BOOK
Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy, Volume 7 - E-Book
R. Eric Miller | Murray E. Fowler
(2011)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
With coverage of current issues and emerging trends, Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Volume 7 provides a comprehensive, all-new reference for the management of zoo and wildlife diseases. A Current Therapy format emphasizes the latest advances in the field, including nutrition, diagnosis, and treatment protocols. Cutting-edge coverage includes topics such as the "One Medicine" concept, laparoscopic surgery in elephants and rhinoceros, amphibian viral diseases, and advanced water quality evaluation for zoos. Editors R. Eric Miller and Murray E. Fowler promote a philosophy of animal conservation, bridging the gap between captive and free-ranging wild animal medicine with chapters contributed by more than 100 international experts.
- The Current Therapy format focuses on emerging trends, treatment protocols, and diagnostic updates new to the field, providing timely information on the latest advances in zoo and wild animal medicine.
- Content ranges from drug treatment, nutrition, husbandry, surgery, and imaging to behavioral training.
- Coverage of species ranges from giraffes, elephants, lions, and orangutans to sea turtles, hellbenders, bats, kakapos, and more.
- An extensive list of contributors includes recognized authors from around the world, offering expert information with chapters focusing on the latest research and clinical management of captive and free-ranging wild animals.
- A philosophy of animal conservation helps zoo and wildlife veterinarians fulfill not only the technical aspects of veterinary medicine, but contribute to the overall biological teams needed to rescue many threatened and endangered species from extinction.
- All content is new, with coverage including coverage of cutting-edge issues such as white-nose disease in bats, updates on Ebola virus in wild great apes, and chytrid fungus in amphibians.
- Full-color photographs depict external clinical signs for more accurate clinical recognition.
- Discussions of the "One Medicine" concept include chapters addressing the interface between wildlife, livestock, human, and ecosystem health.
- New sections cover Edentates, Marsupials, Carnivores, Perrissodactyla, and Camelids.
- Over 100 new tables provide a quick reference to a wide range of topics.
- An emphasis on conserving threatened and endangered species globally involves 102 expert authors representing 12 different countries.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | cover | ||
| Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy, Volume 7 | i | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Contributors | v | ||
| Preface | xiii | ||
| Acknowledgments | xiv | ||
| Dedication | xv | ||
| Table of Contents | xvi | ||
| 1 General | 1 | ||
| 1 Disease Risk Analysis in Wildlife Health Field Studies | 2 | ||
| Disease Risk Analysis | 2 | ||
| Examples of Disease Risk Analysis in Wildlife Health Field Studies | 4 | ||
| Conservation Breeding Specialist Group Workbooks | 5 | ||
| Carnivore Conservation | 5 | ||
| Human Activities and Health | 6 | ||
| Galapagos Avifauna | 6 | ||
| Great Ape Conservation | 6 | ||
| Translocation Projects | 6 | ||
| Conclusions | 6 | ||
| References | 7 | ||
| 2 Contraception | 8 | ||
| Female Contraception | 8 | ||
| Permanent Methods | 8 | ||
| Reversible Contraception | 8 | ||
| Steroid Hormones | 8 | ||
| Progestins | 8 | ||
| Estrogens | 10 | ||
| Estrogen-Progestin Combinations | 10 | ||
| Androgens | 10 | ||
| Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Analogues | 10 | ||
| Immunocontraception | 11 | ||
| Zona Pellucida Vaccines | 11 | ||
| Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Vaccines | 12 | ||
| Mechanical Devices | 12 | ||
| Intrauterine Devices | 12 | ||
| Effects on Behavior | 12 | ||
| Male Contraception | 12 | ||
| Permanent Methods | 12 | ||
| Reversible Contraception | 13 | ||
| Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Agonists | 13 | ||
| Effects on Behavior | 13 | ||
| Modes of Delivery | 13 | ||
| References | 14 | ||
| 3 Conservation Medicine for Zoo Veterinarians | 15 | ||
| Historical Considerations | 15 | ||
| Conservation Medicine: A Shift in Focus | 15 | ||
| The Manhattan Principles | 15 | ||
| Zoo Veterinary Practice and Conservation Medicine | 16 | ||
| Zoo Veterinarians in Biodiversity Hotspots | 16 | ||
| Conservation Medicine in Practice | 17 | ||
