Planning and Working in a Team | 4927 | ||
| Integrating and Incorporating Data | 4928 | ||
| Incorporating and Referencing Data | 4928 | ||
| Multimedia Data | 4929 | ||
| Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses | 4929 | ||
| Exploring Data | 4930 | ||
| Word Frequency Tools | 4930 | ||
| Text Search Tools | 4930 | ||
| Annotation Tools | 4930 | ||
| Organizing Data | 4931 | ||
| Grouping and Filtering Data | 4931 | ||
| Interpretive Coding | 4931 | ||
| Linking Data | 4932 | ||
| Managing Interpretive Work | 4932 | ||
| Writing | 4932 | ||
| Making Connections | 4932 | ||
| Interrogating Data | 4932 | ||
| Retrieving Data | 4933 | ||
| Identifying Patterns and Relationships | 4933 | ||
| Comparing Subsets | 4933 | ||
| Conclusion | 4933 | ||
| Bibliography | 4934 | ||
| Further Reading | 4934 | ||
| Conversational Analysis | 4935 | ||
| Bibliography | 4935 | ||
| Further Reading | 4936 | ||
| Critical Ethnography | 4937 | ||
| Glossary | 4937 | ||
| Introduction | 4937 | ||
| Conclusion | 4939 | ||
| Bibliography | 4940 | ||
| Critical Race Theory | 4941 | ||
| Glossary | 4941 | ||
| The Origins and Development of Critical Race Theory | 4941 | ||
| Tenets of CRT | 4942 | ||
| The Centrality of Racism | 4943 | ||
| A Critique of Liberalism | 4943 | ||
| The Call to Context (Experiential Knowledge and Storytelling) | 4943 | ||
| A Revisionist Critique of Civil Rights Progress (the Interest Convergence Principle) | 4943 | ||
| Myths and Misunderstandings | 4944 | ||
| Continuing Debates and Unresolved Issues | 4945 | ||
| Summary | 4946 | ||
| Bibliography | 4946 | ||
| Further Reading | 4947 | ||
| Critical Theory | 4948 | ||
| Glossary | 4948 | ||
| Critical Theory: An Overview | 4948 | ||
| A Brief History of Critical Theory and the Frankfurt School | 4948 | ||
| Classical Philosophers | 4949 | ||
| Kant, Hegel, Marx, and Modern Foundations of Critical Philosophy | 4949 | ||
| The Frankfurt School | 4949 | ||
| Global Critical Philosophies | 4951 | ||
| Critical Theory in Education | 4952 | ||
| Bibliography | 4952 | ||
| Further Reading | 4953 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4953 | ||
| Cultural Studies | 4954 | ||
| Glossary | 4954 | ||
| Framing Schools | 4955 | ||
| Framing Youth | 4956 | ||
| Relationship to Social and Political Change | 4958 | ||
| Conclusion | 4958 | ||
| Bibliography | 4959 | ||
| Further Reading | 4959 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 4959 | ||
| Cultural-Historical Activity Theory | 4960 | ||
| The Theoretical Framework | 4960 | ||
| CHAT Approaches to Learning and Development | 4961 | ||
| Learning | 4961 | ||
| Development | 4961 | ||
| The Relationship of Learning to Development | 4961 | ||
| Examples of CHAT Research | 4962 | ||
| Example 1: Puzzles | 4962 | ||
| Example 2: Gazzinta and the process of long division | 4962 | ||
| Example 3: Remediating reading difficulties | 4963 | ||
| Example 4: Developmental changes in learning to weave | 4963 | ||
| Discussion | 4964 | ||
| Conclusion | 4966 | ||
| Bibliography | 4966 | ||
| Further Reading | 4966 | ||
| Design Experiments | 4967 | ||
| Glossary | 4967 | ||
| Methodology of Design Research | 4968 | ||
| Implementing a Design | 4968 | ||
| Modifying Designs | 4968 | ||
| Multiple Ways of Looking | 4969 | ||
| Characterizing Dependent Variables | 4969 | ||
| Characterizing Independent Variables | 4970 | ||
| Reporting on Design Research | 4970 | ||
| Implications for Summative Evaluation | 4971 | ||
| Conclusion | 4971 | ||
| Bibliography | 4972 | ||
| Further Reading | 4972 | ||
| Discourse Analysis | 4973 | ||
| Glossary | 4973 | ||
| Discourse Analysis and Education | 4974 | ||
| The Linguistic and Ethnographic Analyses of Verbal Communication | 4974 | ||
| The Discursive Production of Memberships, Identities, and Differences | 4976 | ||
| Discourse Analysis and Pedagogical Applications | 4976 | ||
| Future Challenges of Discursive Research in Education | 4977 | ||
| Bibliography | 4978 | ||
| Further Reading | 4979 | ||
| Document Analysis | 4980 | ||
| Introduction | 4980 | ||
| Approaches to Analyzing Documents | 4980 | ||
| Meta-Synthesis: Documents and Creating Evidence | 4981 | ||
| Discourse Analysis: Documents Create Realities | 4982 | ||
| Ethnography: Documents, Interactions, and Organizations | 4983 | ||
| Ethnomethodological Ethnography: Documents-in-Interactions | 4984 | ||
| Conclusion | 4984 | ||
| Bibliography | 4985 | ||
| Further Reading | 4985 | ||
| Ethnography | 4986 | ||
| The Meaning of Ethnography | 4986 | ||
| Ethnography as a Distinctive Methodological Orientation | 4987 | ||
| Tensions Within Ethnography | 4988 | ||
| Some Further Developments | 4989 | ||
| Biblography | 4990 | ||
| Further Reading | 4991 | ||
| Ethnomethodology in Education Research | 4992 | ||
| Glossary | 4992 | ||
| Introduction | 4992 | ||
| The Mid-Century | 4993 | ||
| Conversation Analysis | 4994 | ||
| Invisible Colleges and the College of Education | 4995 | ||
| The Local Study of Situated Action | 4996 | ||
| Classroom Studies | 4997 | ||
| Conclusion | 4998 | ||
| Bibliography | 4999 | ||
| Further Reading | 4999 | ||
| Focus Groups | 5001 | ||
| Uses for Focus Groups | 5002 | ||
| Research Design for Focus Groups | 5002 | ||
| Selecting Research Participants | 5003 | ||
| Writing Interview Questions | 5003 | ||
| Moderating Focus Groups | 5004 | ||
| Analysis | 5005 | ||
| Conclusions | 5005 | ||
| Bibliography | 5005 | ||
| Grounded Theory | 5006 | ||
| Glossary | 5006 | ||
| History and Development of Grounded Theory | 5006 | ||
| Comparing Constructivist and Positivist Grounded Theory | 5008 | ||
| Grounded Theory Strategies and Educational Research | 5009 | ||
| Future Directions | 5011 | ||
| Bibliography | 5011 | ||
| Further Reading | 5011 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5012 | ||
| Hermeneutics | 5013 | ||
| Ancient and Medieval Background to Hermeneutical Inquiry | 5013 | ||
| Humanism and The Introduction of History into Hermeneutics | 5013 | ||