| Establishing a Conservation Medicine Infrastructure in New Zealand | 17 | ||
| Objective | 17 | ||
| Collaborators | 17 | ||
| Section 2 | 169 | ||
| 22 Medical Management of Rays | 170 | ||
| Biology, Anatomy, and Physiology | 170 | ||
| Husbandry and Management | 172 | ||
| Restraint | 172 | ||
| Physical Examination | 173 | ||
| Diseases | 174 | ||
| Treatment | 175 | ||
| Zoonotic Diseases | 176 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 176 | ||
| References | 176 | ||
| 23 Basic Water Quality Evaluation for Zoo Veterinarians | 177 | ||
| Water Parameters and Testing | 177 | ||
| Sample Collection | 177 | ||
| Test Methods | 177 | ||
| Water Quality Parameters and Analytic Testing for Marine Animals | 181 | ||
| Temperature | 181 | ||
| Dissolved Oxygen | 183 | ||
| Carbon Dioxide | 183 | ||
| Conductivity and Salinity | 183 | ||
| Recommended Salinity Concentrations | 184 | ||
| Nitrogen Cycle | 184 | ||
| Total Ammonia Nitrogen | 184 | ||
| Nitrite | 184 | ||
| Nitrate | 184 | ||
| pH | 185 | ||
| Marine Mammals and pH | 185 | ||
| Other Parameters Affecting Water Quality | 185 | ||
| Alkalinity | 185 | ||
| Hardness | 185 | ||
| Microbial Factors | 185 | ||
| Basic Procedures | 185 | ||
| Coliform Count | 185 | ||
| Chemical Sterilization: Chemical Oxidizing Substances | 186 | ||
| Special Considerations for Birds: Oxidants and Oils | 186 | ||
| References | 186 | ||
| 24 The Mechanics of Aquarium Water Conditioning | 187 | ||
| Traditional Routes of Water Conditioning | 188 | ||
| Gas Exchange and Aeration | 188 | ||
| Filtration Methods | 188 | ||
| Organic and Bacterial Loads | 188 | ||
| Origin of Filtration Methods | 189 | ||
| Mechanical Filtration | 189 | ||
| Foam Fractionation | 189 | ||
| Biologic Filtration | 189 | ||
| Biologic Treatment Trouble Shooting | 190 | ||
| Biofilter by Design | 190 | ||
| Aquarium Ecologic Filtration versus Biologic Filtration | 192 | ||
| Sterilization and Disinfectants | 192 | ||
| Ozone Disinfection | 193 | ||
| Silver and Copper Sanitation | 193 | ||
| Ultraviolet Sterilization | 194 | ||
| Water Conditioning for Marine Bird–Only Systems | 194 | ||
| Algae Control | 194 | ||
| Heating and Chilling | 194 | ||
| References | 194 | ||
| 25 Advanced Water Quality Evaluation for Zoo Veterinarians | 195 | ||
| Water Parameters and Testing | 195 | ||
| Sample Collection | 195 | ||
| Advanced Water Quality | 195 | ||
| Dissolved Gases | 195 | ||
| Carbon Dioxide | 195 | ||
| Denitrification | 196 | ||
| Phosphates | 196 | ||
| Sulfur | 196 | ||
| Total Organic Carbon | 197 | ||
| Turbidity: Measurement of Particulates in Water | 197 | ||
| Heavy Metals | 197 | ||
| Volatile Organics | 197 | ||
| Bacteria and Animals | 197 | ||
| Microbes, Biofilms, and the Water Environment | 198 | ||
| New Procedures to Track Bacteria | 198 | ||
| Oxidation-Reduction: Sterilization versus Disinfection | 199 | ||
| Known Effects of Chemicals on Biofilms | 199 | ||
| Bacterial Digestion of Chemicals | 199 | ||
| References | 201 | ||
| 26 Quarantine of Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates in Public Display Aquaria | 202 | ||
| Common Problems | 202 | ||
| General Planning | 203 | ||
| Considerations Prior to Acquisition and on Arrival | 203 | ||
| Prior to Acquisition | 203 | ||
| On Arrival | 204 | ||
| Monitoring | 204 | ||
| Examination and Diagnostic Procedures | 204 | ||
| Necropsies | 204 | ||
| Examination of Live Animals | 204 | ||
| Treatments for Fish | 206 | ||
| Freshwater and Salt Water Dips | 206 | ||
| Long-Term, Low-Dose Salinity | 207 | ||
| Copper | 207 | ||
| Chloroquine Diphosphate | 207 | ||
| Formalin (37% Formaldehyde) | 207 | ||
| Praziquantel | 207 | ||
| Organophosphates and Chitin Inhibitors | 207 | ||
| Fenbendazole or Levamisole | 208 | ||
| Antibiotics | 208 | ||
| Vaccines | 208 | ||
| Treatments for Aquatic Invertebrates | 208 | ||
| Clearing Quarantine | 208 | ||
| Assessing Quarantine | 208 | ||
| References | 208 | ||
| Section 3 | 211 | ||
| 27 Behavioral Training of Reptiles for Medical Procedures | 212 | ||
| Enrichment | 212 | ||
| Training | 212 | ||
| Setting up a Training Program | 213 | ||
| Selecting and Shaping Behaviors | 213 | ||
| Training Area | 213 | ||
| Reinforcement | 214 | ||
| Record Keeping | 214 | ||
| Case Studies | 214 | ||
| Crocodiles | 214 | ||
| Komodo Dragons | 215 | ||
| Dendrobatid Frogs | 215 | ||
| Venomous Snakes | 216 | ||
| Summary | 216 | ||
| References | 216 | ||
| 28 Diagnosis and Control of Amphibian Chytridiomycosis | 217 | ||
| Chytridiomycosis and Amphibian Survival Assurance Populations | 217 | ||
| Chytridiomycosis and the World Organization for Animal Health | 218 | ||
| Pathogenesis of Chytridiomycosis | 218 | ||
| Diagnostic Methods | 219 | ||
| Polymerase Chain Reaction–Based Methods of Diagnosis | 219 | ||
| Sample Collection | 219 | ||
| Interpretation of Results | 220 | ||
| Quarantine | 220 | ||
| Transmission of Infection and Disinfection | 220 | ||
| Treatment | 221 | ||
| Itraconazole | 221 | ||
| Chloramphenicol | 222 | ||
| Elevated Temperature | 222 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 222 | ||
| References | 222 | ||
| 29 Mycobacteriosis in Amphibians | 224 | ||
| Epidemiology | 224 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 225 | ||
| Clinical Signs and Pathology | 225 | ||
| Diagnostic Procedures | 225 | ||
| Treatment | 227 | ||
| Zoonotic Considerations | 227 | ||
| Emergence of Mycobacterium Liflandii Infection in Xenopus Tropicalis in France | 228 | ||
| References | 228 | ||
| 30 Amphibian Viral Diseases | 231 | ||
| Ranaviruses | 231 | ||
| Clinical Effects | 233 | ||
| Pathologic Findings | 233 | ||
| Diagnosis | 234 | ||
| Treatment | 235 | ||
| Viral Transmission and Immunity | 235 | ||
| Recommendations for Testing in Quarantine and Control of Ranavirus Infections | 235 | ||
| Other Iridoviruses | 236 | ||
| Other Viruses | 236 | ||
| Herpesviruses | 236 | ||
| Adenoviruses | 237 | ||
| Parvoviruses | 237 | ||
| Retroviruses | 237 | ||
| Caliciviruses | 237 | ||
| Summary | 237 | ||
| References | 237 | ||
| 31 Sea Turtle Rehabilitation | 239 | ||
| Conservation Status | 239 | ||
| Transport, History, and Physical Examination | 239 | ||
| Critical Care Facilities | 239 | ||
| Nutrition in Critically Ill and Healthy Sea Turtles | 240 | ||
| Diagnostic Procedures | 240 | ||
| Treatment | 241 | ||
| Physical Restraint, Analgesia, and Anesthesia | 242 | ||
| Surgery | 243 | ||
| Common Medical Issues | 243 | ||
| Drowning | 243 | ||
| Marine Debris Ingestion | 243 | ||
| Biotoxin Ingestion | 243 | ||
| Cold Stunning (Hypothermia) | 243 | ||
| Ileus | 243 | ||
| Buoyancy Disorders | 243 | ||
| Fibropapillomatosis | 244 | ||
| Traumatic Injuries and Wound Care | 244 | ||
| References | 245 | ||
| 32 Reptile and Amphibian Analgesia | 247 | ||
| Pain Pathways and Mechanisms: the Case for Pain | 247 | ||
| Dosing Principles and Side Effects | 248 | ||
| Reptile Research Findings | 249 | ||
| Chelonia: Turtles and Tortoises | 249 | ||
| Sauria: Lizards | 250 | ||
| Serpentes: Snakes | 251 | ||
| Crocodilians: Alligators, Crocodiles, Caimans, and Gharials | 251 | ||
| Amphibian Research Findings | 251 | ||
| References | 252 | ||
| 33 Virology of Nonavian Reptiles: | 254 | ||
| What is a Reptile? | 254 | ||
| Novel Viruses | 255 | ||
| Adenoviruses | 256 | ||
| Herpesviruses | 256 | ||
| Iridoviruses | 257 | ||
| Reoviruses | 258 | ||
| Paramyxoviruses | 258 | ||
| References | 258 | ||
| 34 Hellbender Medicine | 260 | ||
| Biologic Data | 260 | ||
| Captive Husbandry | 260 | ||
| Infectious Diseases | 261 | ||
| Noninfectious Conditions | 261 | ||
| Restraint and Anesthesia | 262 | ||
| Diagnostic Techniques | 262 | ||
| Treatment | 263 | ||
| References | 264 | ||
| 4 Avian | 265 | ||
| 35 Avian Mycobacterial Disease | 266 | ||
| Species Affected and prevalence | 267 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 268 | ||
| Diagnosis and Immune Response | 268 | ||
| Treatment, Sources, Prevention, and Control | 269 | ||
| Zoonosis | 271 | ||
| Conservation Impact | 271 | ||
| Future Issues | 273 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 273 | ||
| References | 273 | ||
| 36 Feather Follicle Extirpation: | 275 | ||
| Anatomy | 275 | ||
| Feathers | 275 | ||
| Feather Follicle | 275 | ||
| Feathers of the Wing | 276 | ||
| Development of a Feather | 277 | ||
| Molting Season | 277 | ||
| Methods of Surgery | 277 | ||
| Anesthesia and Drug Management | 277 | ||
| Bandaging | 279 | ||
| Recovery | 279 | ||
| References | 279 | ||
| 37 Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Buceros Hornbills | 281 | ||
| Clinical Presentation | 281 | ||
| Diagnosis | 282 | ||
| Pathology | 282 | ||
| Treatment | 283 | ||
| Prognosis | 284 | ||
| Ongoing Investigations | 284 | ||
| References | 284 | ||
| 38 The California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) | 286 | ||
| Clinical Considerations | 287 | ||
| Annual Examination, Bacterial Pathogens, and Parasitology | 287 | ||