| The Romantic Tradition: The Precursor to Modern Hermeneutics | 5014 | ||
| The Romantic Emergence of Modern Hermeneutics | 5014 | ||
| The Twentieth-Century Ontological Turn in Hermeneutics | 5015 | ||
| Phenomenological Hermeneutics and the Semiotic Turn | 5017 | ||
| Further Reading | 5018 | ||
| Interpretive Research | 5019 | ||
| Glossary | 5019 | ||
| Introduction | 5019 | ||
| The Matter of Interpretation | 5019 | ||
| The Signpost Group | 5020 | ||
| The Big Tent Group | 5021 | ||
| The Hybrid Identities Group | 5022 | ||
| Conclusion | 5023 | ||
| Bibliography | 5023 | ||
| Interviews and Interviewing | 5024 | ||
| Glossary | 5024 | ||
| Conceptualizing the Interview | 5024 | ||
| Structured Interview: Extraction | 5025 | ||
| Unstructured Interview: Interaction | 5025 | ||
| Range of Qualitative Interviews | 5026 | ||
| In-Depth Interviews: Manifesting the Inner Self | 5026 | ||
| Ethnographic Interviews: Recording Life in Context | 5027 | ||
| Focus Group Interviews: Encouraging Group Interaction | 5027 | ||
| Respondent Characteristics | 5027 | ||
| Other Considerations | 5028 | ||
| Bibliography | 5028 | ||
| Further Reading | 5029 | ||
| Life History | 5030 | ||
| Glossary | 5030 | ||
| Unique Contributions | 5030 | ||
| History of Life-History Research | 5031 | ||
| Relationships with Other Qualitative Approaches | 5031 | ||
| Data Collection and Analysis | 5032 | ||
| Issues in Life-History Research | 5033 | ||
| Summary | 5034 | ||
| Bibliography | 5034 | ||
| Further Reading | 5035 | ||
| Relevant Website | 5035 | ||
| Narrative Inquiry | 5036 | ||
| Emergence of Narrative Inquiry on the Research Landscape | 5036 | ||
| Terms and Definitions | 5036 | ||
| Commonplaces of Narrative Inquiry | 5036 | ||
| Temporality | 5036 | ||
| Sociality | 5036 | ||
| Place | 5036 | ||
| Possible Starting Places for Narrative Inquiries | 5037 | ||
| Beginning with telling stories | 5037 | ||
| Beginning with living stories | 5037 | ||
| Autobiographical Narrative Inquiry | 5037 | ||
| Research Design Considerations | 5037 | ||
| Justification | 5038 | ||
| Personal justification | 5038 | ||
| Practical justification | 5038 | ||
| Social justification | 5038 | ||
| Naming the Phenomenon | 5038 | ||
| Thinking narratively about the phenomenon throughout the inquiry | 5038 | ||
| Framing a research puzzle | 5038 | ||
| Living the Narrative Inquiry | 5038 | ||
| From field to field texts | 5038 | ||
| From field texts to interim research texts | 5039 | ||
| From interim research texts to research texts | 5039 | ||
| Positioning | 5039 | ||
| In relation to other research | 5039 | ||
| In relation to research undertaken from differing epistemological and ontological assumptions | 5040 | ||
| Ethical Considerations | 5040 | ||
| Issues in Representation | 5040 | ||
| Change Dimension in Narrative Research | 5040 | ||
| Living, Telling, Retelling, and Reliving Stories | 5040 | ||
| Bibliography | 5041 | ||
| Further Reading | 5041 | ||
| Relevant Website | 5041 | ||
| Participant Observation | 5042 | ||
| Glossary | 5042 | ||
| Joining | 5043 | ||
| Ethics, Dramatis Personae, Locations, and Scenes of Action | 5044 | ||
| The Familiar and the Strange | 5045 | ||
| Fieldwork as a Basis for Validity, Generalization, Reliability, and Objectivity | 5046 | ||
| The Significance of Participant Observation | 5047 | ||
| Bibliography | 5047 | ||
| Further Reading | 5048 | ||
| Relevant Website | 5048 | ||
| Phenomenology | 5049 | ||
| Phenomenological Traditions | 5050 | ||
| Phenomenology as a Human Science | 5051 | ||
| The Method of the Reduction | 5052 | ||
| Human Science: Empirical and Reflective Methods and Procedures | 5053 | ||
| Bibliography | 5054 | ||
| Further Reading | 5054 | ||
| Qualitative Case Studies | 5056 | ||
| Definition and Characteristics | 5056 | ||
| The Qualitative Case Study | 5056 | ||
| Types of Case Studies | 5057 | ||
| Design and Implementation of a Qualitative Case Study | 5058 | ||
| Case Selection | 5058 | ||
| Data Collection and Analysis | 5059 | ||
| Writing Up the Case | 5060 | ||
| Generalizing from Qualitative Case Studies | 5061 | ||
| Summary | 5061 | ||
| Bibliography | 5062 | ||
| Further Reading | 5062 | ||
| Qualitative Data Management | 5063 | ||
| Glossary | 5063 | ||
| Philosophical Issues | 5063 | ||
| Research Styles | 5063 | ||
| Researcher Characteristic and Beliefs | 5063 | ||
| Researcher Position | 5063 | ||
| The Reader | 5064 | ||
| Managing Data during Collection | 5064 | ||
| Managing Interview Data | 5064 | ||
| Managing Focus Group Data | 5064 | ||
| Managing Observational Data | 5064 | ||
| Managing Textual Data | 5064 | ||
| Preliminary Data Analysis | 5064 | ||
| Examples of preliminary data analysis | 5065 | ||
| Face Sheets | 5065 | ||
| Data Summaries and Early Theory Generation | 5066 | ||
| Managing Data after Collection | 5068 | ||
| Thematic Analysis | 5068 | ||
| The Block-and-File Approach (Intact Data) | 5069 | ||
| Block- and File-Approach (Data Fragmentation) | 5069 | ||
| Conceptual Mapping | 5070 | ||
| Coding | 5070 | ||
| Example | 5071 | ||
| Data Management Using Computer Programs | 5071 | ||
| Brief History | 5071 | ||
| Systematization | 5071 | ||
| Theory Generation | 5072 | ||
| Content Analysis | 5072 | ||
| Management by Computing Packages: Some Concerns | 5072 | ||
| Processes of interpretation | 5073 | ||
| Theoretical underpinnings | 5073 | ||
| Program structures | 5073 | ||
| De-contextualization | 5073 | ||
| Database size | 5073 | ||
| Data quantification | 5073 | ||
| Theory Generation Using Qualitative Data | 5074 | ||
| Conclusion | 5074 | ||
| Bibliography | 5074 | ||
| Further Reading | 5074 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5074 | ||
| Semiotics | 5075 | ||
| Glossary | 5075 | ||
| Classifying Signs | 5075 | ||
| Signs and Meaning | 5076 | ||
| Structure | 5076 | ||
| Post-Structuralism | 5078 | ||
| Concluding Remarks | 5079 | ||
| Bibliography | 5079 | ||
| Further Reading | 5080 | ||