| Clinical Techniques | 287 | ||
| Physical Restraint | 287 | ||
| Oral Medication Administration and Oral Examination | 288 | ||
| Intravenous and Intraosseous Access | 288 | ||
| Anesthesia | 288 | ||
| Surgery | 288 | ||
| Reproduction and Medical Conditions of Chicks at Hatch | 289 | ||
| Clinical Examination of a Sick Condor | 289 | ||
| Pathology | 289 | ||
| Fungal Diseases | 289 | ||
| Trauma | 290 | ||
| Cardiac Abnormalities | 290 | ||
| Ocular Abnormalities | 290 | ||
| Infectious Diseases: West Nile Virus | 290 | ||
| Release Program in Mexico: Out of Country Challenges | 291 | ||
| Environmental Contamination | 291 | ||
| Botulism | 291 | ||
| Lead | 291 | ||
| Copper | 293 | ||
| DDT and DDE | 293 | ||
| Wild Chicks: Intensive Nest Management Program | 293 | ||
| Reviews of the Program | 293 | ||
| University of California, Davis, Report | 295 | ||
| American Ornithologists’ Union Report | 295 | ||
| Conclusions | 295 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 295 | ||
| References | 295 | ||
| 39 Avian Circovirus and Polyomavirus Diseases | 297 | ||
| Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease | 297 | ||
| Cause | 297 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 297 | ||
| Diagnosis | 298 | ||
| Pathogenesis and Epidemiology | 299 | ||
| Prevention and Control | 300 | ||
| Circoviruses in Other Avian Species | 300 | ||
| Avian Polyomavirus Disease | 301 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 301 | ||
| Diagnosis | 301 | ||
| Epidemiology | 302 | ||
| Prevention and Control | 302 | ||
| References | 302 | ||
| 40 Veterinary Care of Kakapo | 304 | ||
| Unique and Unusual Features | 304 | ||
| Behavior and Reproduction | 304 | ||
| Hospitalization | 304 | ||
| Restraint | 305 | ||
| Physical | 305 | ||
| Chemical | 306 | ||
| Diagnostic Imaging | 306 | ||
| Diseases | 307 | ||
| Diseases Associated With Incubation and Hand Rearing | 307 | ||
| Incubation | 307 | ||
| Neonatal Period: 7 to 10 Days | 307 | ||
| Juvenile Prefledging Period | 307 | ||
| Infectious Diseases of Adult Kakapo | 308 | ||
| Erysipelas | 308 | ||
| Parasites and Parasitic Diseases | 308 | ||
| Protozoal Cloacitis | 308 | ||
| Coccidia | 308 | ||
| Hemoparasites | 308 | ||
| Helminths | 309 | ||
| Ectoparasites | 309 | ||
| Noninfectious Diseases | 309 | ||
| Aflatoxicosis | 309 | ||
| Heavy Metal Toxicosis | 309 | ||
| Trauma | 310 | ||
| Traumatic Cloacitis | 310 | ||
| Ocular Lesions | 310 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 310 | ||
| References | 311 | ||
| 41 Avian Analgesia | 312 | ||
| Recognizing Pain in Birds | 312 | ||
| Evaluation of Analgesics | 313 | ||
| Preemptive Analgesia | 313 | ||
| Opioids | 313 | ||
| Fentanyl | 317 | ||
| Butorphanol | 317 | ||
| Buprenorphine | 318 | ||
| Nalbuphine Hydrochloride | 318 | ||
| Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs | 318 | ||
| Adverse Effects | 319 | ||
| Formulations | 320 | ||
| Ketoprofen | 320 | ||
| Carprofen | 320 | ||
| Meloxicam (MEL) | 320 | ||
| Piroxicam | 320 | ||
| Regional Anesthesia and Analgesia | 321 | ||
| Lidocaine | 321 | ||
| Bupivacaine | 321 | ||
| Other Analgesics | 321 | ||
| Tramadol | 321 | ||
| Gabapentin | 322 | ||
| Balanced or Multimodal Analgesia | 322 | ||
| Conclusion | 322 | ||
| References | 322 | ||
| 42 Prehatch Protocols to Improve Hatchability | 324 | ||
| Facilities and Equipment | 324 | ||
| Egg Management and Record Keeping | 325 | ||
| Fertility and Hatchability | 326 | ||
| References | 327 | ||
| 43 West Nile Virus in Raptors | 329 | ||
| History and Background | 329 | ||
| Epidemiology | 329 | ||
| Pathogenesis, Immunity, Clinical Course, and Outcome | 330 | ||
| Diagnosis | 332 | ||
| Treatment, Management, and Prevention | 334 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 334 | ||
| References | 334 | ||
| 44 Diagnosis of Aspergillosis in Avian Species | 336 | ||
| Antibody Detection | 336 | ||
| Antigen Detection: Galactomannan | 338 | ||
| Protein Electrophoresis | 339 | ||
| Other Tests | 339 | ||
| Beta-Glucan | 339 | ||
| Polymerase Chain Reaction | 340 | ||
| Summary of Avian Studies | 340 | ||
| Antibody Detection | 340 | ||
| Antigen Detection | 340 | ||
| Protein Electrophoresis | 340 | ||
| Combination of Testing Options | 341 | ||
| Other Notable Unpublished Studies | 341 | ||
| Current Recommendations and Future Directions | 341 | ||
| References | 341 | ||
| 45 Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus: | 343 | ||