| Symbolic Interactionism, Naturalistic Inquiry, and Education | 5081 | ||
| Glossary | 5081 | ||
| Symbolic Interactionism | 5081 | ||
| History | 5081 | ||
| Assumptions | 5081 | ||
| Concepts | 5082 | ||
| Scholarly Association | 5083 | ||
| Exemplary Models | 5083 | ||
| George Herbert Mead | 5083 | ||
| Howard Becker | 5084 | ||
| Peter Woods | 5084 | ||
| Naturalistic Inquiry and Educational Research | 5085 | ||
| SI, Naturalistic Inquiry, and Qualitative Methods: Conclusion | 5086 | ||
| Bibliography | 5086 | ||
| Further Reading | 5087 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5087 | ||
| The Quality of Evidence in Qualitative Research | 5088 | ||
| What Is Evidence? | 5089 | ||
| Contexts | 5089 | ||
| Characteristics of Qualitative Research | 5089 | ||
| From the Traditional to the Postpositivist | 5091 | ||
| Evidence and the Field | 5094 | ||
| Evidence and Social Location | 5094 | ||
| The Question of Distance | 5095 | ||
| Conclusion | 5096 | ||
| Bibliography | 5096 | ||
| Further Reading | 5097 | ||
| Visual Data in Education Research | 5098 | ||
| Glossary | 5098 | ||
| The Visual Heritage of Education Research | 5099 | ||
| Field Studies, Experiments and Interviews | 5099 | ||
| Microethnographies of Classroom and Language Use | 5100 | ||
| Digital Media and Visual Studies | 5100 | ||
| Research Contributions and Study Formats | 5101 | ||
| Diverse Phenomena and Varied Purposes | 5103 | ||
| Further Reading | 5103 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5104 | ||
| QUALITATIVE RESEARCH – STANDARDS OF PROOF | 5105 | ||
| Validity: Mapping Diverse Perspectives | 5105 | ||
| Glossary | 5105 | ||
| The Validity Question: Argument, Evidence, and Authorship | 5106 | ||
| Historical Perspectives | 5106 | ||
| Postpositivist Perspectives: Keeping the Faith | 5107 | ||
| Realist Postpositivism | 5108 | ||
| Social Constructivism | 5108 | ||
| Connoisseurship and Critique | 5109 | ||
| Relational and Ethics Probity | 5109 | ||
| Postmodern Turns and Poststructural Interrogations: Deconstructing, Disentangling, and Reconsidering Validity | 5110 | ||
| Final Words | 5112 | ||
| Bibliography | 5112 | ||
| Further Reading | 5113 | ||
| QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH – INTEGRATION | 5114 | ||
| Mixed Methods | 5114 | ||
| Glossary | 5114 | ||
| Purposes and Utility of Mixed-Methods Research | 5115 | ||
| Research Questions in Mixed-Methods Research | 5115 | ||
| Design of Mixed-Methods Studies | 5116 | ||
| Data-Collection Strategies in Mixed- Methods Research | 5118 | ||
| Data-Analysis Strategies in Mixed- Methods Research | 5118 | ||
| Integrated Inferences in Mixed-Methods Studies | 5118 | ||
| Transferability of Inferences in Mixed- Methods Studies | 5119 | ||
| Conclusions | 5119 | ||
| Bibliography | 5119 | ||
| Further Head | 5120 | ||
| QUANTITATIVE METHODS AND RESEARCH DESIGN | 5121 | ||
| External Validity | 5121 | ||
| Glossary | 5121 | ||
| Introduction | 5121 | ||
| What We Generalize About | 5122 | ||
| The Three Main Questions of External Validity | 5122 | ||
| Traditional Approaches to Justifying Generalized Inferences and Their Challenges | 5122 | ||
| Causal Explanation | 5122 | ||
| Statistical Sampling Theory | 5122 | ||
| Purposive Sampling | 5123 | ||
| Analog Models | 5123 | ||
| Technology Transfer Models | 5123 | ||
| Meta-Analysis | 5124 | ||
| Five Pragmatic Principles for Justifying Generalized Causal Inferences | 5124 | ||
| The Principle of Proximal Similarity | 5124 | ||
| The Principle of Heterogeneous Irrelevancies | 5124 | ||
| The Principle of Discriminant Validity | 5125 | ||
| The Principle of Empirical Interpolation and Extrapolation | 5125 | ||
| The Principle of Causal Explanation | 5125 | ||
| Outlook | 5125 | ||
| Bibliography | 5126 | ||
| Further Reading | 5127 | ||
| R | 5129 | ||
| ROLE OF NGOS IN GLOBALIZATION | 5129 | ||
| NGOs and Globalization of Education | 5129 | ||
| Globalization and Education | 5129 | ||
| A Global Perspective on Education | 5129 | ||
| Changing Educational Paradigm in the Context of Globalization | 5131 | ||
| Commodification of Education | 5131 | ||
| NGOs and Globalization | 5132 | ||
| NGO Response to Globalized Education - Two Examples | 5133 | ||
| Building Resources Across Countries | 5133 | ||
| The Global Campaign for Education | 5133 | ||
| Global action week | 5133 | ||
| Year-round campaign | 5133 | ||
| EFA class of 2015 | 5133 | ||
| Global advocacy | 5134 | ||
| Recent Developments | 5134 | ||
| Bibliography | 5134 | ||
| Further Reading | 5134 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5135 | ||
| S | 5137 | ||
| SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL ASPECTS OF LEARNING | 5137 | ||
| Achievement Goal Theory: Definitions, Correlates, and Unresolved Questions | 5137 | ||
| Roots of Achievement Goal Theory | 5138 | ||
| Correlates of Achievement Goals | 5138 | ||
| Classroom Goal Structures | 5139 | ||
| Remaining Questions about Achievement Goals | 5140 | ||
| Conclusion | 5142 | ||
| Bibliography | 5142 | ||
| Further Reading | 5143 | ||
| Affect, Mood and Emotions | 5144 | ||
| Definitional Issues | 5144 | ||
| Components of Affect | 5144 | ||
| Functional Aspects of Affect | 5144 | ||
| Embodied Aspects of Affect | 5146 | ||
| Cognitive Aspects of Affect | 5147 | ||
| Summary | 5147 | ||
| Bibliography | 5148 | ||
| Further Reading | 5148 | ||
| Anxiety | 5149 | ||
| Glossary | 5149 | ||
| Overview | 5149 | ||
| Conceptualizations | 5150 | ||
| Evaluative Anxiety | 5150 | ||
| Test Anxiety | 5150 | ||
| Math and Computer Anxieties | 5151 | ||
| Measurement and Assessment | 5152 | ||
| Subjective Self-Report Measures | 5152 | ||
| Anxiety and Cognitive Performance | 5153 | ||
| Interventions | 5154 | ||
| Summary and Conclusions | 5154 | ||
| Bibliography | 5157 | ||
| Further Reading | 5157 | ||
| Attribution Theory | 5158 | ||
| The Perceived Causes of Success and Failure | 5158 | ||
| Causal Properties | 5159 | ||
| Causal Antecedents | 5159 | ||
| Biases in Causal Reasoning | 5159 | ||
| Teacher Communications | 5160 | ||
| Impression Management Techniques | 5160 | ||
| Causal Consequences | 5160 | ||
| Expectancy of Success | 5161 | ||
| Emotions | 5161 | ||
| Behavior | 5161 | ||
| Some Concluding Comments | 5162 | ||
| Bibliography | 5162 | ||
| Children's Friendship | 5164 | ||
| Measuring Friendship in School and Distinguishing Friendship from Peer Acceptance | 5164 | ||
| The Effects of Friendship on School Adjustment | 5165 | ||
| The Social Tasks of Friendship | 5166 | ||
| Forming Friendships | 5166 | ||
| Managing Conflict and Responding to Friendship Transgressions | 5167 | ||
| Providing Help and Reliable Alliance | 5167 | ||
| Self-Disclosure | 5168 | ||
| Interventions to Promote Friendships | 5168 | ||
| Bibliography | 5168 | ||
| Further Reading | 5169 | ||
| Coping with Stressful Situations: An Important Aspect of Self- Regulation | 5170 | ||
| What Does Coping with Problematic Situations Entail? | 5170 | ||
| Appraising a Problematic Situation | 5171 | ||
| Selecting a Coping Strategy | 5171 | ||
| Bridging the Gap between New Stressors and One's Coping Repertoire | 5171 | ||
| Coping and Volition: Two Essential Aspects of Self-Regulation | 5172 | ||
| Regulating Emotional Arousal | 5173 | ||
| Volitional Strategies: Finding a Solution That Produces a Sense of Mastery | 5173 | ||
| How Can We Help Students Cope with Stressful Situations in the Classroom? | 5174 | ||
| Stress Interventions Coach Students' Coping Attempts | 5174 | ||
| Bibliography | 5174 | ||
| Culture in Motivation Research: A Challenging and Enriching Contribution | 5176 | ||
| Glossary | 5176 | ||
| Aim, Focus, and Structure | 5176 | ||
| Background and Historical Development of Culture-Based Research | 5176 | ||
| Motivational Constructs Investigated from a Cultural Perspective | 5177 | ||
| Achievement Motivation, Its Relationship to Effort and Ability | 5177 | ||
| Self-Determination Theory, and the Constructs of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation | 5178 | ||
| Attribution Theory, Self-Beliefs about Achievement and Motivation Orientation | 5179 | ||
| Goal Orientation, Social Diversity, and Educational Practices | 5179 | ||
| Agency and Self-Efficacy, Separating Culture and Context | 5180 | ||
| Cultural Research from Within | 5181 | ||
| Research Shortcomings and Future Directions | 5182 | ||
| Bibliography | 5182 | ||
| Further Reading | 5184 | ||
| Early Social Development and Schooling | 5185 | ||
| Glossary | 5185 | ||
| Introduction | 5185 | ||
| Historical Overview of Interest in Social Development | 5186 | ||
| Main Factors in Early Social Development and Schooling | 5186 | ||
| Joint Attention | 5186 | ||
| Peer Relationships | 5187 | ||
| Social Play | 5188 | ||
| Temperament | 5188 | ||
| Social Competence in School | 5189 | ||
| Conclusive Remarks | 5189 | ||
| Bibliography | 5190 | ||
| Further Reading | 5190 | ||
| Emotion in Educational Contexts | 5191 | ||
| Emotions in Educational Contexts | 5191 | ||
| What Are Emotions? | 5191 | ||
| Affective Tendency | 5191 | ||
| Core Affect | 5191 | ||
| Emotional Experience | 5191 | ||
| Appraisals and emotional experiences | 5191 | ||
| Social construction of emotional experiences | 5192 | ||
| Educational Research on Students' Emotional Experiences | 5192 | ||
| Students' Self-Regulation, Motivation, and Emotional Experiences | 5192 | ||
| Students' Learning, Achievement, and Emotional Experiences | 5193 | ||
| Educational Research on Teachers' Emotional Experiences | 5193 | ||
| Unpleasant Emotional Experiences | 5194 | ||
| Emotional Rules and Labor | 5194 | ||
| Where Do We Go from Here? | 5194 | ||
| Conclusions | 5195 | ||
| Bibliography | 5195 | ||
| Further Reading | 5196 | ||
| Empathy | 5197 | ||
| Glossary | 5197 | ||
| Introduction | 5197 | ||
| Historical Antecedents | 5198 | ||
| Empathy in Psychoanalytic Literature | 5198 | ||
| Empathy and Infancy | 5199 | ||
| Narratives and Empathy | 5200 | ||
| Empathic Intelligence | 5200 | ||
| Enthusiasm | 5201 | ||
| Engagement | 5201 | ||
| Expertise | 5201 | ||
| Intelligent Caring | 5201 | ||
| Empathy and Brain-Based Research | 5202 | ||
| Bibliography | 5203 | ||
| Flow in Education | 5205 | ||
| Glossary | 5205 | ||
| Brief Definition and History | 5205 | ||
| The Flow Model and Its Use in the Study of Education | 5205 | ||
| The Flow Experience | 5205 | ||
| The Flow Conditions | 5205 | ||
| The Paradox of Flow in Educational Contexts | 5207 | ||
| Putting Flow theory into Practice: The Key School | 5208 | ||
| Looking Back, Looking Ahead | 5209 | ||
| Bibliography | 5210 | ||
| Further Reading | 5210 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5211 | ||
| Interest | 5212 | ||
| Glossary | 5212 | ||
| The Character of Interest | 5212 | ||
| Interest as State | 5213 | ||
| Situational Interest | 5213 | ||
| Individual Interest | 5213 | ||
| Vocational Interests | 5214 | ||
| Development of Interest | 5214 | ||
| Interest and Related Motivational Concepts | 5215 | ||
| Measurement of Interest | 5216 | ||
| Educational Technologies and Interest | 5216 | ||
| The Next Decades of Interest Research | 5216 | ||
| Bibliography | 5217 | ||
| Further Reading | 5217 | ||
| Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation | 5218 | ||
| Intrinsic Motivation | 5218 | ||
| Extrinsic Motivation | 5219 | ||
| External Regulation | 5219 | ||
| Introjected Regulation | 5220 | ||
| Identified Regulation | 5220 | ||
| Integrated Regulation | 5220 | ||
| Process of Internalization | 5220 | ||
| Antecedents of the Development of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation | 5220 | ||
| Consequences of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation | 5221 | ||
| Interplay Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation | 5221 | ||
| Looking Ahead | 5222 | ||
| Bibliography | 5222 | ||
| Further Reading | 5223 | ||
| Relevant Website | 5223 | ||
| Motivating Students in Classrooms | 5224 | ||