| Current Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus Epizootic | 343 | ||
| Considerations in Wild Birds | 344 | ||
| Ecology of Low and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza | 344 | ||
| Source of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus Infection | 344 | ||
| Zoo Outbreaks | 345 | ||
| Zoo Vaccination | 345 | ||
| Policy | 345 | ||
| Practice and Experience | 347 | ||
| References | 348 | ||
| 46 Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs in Raptors | 349 | ||
| Classification and Mechanism of Action | 349 | ||
| Therapeutic Uses in Captive Birds of Prey | 349 | ||
| Diclofenac and Vultures | 350 | ||
| Vultures and Other Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs | 352 | ||
| Pathology and Pathogenesis of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Renal Toxicity in Raptors | 352 | ||
| Conservation Implications of Diclofenac and Vultures | 353 | ||
| References | 354 | ||
| 47 Haemosporidian Parasites: | 356 | ||
| Life Cycle of Haemosporidians | 356 | ||
| Pathogenicity | 356 | ||
| Captive Populations | 357 | ||
| Haemosporidian Parasites in Hawaii | 357 | ||
| Impact on Long-Term Associations and Comparison of Impact across Parasite Genera | 358 | ||
| Plasmodium Infections in Galapagos Penguins | 358 | ||
| Ongoing Work in Galapagos | 360 | ||
| Is It Infecting Other Species? | 360 | ||
| Identifying the Reservoir Population | 361 | ||
| Identifying the Arthropod Vector | 361 | ||
| Correlating Infection with Fitness and Morbidity in the Population | 361 | ||
| Can it be Eradicated? | 361 | ||
| Conclusions | 362 | ||
| References | 362 | ||
| 5 Mammals | 365 | ||
| 48 Rabies Management in Wild Carnivores | 366 | ||
| Shift From Population Reduction toward Oral Vaccination | 366 | ||
| Vaccination: Central Tactic to Rabies Management of Wild Carnivores | 367 | ||
| Measuring Oral Rabies Vaccination Success | 367 | ||
| Key Oral Rabies Vaccination Program Considerations | 369 | ||
| Vaccine-Bait Biomarker | 369 | ||
| Bait Density | 370 | ||
| Bait Distribution | 370 | ||
| Bait Distribution Patterns | 370 | ||
| Timing of Baiting | 371 | ||
| Frequency of Baiting | 371 | ||
| Focused Rabies Control in North America | 371 | ||
| Key Challenges for Long-Term Oral Rabies Vaccination Success | 372 | ||
| New Vaccine-Baits | 372 | ||
| Species Challenges | 372 | ||
| Translocation | 373 | ||
| Dog-Wildlife Interactions | 373 | ||
| Economic Considerations | 374 | ||
| Conclusions | 374 | ||
| References | 374 | ||
| 6 Xenarthra | 377 | ||
| 49 Feeding and Nutrition of Anteaters | 378 | ||
| Anteaters | 378 | ||
| Nutritional Considerations | 378 | ||
| Nutritional Disorders | 378 | ||
| Anteater Diets in Zoos | 379 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 382 | ||
| References | 382 | ||
| 7 Marsupials | 385 | ||
| 50 Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumor Disease | 386 | ||
| Signs and Symptoms | 386 | ||
| Diagnosis | 386 | ||
| Cause | 386 | ||
| Devil Facial Tumor Disease and Population | 387 | ||
| Moving Forward | 388 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 388 | ||
| References | 388 | ||
| 51 Viral Chorioretinitis of Kangaroos | 390 | ||
| Natural Hosts | 390 | ||
| Cause | 390 | ||
| Epidemiology | 390 | ||
| Clinical Signs and Diagnosis | 391 | ||
| Signs | 391 | ||
| Ophthalmoscopic Examination | 391 | ||
| Laboratory Investigations | 391 | ||
| Histopathology | 391 | ||
| Immunohistochemistry | 391 | ||
| Electron Microscopy | 391 | ||
| Virus Isolation | 392 | ||
| Polymerase Chain Reaction | 392 | ||
| Serology | 392 | ||
| Hematology and Serum Biochemistry | 392 | ||
| Further Diagnostic Considerations | 392 | ||
| Pathology and Pathogenesis | 392 | ||
| Treatment, Prevention, and Control | 393 | ||
| References | 394 | ||
| 8 Primates | 395 | ||
| 52 Degenerative Skeletal Diseases of Primates | 396 | ||
| Osteoarthritis | 396 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 397 | ||
| Joints Affected | 397 | ||
| Spondylosis | 399 | ||
| Degenerative Disc Disease | 400 | ||
| Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis | 400 | ||
| Diagnostic Imaging | 401 | ||
| Anesthesia Considerations | 402 | ||
| Treatment | 405 | ||
| References | 406 | ||
| 53 Cardiovascular Disease in Great Apes | 408 | ||
| Historical Perspective | 408 | ||
| Currently Identified Types | 409 | ||
| Possible Etiologies and Pathogenesis | 410 | ||
| Antemortem Considerations | 411 | ||
| Clinical Documentation and Diagnosis | 411 | ||