| Introduction | 5224 | ||
| Motivation in Classrooms as Expectancy | 5224 | ||
| Challenges Facing Teachers in Motivating Students to Learn | 5224 | ||
| Expectancy Issues: Supporting Students' Confidence as Learners | 5225 | ||
| Curriculum: Program for Success | 5225 | ||
| Instruction: Teach Goal Setting, Performance Appraisal, and Self-Reinforcement | 5226 | ||
| Assessment: Emphasize Informative Feedback | 5226 | ||
| Value Issues: Helping Students See Learning Activities as Meaningful and Worthwhile | 5226 | ||
| Extrinsic Motivation Approaches | 5226 | ||
| Intrinsic Motivation Approaches | 5227 | ||
| Motivating Students to Learn | 5228 | ||
| Conclusion | 5228 | ||
| Bibliography | 5228 | ||
| Further Reading | 5230 | ||
| Motivation Regulation | 5231 | ||
| Introduction | 5231 | ||
| General Definition and Distinction from Motivation | 5231 | ||
| Theoretical Roots of Motivational Regulation | 5232 | ||
| Dimensions of Motivational Regulation | 5233 | ||
| Antecedents of Motivational Regulation | 5233 | ||
| Outcomes Associated with Motivational Regulation | 5234 | ||
| Conclusions | 5234 | ||
| Bibliography | 5235 | ||
| Further Reading | 5235 | ||
| e9780080448930v7 | 5339 | ||
| Front Cover | 5339 | ||
| International Encyclopedia of Education | 5340 | ||
| Copyright Page | 5343 | ||
| Preface | 5344 | ||
| Editors | 5346 | ||
| How to Use the Encyclopedia | 5348 | ||
| Contents | 5350 | ||
| VOLUME 7 | 5382 | ||
| S | 5382 | ||
| STATISTICS | 5382 | ||
| An Overview of Statistics in Education | 5383 | ||
| Introduction | 5383 | ||
| Exploratory Data Analysis | 5384 | ||
| SimplSummary Measures | 5384 | ||
| Measures of Association | 5384 | ||
| Probability Theory | 5385 | ||
| Statistical Inference | 5385 | ||
| Principal-Components Analysis | 5385 | ||
| Factor Analysis | 5385 | ||
| Structural-Equation Modeling | 5386 | ||
| Classification and Discriminant Analysis | 5386 | ||
| Cluster Analysis | 5386 | ||
| Multidimensional Scaling | 5386 | ||
| Categorical Data Analysis | 5386 | ||
| Analysis of Variance, Analysis of Covariance, and Multivariate Analysis of Variance | 5386 | ||
| Design of Experiments | 5387 | ||
| Observational Studies | 5387 | ||
| Causal Inference and Instrumental Variables | 5387 | ||
| Sampling | 5387 | ||
| Bayesian and Empirical Bayes Methods | 5388 | ||
| Resampling Methods | 5388 | ||
| Nonparametric Inference | 5388 | ||
| Multiple Linear Regression Models | 5388 | ||
| Hierarchical Linear Models and Growth Models | 5389 | ||
| Value-Added Models | 5389 | ||
| Generalized Linear Models and Generalized Linear Mixed Models | 5389 | ||
| Nonlinear Regression Methods | 5389 | ||
| IRT Models | 5390 | ||
| Latent Class Models | 5390 | ||
| Time-Series Analysis | 5390 | ||
| Model Fit and Model Selection | 5390 | ||
| Other Topics in Statistics | 5391 | ||
| Conclusions | 5391 | ||
| Bibliography | 5392 | ||
| Further Reading | 5392 | ||
| Relevant Website | 5392 | ||
| Analysis and Interpretation of Multivariate Data | 5393 | ||
| Glossary | 5393 | ||
| Introduction | 5393 | ||
| The Data Matrix | 5393 | ||
| The Correlation Matrix | 5394 | ||
| Types of Data | 5394 | ||
| Summarization and Inference | 5395 | ||
| Dependence and Interdependence | 5395 | ||
| Methods | 5395 | ||
| Cluster Analysis | 5395 | ||
| Multidimensional Scaling | 5396 | ||
| Principal Components Analysis | 5396 | ||
| Latent Variable Methods | 5396 | ||
| Classification of Latent Variable Models | 5396 | ||
| Regression Analysis | 5397 | ||
| Discriminant Analysis | 5397 | ||
| Path Analysis | 5397 | ||
| Correspondence Analysis | 5397 | ||
| Multilevel Modeling | 5397 | ||
| Structural Equations Modeling | 5397 | ||
| Bibliography | 5398 | ||
| Further Reading | 5398 | ||
| Analysis of Covariance | 5399 | ||
| Glossary | 5399 | ||
| Introduction and Essentials | 5399 | ||
| Further Details and Extensions | 5401 | ||
| Random or Fixed | 5401 | ||
| The Potential Outcomes Framework | 5401 | ||
| Multiway ANCOVA | 5402 | ||
| Other Generalizations of ANOVA | 5402 | ||
| Hypothesis Testing in ANCOVA | 5402 | ||
| Example | 5403 | ||
| Conclusion | 5405 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 5405 | ||
| Further Reading | 5405 | ||
| Analysis of Extreme Values in Education | 5406 | ||
| Goals of Extreme Value Theory | 5406 | ||
| The Extreme Value Modeling Approach | 5406 | ||
| The Basic Model | 5406 | ||
| The POT-GPD assumption | 5407 | ||
| Tail Estimation | 5407 | ||
| Pareto-Type Distributions | 5409 | ||
| Quantile Plotting | 5410 | ||
| Extensions | 5412 | ||
| A Literature Review | 5412 | ||
| Bibliography | 5412 | ||
| Further Reading | 5412 | ||
| Analysis of Variance | 5413 | ||
| Glossary | 5413 | ||
| The Logic of ANOVA | 5413 | ||
| Computation of F: An Example | 5414 | ||
| Interpreting a Significant F Value | 5415 | ||
| The Repeated-Measures Design | 5415 | ||
| Two-Way ANOVA | 5415 | ||
| Planned Comparisons | 5417 | ||
| Bibliography | 5417 | ||
| Further Reading | 5417 | ||
| Bayesian Statistical Analysis | 5418 | ||
| Introduction | 5418 | ||
| Bayesian Inference | 5418 | ||
| Exchangeability | 5419 | ||
| Exponential Family and Conjugate Priors | 5420 | ||
| Bayesian Statistical Methods | 5420 | ||
| Bayesian Decision-Making | 5420 | ||
| Parameter Estimation | 5421 | ||
| Estimation of the multinomial parameter | 5421 | ||
| Application | 5422 | ||
| Interval Estimation | 5423 | ||
| Hypothesis Testing | 5423 | ||
| Extensions | 5424 | ||
| Mixtures of Models and Model Selection | 5424 | ||
| Random Hyperparameters and Hierarchical Structures | 5424 | ||
| Bibliography | 5425 | ||
| Further Reading | 5425 | ||
| Bootstrap Method | 5427 | ||
| Glossary | 5427 | ||
| Introduction and the Idea | 5427 | ||
| The Theoretical Support | 5428 | ||
| Primary Applications of Bootstrap | 5428 | ||
| Approximating Standard Error of a Sample Estimate | 5428 | ||
| Bias Correction by Bootstrap | 5428 | ||
| Bootstrap Confidence Intervals | 5429 | ||
| Bootstrap percentile method | 5429 | ||
| Centered bootstrap percentile method | 5429 | ||
| Bootstrap-t methods | 5429 | ||
| Some Real Data Example | 5429 | ||
| Engineering: A Fitting Bootstrap | 5430 | ||
| The Great m out of n Bootstrap with (m/ n rarr 0) | 5431 | ||
| Bibliography | 5432 | ||
| Further Reading | 5432 | ||
| Canonical Correlation | 5433 | ||
| Introduction | 5433 | ||
| Canonical Correlations | 5433 | ||
| Miscellaneous Issues | 5435 | ||
| An Example with Real Data | 5435 | ||
| Uses of Canonical Correlations | 5437 | ||
| Bibliography | 5438 | ||
| Categorical Data Analysis | 5439 | ||
| Introduction | 5439 | ||
| Contingency Tables | 5439 | ||
| Testing for Relationships Among Categorical Variables | 5439 | ||
| Hierarchical Log-Linear Models | 5440 | ||
| CMH Procedure | 5441 | ||
| Simpson's Paradox and Association Reversal Phenomena | 5441 | ||
| Common Odds Ratio and the CMH Procedure | 5442 | ||
| Application to Differential Item Functioning (DIF) Analysis | 5442 | ||
| Logistic Regression | 5442 | ||
| Comparing Log-Linear Models with Logistic Regression | 5443 | ||
| Application to DIF Analysis | 5443 | ||
| Latent Variable Models of Association | 5443 | ||
| IRT Models | 5444 | ||
| The Rasch Model, Quasi-Symmetry, and DIF Analysis | 5444 | ||
| Other Latent Variable Models | 5444 | ||
| Bibliography | 5445 | ||
| Further Reading | 5445 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 5446 | ||
| Causal Inference | 5447 | ||
| A Framework for Causal Inference - Basic Building Blocks | 5447 | ||
| The Assignment Mechanism - Motivating Examples | 5448 | ||
| The Assignment Mechanism - Formal Notation | 5449 | ||
| Modes of Causal Inference | 5450 | ||
| Complications | 5451 | ||
| Bibliography | 5451 | ||
| Cluster Analysis: Overview | 5453 | ||
| Proximity Measures | 5453 | ||
| Hierarchical Clustering | 5454 | ||
| Optimization Clustering | 5455 | ||
| Model-Based Clustering | 5457 | ||
| Number of Clusters | 5461 | ||
| Conclusion | 5463 | ||
| Bibliography | 5463 | ||
| Further Reading | 5464 | ||
| Relevant Website | 5464 | ||
| Cognitive Psychology and Educational Statistics | 5465 | ||
| Glossary | 5465 | ||
| Test Design for the Cognitively Based Item Generation | 5465 | ||
| Statistical Models | 5466 | ||
| Linear Logistic Test Model | 5466 | ||
| Two-Parameter-Logistic-Constrained Model | 5467 | ||
| Linear Partial Credit Model | 5467 | ||
| Multicomponent Latent Trait Model | 5468 | ||
| General Component Latent Trait Model | 5468 | ||
| Applications | 5469 | ||
| Spatial Ability | 5469 | ||
| Abstract Reasoning Ability | 5470 | ||
| Summary | 5472 | ||
| Bibliography | 5472 | ||
| Further Reading | 5473 | ||
| Computational Statistics | 5474 | ||
| Introduction | 5474 | ||
| Emergence of Computational Statistics as a Subdiscipline | 5474 | ||
| Education in Computational Statistics | 5475 | ||
| Numerical Analysis for Statistical Applications: Statistical Computing | 5475 | ||
| Computations to Support Simulation Methods | 5475 | ||
| Numerical Linear Algebra | 5476 | ||
| Numerical Solution of Optimization Problems | 5476 | ||
| Computationally Intensive Methods of Statistics | 5476 | ||
| Monte Carlo Methods in Statistics | 5476 | ||
| Resampling Methods | 5477 | ||
| Machine Learning | 5477 | ||
| Conclusions | 5477 | ||
| Bibliography | 5478 | ||
| Continuous Probability Distributions | 5479 | ||
| Glossary | 5479 | ||
| Beta Distribution | 5479 | ||
| Cauchy Distribution | 5480 | ||
| alpha2 Distribution | 5480 | ||
| e9780080448930v8 | 6145 | ||
| Front Cover | 6145 | ||
| International Encyclopedia of Education | 6146 | ||
| Copyright Page | 6149 | ||
| Preface | 6150 | ||
| Editors | 6152 | ||
| How to Use the Encyclopedia | 6154 | ||
| Contents | 6156 | ||
| VOLUME 8 | 6700 | ||
| T | 6700 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING | 6188 | ||
| An Overview of Technology and Learning | 6188 | ||
| Glossary | 6188 | ||
| Spread of Technology Within Schools | 6189 | ||
| School Uses of Technology for Learning | 6189 | ||
| Typical Uses | 6189 | ||
| Subject-Specific Uses of ICT | 6190 | ||
| Reading | 6190 | ||
| Writing | 6190 | ||
| Mathematics | 6191 | ||
| Second language learning | 6191 | ||
| Science | 6191 | ||
| Rapidly Growing Uses | 6192 | ||
| Open-source online resources and curriculum materials | 6192 | ||
| Online learning and virtual schools | 6192 | ||
| Frequent assessment and individualization of learning | 6193 | ||
| Emerging Uses | 6193 | ||
| Web 2.0 | 6193 | ||
| Immersive environments and games | 6194 | ||
| Interactive classroom communication systems | 6194 | ||
| Evidence of the Effects of ICT on Teaching and Learning | 6194 | ||
| Effective Implementation of Technology-Supported Learning | 6195 | ||
| Use of Technology for Learning Outside of School | 6196 | ||
| Conclusion | 6196 | ||
| Bibliography | 6196 | ||
| Further Reading | 6197 | ||
| Educational Data Modeling | 6198 | ||
| Glossary | 6198 | ||
| Introduction | 6198 | ||
| Educational Data Modeling | 6199 | ||
| The Learning Scenario | 6199 | ||
| The Observational Scenario | 6199 | ||
| Conclusion | 6200 | ||
| Further Reading | 6200 | ||
| Student Data Systems and Their Use for Educational Improvement | 6201 | ||
| Glossary | 6201 | ||
| Introduction | 6201 | ||
| Types of Student Data Systems | 6201 | ||
| Key Features of Student Data Systems | 6202 | ||
| The Use of Data Systems in Educational Contexts | 6203 | ||
| Future Directions | 6204 | ||
| Conclusion | 6206 | ||
| Bibliography | 6206 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6207 | ||
| Technology and Learning: Access in Schools Around the World | 6208 | ||
| Glossary | 6208 | ||
| Introduction | 6208 | ||
| Conceptual Aids | 6208 | ||
| Data Sources | 6209 | ||
| Access to ICT | 6209 | ||
| ICT in Schools | 6209 | ||
| ICT at Home | 6212 | ||
| Using ICT | 6212 | ||
| ICT Use at School | 6212 | ||
| ICT Use at Home | 6212 | ||
| Patterns of ICT Use | 6213 | ||
| Learning and ICT | 6214 | ||
| Learning to Use ICT | 6214 | ||