| Gorilla Cardiac Database and Gorilla Health Project | 411 | ||
| Biomarkers | 412 | ||
| Treatment and Monitoring | 412 | ||
| Future Directions | 413 | ||
| Improved Clinicopathologic Characterization | 413 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 414 | ||
| References | 414 | ||
| 54 Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever | 416 | ||
| Definition and Cause | 416 | ||
| Epizootiology | 416 | ||
| Viral Distribution | 416 | ||
| Reservoirs | 416 | ||
| Epizootics | 416 | ||
| Captive Primates | 416 | ||
| Free-Ranging Primates | 417 | ||
| Other Potential Hosts | 417 | ||
| Transmission | 417 | ||
| Animals as Disease Models | 418 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 418 | ||
| Pathology and Postmortem Findings | 418 | ||
| Zoonotic Potential | 418 | ||
| Infection Control | 419 | ||
| Animal Trade | 419 | ||
| Personal Protection | 419 | ||
| Disinfection | 419 | ||
| Outbreak Containment | 420 | ||
| Diagnosis | 420 | ||
| Shipping of Samples for Diagnosis | 420 | ||
| Differential Diagnosis | 420 | ||
| Treatment | 420 | ||
| References | 420 | ||
| 55 Computed Tomography for the Diagnosis of Sinusitis and Air Sacculitis in Orangutans | 422 | ||
| Normal Anatomy and Physiology | 422 | ||
| Equipment and Computed Tomography Technique | 424 | ||
| Equipment | 424 | ||
| Positioning | 425 | ||
| Scanning Procedure | 425 | ||
| Evaluation | 425 | ||
| Treatment | 428 | ||
| Medical Management | 429 | ||
| Surgical Management | 429 | ||
| Conclusion | 429 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 429 | ||
| References | 429 | ||
| 9 Chiroptera | 431 | ||
| 56 White-Nose Syndrome in Cave Bats of North America | 432 | ||
| Emergence and Spread | 432 | ||
| Epidemiology | 433 | ||
| Presumptive Cause | 433 | ||
| Classification of G. destructans | 434 | ||
| Culture Conditions | 434 | ||
| Other Diagnostic Criteria | 435 | ||
| Histopathology | 435 | ||
| Modes of Transmission | 436 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 436 | ||
| Relationship to Hibernation | 436 | ||
| Proposed Mechanism | 437 | ||
| New Paradigm of Bat Disease | 437 | ||
| Treatment | 438 | ||
| Conclusions | 439 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 439 | ||
| References | 439 | ||
| 10 Carnivores | 441 | ||
| 57 Updated Vaccination Recommendations for Carnivores | 442 | ||
| Core Vaccines: Universally Recommended | 442 | ||
| Noncore (Optional) and Not Generally Recommended Vaccines | 448 | ||
| Serologic Testing to Monitor Immunity to Vaccines and Duration of Immunity | 449 | ||
| Record Keeping and Adverse Effects | 449 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 450 | ||
| References | 450 | ||
| 58 Medical Management of Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) | 451 | ||
| Biology | 451 | ||
| Husbandry | 451 | ||
| Nutrition | 451 | ||
| Reproduction | 452 | ||
| Restraint and Handling | 453 | ||
| Anesthesia | 453 | ||
| Clinical Pathology | 453 | ||
| Diseases | 454 | ||
| Wild Maned Wolves | 454 | ||
| Captive Maned Wolves | 454 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 456 | ||
| References | 456 | ||
| 59 Primer on Tick-Borne Diseases in Exotic Carnivores | 458 | ||
| Bacteria | 459 | ||
| Borreliosis | 459 | ||
| Rickettsial Diseases | 459 | ||
| Ehrlichiosis and Anaplasmosis | 459 | ||
| Other Rickettsial Diseases | 460 | ||
| Diagnosis and Treatment of Rickettsial Infections | 460 | ||
| Haemobartonellosis | 461 | ||
| Bartonellosis | 461 | ||
| Viruses | 462 | ||
| Powassan Virus | 462 | ||
| Protozoa | 462 | ||
| Babesiosis | 462 | ||
| Cytauxzoonosis | 462 | ||
| Hepatozoonosis | 463 | ||
| Tick Paralysis | 463 | ||
| Conclusion | 463 | ||
| References | 464 | ||
| 60 Aging in Large Felids | 465 | ||
| Aging | 465 | ||
| Health Care in Captive Aging Felids | 465 | ||
| Common Diseases | 465 | ||
| Renal System and Urinary Tract Disease | 465 | ||
| Musculoskeletal Disease | 466 | ||
| Reproductive | 467 | ||
| Cardiovascular and Respiratory Disorders | 468 | ||
| Neurologic Disorders | 468 | ||
| Neoplasia | 468 | ||
| Nutritional Disorders | 468 | ||
| Dental Disease | 468 | ||
| Other Conditions | 468 | ||
| Conclusion | 469 | ||
| References | 469 | ||
| 61 Stargazing in Lions | 470 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 470 | ||
| Diagnosis and Differential Diagnoses | 471 | ||
| Serum Vitamin A Concentrations in Lions | 472 | ||
| Cause and Pathogenesis | 472 | ||
| Treatment | 474 | ||
| Necropsy and Histopathology | 474 | ||