| Using ICT in Teaching Mathematics and Science | 6217 | ||
| Conclusion | 6217 | ||
| Bibliography | 6219 | ||
| Further Reading | 6220 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – AS A SUBJECT OF INSTRUCTION | 6221 | ||
| Conceptions of Technology Literacy and Fluency | 6221 | ||
| Glossary | 6221 | ||
| Introduction | 6221 | ||
| An Historical Dimension | 6222 | ||
| Definitions and Conceptions | 6223 | ||
| Toward Multiple Literacies | 6224 | ||
| Developing Frameworks | 6224 | ||
| Implications | 6225 | ||
| Literate Lives | 6225 | ||
| Digital Divide | 6226 | ||
| Curriculum Change | 6226 | ||
| Assessment | 6226 | ||
| Future Perspectives | 6227 | ||
| Bibliography | 6227 | ||
| Further Reading | 6228 | ||
| Relevant Website | 6228 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – ASSESSMENT | 6229 | ||
| Technology and Formative Assessment | 6229 | ||
| Glossary | 6229 | ||
| A Consideration of Definitions, Timescales, Users, and Uses | 6229 | ||
| Examples of Technology-Based Assessment Resources and Tools | 6231 | ||
| Systems Driven by Content Standards - Large- Scale, Commercial Products | 6231 | ||
| Small-Scale, Research-Based (diagnostic) Systems | 6232 | ||
| Summary and Implications | 6232 | ||
| Bibliography | 6233 | ||
| Technology for Large-Scale Assessment | 6235 | ||
| First-Generation Computer-Based Tests | 6235 | ||
| Next-Generation Electronic Tests | 6237 | ||
| Generation R (Reinvention) | 6239 | ||
| Summary | 6241 | ||
| Bibliography | 6241 | ||
| Further Reading | 6242 | ||
| Technology Supports for Assessment Design | 6243 | ||
| Glossary | 6243 | ||
| Introduction | 6245 | ||
| Arguments, Layers, and Knowledge Representations | 6245 | ||
| Supports for Domain Analysis | 6245 | ||
| Supports for Domain Modeling | 6246 | ||
| Supports for the CAF | 6247 | ||
| Student Model | 6247 | ||
| Evidence Model | 6247 | ||
| Task Model | 6248 | ||
| Supports for Implementation | 6249 | ||
| Task Authoring Support Tools | 6249 | ||
| Automated Task Generation | 6250 | ||
| Supports for Delivery | 6250 | ||
| Conclusion | 6251 | ||
| Bibliography | 6251 | ||
| Further Reading | 6252 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6252 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – EDUCATION REFORM AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT | 6253 | ||
| National Strategies to Build a Technology Workforce | 6253 | ||
| Glossary | 6253 | ||
| Introduction | 6253 | ||
| Singapore's Education and Economic Developments | 6253 | ||
| Overview of Singapore's Education System | 6255 | ||
| From IT Plans to Interactive and Digital Media Engagements | 6256 | ||
| IT in Education Master Plans | 6257 | ||
| Looking Ahead: Human Capital Development | 6258 | ||
| Bibliography | 6259 | ||
| Further Reading | 6259 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6259 | ||
| Public-Private Partnerships for Educational Reform | 6260 | ||
| Introduction | 6260 | ||
| Models and Guidelines for PPP | 6260 | ||
| PPP, ICT, and Education | 6261 | ||
| Overview of the PiL Initiative | 6261 | ||
| The Collective Case Study | 6262 | ||
| Case Study One: A Partnership with the Government of Maharashtra in Pre-Service Teacher Education | 6262 | ||
| Pre-service teacher education project in the state of Maharashtra | 6263 | ||
| Expected impacts of pre-service teacher education project | 6263 | ||
| Case Study Two: A Partnership with the State School Isaac Schraiber in a Reading and Writing Project | 6263 | ||
| Reading and writing project in State School Isaac Schraiber | 6263 | ||
| Impact of the reading and writing project | 6263 | ||
| Case Study Three: A Partnership with the School District of Philadelphia in the School of the Future Project | 6264 | ||
| School of the future project in Philadelphia | 6264 | ||
| Expected impact of the school of future project | 6264 | ||
| Making Sense of the Case Studies: Guidelines for Effective PPP | 6265 | ||
| Adoption of a Holistic Approach | 6265 | ||
| Situation and Needs Analysis | 6265 | ||
| Piloting and Scaling-Up | 6265 | ||
| Ownership by Stakeholders | 6266 | ||
| Accountability and Sustainability | 6266 | ||
| Conclusion and Future Work on PPP | 6266 | ||
| Bibliography | 6267 | ||
| Relating Technology, Education Reform and Economic Development | 6268 | ||
| The Economic Rationale for Educational ICT | 6268 | ||
| ICT, Education, and Economic Returns | 6268 | ||
| Sources of Economic Growth | 6269 | ||
| Implications of Economic Theory for Education Reform and ICT Use | 6269 | ||
| Knowledge-Acquisition Model | 6269 | ||
| Knowledge-Deepening Model | 6269 | ||
| Knowledge-Creation Model | 6270 | ||
| Examples of Technology, Education Reform, and Economic Development | 6270 | ||
| The Case of Singapore | 6270 | ||
| The Case of Finland | 6271 | ||
| Policy Implications | 6272 | ||
| Bibliography | 6273 | ||
| Further Reading | 6274 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – EVALUATING TECHNOLOGY | 6275 | ||
| Examining the Effects of Educational Technology Programs: Challenges and Strategies | 6275 | ||
| Defining Goals | 6275 | ||
| Considering Implementation | 6276 | ||
| Measuring Technology Use | 6277 | ||
| Aligning Outcome Measures | 6278 | ||
| Employing Appropriate Analytic Methods | 6279 | ||
| Summary | 6280 | ||
| Bibliography | 6280 | ||
| Further Reading | 6281 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6281 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – GLOBAL TRENDS | 6282 | ||
| Equity in Technology Access and Opportunities | 6282 | ||
| Glossary | 6282 | ||
| Introduction | 6282 | ||
| Equity within the United States | 6282 | ||
| Home Access | 6282 | ||
| Home Use | 6282 | ||
| Academic Outcomes from Home Use | 6282 | ||
| School Access | 6283 | ||
| School Use | 6283 | ||
| Academic Outcomes from School Use | 6284 | ||
| Equity within Other Countries | 6284 | ||
| Canada | 6284 | ||
| European Union | 6284 | ||
| India | 6285 | ||
| China | 6285 | ||
| Equity Across Countries | 6285 | ||
| Approaches to Increasing Equity | 6286 | ||
| Conclusion | 6287 | ||
| Bibliography | 6287 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6288 | ||
| Internet-based Education | 6289 | ||
| Glossary | 6289 | ||
| Internet-Based Education Defined | 6289 | ||
| Prevalence of Internet-Based Education in Secondary Education | 6290 | ||
| Online Learning in North America | 6290 | ||
| International K12 Projects of Note | 6291 | ||
| Common Purposes for Online Learning in K12 Education | 6291 | ||
| Online Learning as Educational Replacement | 6292 | ||
| In rural areas | 6292 | ||
| For advanced courses | 6292 | ||
| For at-risk students | 6292 | ||
| Online Learning as Educational Enhancement | 6292 | ||
| Research on the Effectiveness of Internet-Based Education | 6293 | ||
| Student Retention | 6293 | ||
| Student Learning Outcomes | 6293 | ||
| Summary | 6294 | ||
| Bibliography | 6294 | ||
| Further Reading | 6294 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6295 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – ISSUES | 6296 | ||
| Media Use and School Achievement | 6296 | ||
| Introduction | 6296 | ||
| Historical Background | 6296 | ||
| Theoretical Perspectives | 6297 | ||
| Research | 6297 | ||
| Conclusions | 6297 | ||
| Further Reading | 6298 | ||
| Technology and Physical and Social Health | 6299 | ||
| Glossary | 6299 | ||
| Impact of Technology on Physical Health | 6300 | ||
| Physical Effects of Technology | 6300 | ||
| Technology and Health Information | 6300 | ||
| Technology and Treatment Delivery | 6301 | ||
| Technology and Social Development | 6302 | ||
| Technology and Aggression | 6302 | ||
| Technology and Social Relationships | 6303 | ||
| Conclusion | 6304 | ||
| Bibliography | 6304 | ||
| Further Reading | 6305 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6305 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – MEETING SPECIAL STUDENTS’ NEEDS | 6306 | ||
| Universal Design for Learning | 6306 | ||
| Glossary | 6306 | ||
| Universal Design and Universal Design for Learning | 6306 | ||
| Part One: UDL - The Basic Framework | 6307 | ||
| Part Two: The UDL Guidelines and Their Research Base | 6307 | ||
| Guidelines for Providing Multiple Means of Representation | 6307 | ||
| Guideline 1: Provide options for perception | 6307 | ||
| Guideline 2: Provide options for language and symbols | 6308 | ||
| Guideline 3: Provide options for comprehension | 6308 | ||
| Guidelines for Providing Multiple Means of Action and Expression | 6308 | ||
| Guideline 4: Provide options for physical action | 6308 | ||
| Guideline 5: Provide options for expressive skills and fluency | 6308 | ||
| Guideline 6: Provide options for executive functions | 6309 | ||
| Guidelines for Providing Multiple Means of Engagement | 6309 | ||
| Guideline 7: Provide options for recruiting interest | 6309 | ||
| Guideline 8: Provide options for sustaining effort and persistence | 6309 | ||
| Guideline 9: Provide options for self-regulation | 6310 | ||
| Part Three: Future Directions and Research | 6310 | ||
| Bibliography | 6311 | ||
| Further Reading | 6311 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6311 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – SCHOOL LEADERSHIP FOR TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION | 6312 | ||
| Technology as a Support for School-Community Connections | 6312 | ||
| Introduction | 6312 | ||
| How Can ICTs Help? | 6312 | ||
| The Research Base | 6313 | ||
| Using Specific Technologies to Facilitate School-Community Communications | 6313 | ||
| 6313 | |||
| Websites | 6314 | ||
| Summary | 6315 | ||
| Using ICTs to Facilitate a Reorganization of the School-Community Relationship | 6315 | ||
| One-to-One Computing | 6315 | ||
| Sharing Accountability Data | 6315 | ||
| Distance Learning and Virtual Schools | 6316 | ||
| Summary | 6317 | ||
| Conclusion | 6317 | ||
| Bibliography | 6318 | ||
| Further Reading | 6319 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – SUPPORTS FOR MANAGING INSTRUCTION | 6320 | ||
| Classroom Uses of Technology to Manage Instruction | 6320 | ||
| Glossary | 6320 | ||
| Introduction | 6320 | ||
| Student-Response Systems | 6321 | ||
| Features of Student-Response Systems | 6321 | ||
| Teaching with Student-Response Systems | 6321 | ||
| Models for teaching with student-response systems | 6321 | ||
| Research on teaching with student-response systems | 6322 | ||
| Effects of Student Response Systems | 6322 | ||
| Classroom-Network Technologies | 6323 | ||
| Key Features of Classroom Network Technologies | 6323 | ||
| Teaching with Classroom Networks | 6324 | ||
| Effects of Classroom Networks | 6324 | ||
| Future Directions for Research and Development | 6324 | ||
| Bibliography | 6325 | ||
| Further Reading | 6326 | ||
| Relevant Websites | 6326 | ||
| TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING – SUPPORTS FOR SKILL LEARNING | 6327 | ||
| New Media, Learning from | 6327 | ||
| Glossary | 6327 | ||
| Promises of Learning with New Media | 6328 | ||
| Text in Multimedia Learning Environments | 6328 | ||
| Linear and Nonlinear Text | 6329 | ||
| Designing Text | 6329 | ||
| Linguistic simplicity | 6329 | ||
| Structure and organization | 6329 | ||
| Conciseness | 6329 | ||
| Additional stimulation | 6329 | ||
| Pictures in Multimedia Learning Environments | 6330 | ||
| Kinds of Pictures | 6330 | ||
| Understanding Pictures | 6331 | ||
| Designing Pictures | 6331 | ||
| Learning with Multimedia | 6332 | ||
| Theoretical Models of Learning from Multimedia | 6332 | ||
| Dual coding theory | 6332 | ||
| Cognitive theory of multimedia learning | 6332 | ||
| Integrated model of text and picture comprehension | 6332 | ||
| Research Findings | 6334 | ||
| Coherence and contiguity | 6334 | ||
| Modality | 6334 | ||
| Redundancy | 6334 | ||
| Designing Multimedia | 6335 | ||
| Outlook | 6335 | ||
| Bibliography | 6335 | ||
| Further Reading | 6336 | ||
| Reading and Technology | 6337 |