| Prevention | 475 | ||
| References | 475 | ||
| 62 Pyometra in Large Felids | 477 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 477 | ||
| Diagnostic Findings | 477 | ||
| Treatment | 478 | ||
| References | 479 | ||
| 11 Marine Mammals | 481 | ||
| 63 Longitudinal Monitoring of Immune System Parameters of Cetaceans and Application to Their Health Management | 482 | ||
| Establishing Baseline Values | 482 | ||
| Tools for Flow Cytometry– Based Leukocyte Phenotyping | 482 | ||
| Markers | 483 | ||
| For T and B Lymphocytes | 483 | ||
| For Neutrophils | 483 | ||
| For Mononuclear Leukocyte Activity | 485 | ||
| Lymphocyte Function | 486 | ||
| Applications In Clinical Research | 486 | ||
| Profiling Leukocyte Gene Transcriptional Activity | 487 | ||
| Applications in Clinical Research | 489 | ||
| Conclusion | 489 | ||
| References | 489 | ||
| 64 Ocular Disease and Suspected Causes in Captive Pinnipeds | 490 | ||
| Ocular Disease | 490 | ||
| Environmental Issues | 490 | ||
| Pool Color and Ultraviolet Light | 491 | ||
| Water Quality | 492 | ||
| Excessive Chemicals, Oxidants, or Noxious Byproducts in the Water | 492 | ||
| Salinity | 493 | ||
| Trauma | 493 | ||
| Minimizing Eye Problems in Future Pinniped Generations | 493 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 493 | ||
| References | 494 | ||
| 12 Elephants | 495 | ||
| 65 Elephant Herpesviruses | 496 | ||
| Cause | 496 | ||
| Epidemiology | 498 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 498 | ||
| Diagnosis | 499 | ||
| Clinical Pathology | 499 | ||
| Antemortem Diagnosis | 500 | ||
| Differential Diagnosis | 500 | ||
| Postmortem Findings | 500 | ||
| Treatment | 500 | ||
| Global Implications | 500 | ||
| References | 501 | ||
| 66 Female Elephant Reproduction | 503 | ||
| Female Reproductive Tract | 503 | ||
| Estrous Cycle | 504 | ||
| Ultrasound Monitoring During the Estrous Cycle | 506 | ||
| Hormone Cycle Induction | 508 | ||
| Prostaglandin | 508 | ||
| Human Choriogonadotropin | 508 | ||
| Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone | 508 | ||
| Pregnancy | 509 | ||
| Embryonic and Fetal Development | 509 | ||
| Parturition | 510 | ||
| Pregnancy Loss | 511 | ||
| Dystocia Management | 511 | ||
| Reproductive Pathologies | 512 | ||
| Conclusion | 513 | ||
| References | 513 | ||
| 67 Digital Radiography of the Elephant Foot | 515 | ||
| Digital Radiography Overview | 515 | ||
| Analog Versus Digital | 516 | ||
| Elephant Foot Radiography | 517 | ||
| Anatomy | 517 | ||
| Patient Preparation | 518 | ||
| Equipment Setup | 519 | ||
| Radiographic Assessment | 521 | ||
| Positioning | 521 | ||
| Exposure | 521 | ||
| Artifacts | 521 | ||
| Conclusions | 522 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 522 | ||
| References | 522 | ||
| 68 Laparoscopic Surgery in the Elephant and Rhinoceros | 524 | ||
| Laparoscopy in the Elephant | 524 | ||
| Animal Positioning | 524 | ||
| Surgical Equipment | 525 | ||
| Laparoscopic Surgical Instruments | 525 | ||
| Cannulas and Obturators | 526 | ||
| Hand Instruments | 526 | ||
| Instrument Sterilization | 527 | ||
| Light Source | 527 | ||
| Camera and Monitors | 527 | ||
| Insufflation | 527 | ||
| Surgical Anatomy of the Elephant | 528 | ||
| Elephant Vasectomy Procedure | 529 | ||
| Closure | 530 | ||
| Laparoscopy in the Rhinoceros | 530 | ||
| References | 530 | ||
| 69 Elephant Neonatal and Pediatric Medicine | 531 | ||
| Neonates | 531 | ||
| Protocol for Neonatal Elephant Examinations | 531 | ||
| Ongoing Assessment of Calf Health | 531 | ||
| Nursing | 532 | ||
| Failure of Passive Transfer | 532 | ||
| Elephant Calves | 533 | ||
| Training | 533 | ||
| Preventive Health | 533 | ||
| Hand Rearing | 533 | ||
| Management of Sick Calves | 534 | ||
| Trauma | 535 | ||
| Sepsis and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus | 535 | ||
| Umbilical Hernias | 535 | ||
| Diarrhea and Other Gastrointestinal Problems | 535 | ||
| Dental Problems | 535 | ||
| References | 536 | ||
| 70 Treatment of Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus | 537 | ||
| Physical Examination and Monitoring | 538 | ||
| Physical Findings | 539 | ||
| Blood Monitoring | 540 | ||
| Treatment | 540 | ||
| Antiviral Drugs and Other Medications | 540 | ||
| Fluid Therapy | 541 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 542 | ||
| References | 542 | ||
| 13 Peririssodactyla | 545 | ||
| 71 Rhinoceros Theriogenology | 546 | ||
| Male Reproductive Anatomy and Clinical Aspects | 546 | ||
| Semen Collection, Evaluation, and Preservation | 546 | ||
| Semen Collection | 547 | ||
| Semen Assessment and Preservation | 548 | ||
| Cryopreservation of Sperm | 549 | ||
| Diseases of the Male Reproductive Tract | 549 | ||
| Penis | 549 | ||
| Accessory Sex Glands | 549 | ||
| Testis | 549 | ||
| Female Reproductive Anatomy and Clinical Aspects | 552 | ||
| Estrous Cycle | 553 | ||
| Anestrous | 553 | ||
| Estrous Induction | 553 | ||
| Gestation and Birth | 554 | ||
| Hand Rearing | 554 | ||
| Birth | 554 | ||
| Dystocia | 554 | ||
| Reproductive Pathology | 555 | ||
| Artificial Insemination | 559 | ||
| Advanced Assisted Reproduction Technologies | 559 | ||
| Sperm Sexing | 559 | ||
| Gamete Rescue | 560 | ||
| Cell Lines | 560 | ||
| References | 560 | ||
| 72 Asian Wild Horse Reintroduction Program | 562 | ||
| Takhiin Tal Reintroduction Project | 563 | ||
| Infrastructure | 564 | ||
| Monitoring | 564 | ||
| Inventories | 564 | ||
| Specific Research Projects | 565 | ||
| Socioeconomic Projects | 566 | ||
| Conclusion | 566 | ||
| References | 566 | ||
| 14 Artiodactylids | 569 | ||
| 73 Management of Cryptosporidiosis in a Hoofstock Contact Area | 570 | ||
| Diagnosis | 570 | ||
| Prevention and Control: Animals | 571 | ||
| Preventing Visitor and Keeper Exposure | 571 | ||
| Prevention of Further Contamination | 571 | ||
| Determination of Infection in Other Contact Area Animals | 572 | ||
| Visitor Safety | 572 | ||
| References | 572 | ||
| 74 Bluetongue: | 573 | ||
| Cause and Epidemiology | 573 | ||
| Clinical Picture and Species Susceptibilities | 574 | ||
| Disease Control | 576 | ||
| Vaccination | 577 | ||
| Safety | 578 | ||
| Efficacy | 578 | ||
| Conclusions | 579 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 579 | ||
| References | 579 | ||
| 75 Alternatives for Gastrointestinal Parasite Control in Exotic Ruminants | 581 | ||
| Parasite Monitoring Strategies | 581 | ||
| Modified McMasters Fecal Egg Count | 581 | ||
| Fecal Larval Culture, Larval Development Assay, and Fecal Egg Count Reduction Test | 582 | ||
| Pasture Larval Count | 583 | ||
| Parasite Control Strategies | 583 | ||
| Drug Treatment | 583 | ||
| Animal Management | 583 | ||
| Environmental Control | 584 | ||
| Nonanthelmintic Control and Treatment Strategies | 584 | ||
| Copper Oxide Wire Particle Therapy | 584 | ||
| Condensed Tannins | 585 | ||
| Nematophagous Fungus | 586 | ||
| Other Treatment Strategies | 587 | ||
| References | 587 | ||
| 76 Thiafentanil Oxalate (A3080) in Nondomestic Ungulate Species | 589 | ||
| Features of Thiafentanil Oxalate | 589 | ||
| Structural Formula | 589 | ||
| Pharmacology | 589 | ||
| Clinical Considerations | 589 | ||
| Human Safety | 590 | ||
| Animal Studies | 594 | ||
| Recommended Doses for Nondomestic Hoofstock | 594 | ||
| Administration | 594 | ||
| Antidote | 594 | ||
| Warning | 595 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 595 | ||
| References | 595 | ||
| 77 The Use of Butorphanol in Anesthesia Protocols for Zoo and Wild Mammals | 596 | ||
| Use in Various Species | 597 | ||
| Captive Elephant | 597 | ||
| Captive Rhinoceros | 597 | ||
| Captive Giraffe | 598 | ||
| Captive Okapi | 598 | ||
| Other Ruminants | 598 | ||
| Tapir | 599 | ||
| Equids | 599 | ||
| Carnivores | 600 | ||
| African Buffalo | 600 | ||
| Butorphanol-Containing Anesthetic Cocktails | 601 | ||
| Rhinoceros Anesthesia | 601 | ||
| References | 603 | ||
| 78 Importation of Nondomestic Ruminant Semen for Management of Zoological Populations Using Artificial Insemination | 604 | ||
| Status of Artificial Insemination in Ruminant Species | 605 | ||
| Foreign Animal Disease and Transmission through Semen | 605 | ||
| Advantages of Semen Importation | 607 | ||
| Risk Assessment of Semen versus Live Animal Importation | 607 | ||
| Current Status of Semen Importation | 608 | ||
| References | 610 | ||
| 79 Advances in Giraffe Nutrition | 612 | ||
| Natural Diet of the Giraffe | 612 | ||
| Giraffe: Specialized Browser or Specialized Grazer? | 613 | ||
| Recent Research | 613 | ||
| Serum Parameters | 613 | ||
| Physical Form of the Diet | 614 | ||
| Digestibility and Feed Intake | 614 | ||
| Use of Woody Browse in Giraffe Feeding Programs | 614 | ||
| Water Intake | 615 | ||
| Nutrient Recommendations | 615 | ||
| Practical Diets | 615 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 617 | ||
| References | 617 | ||
| 80 Hoof Disorders in Nondomestic Artiodactylids | 619 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of the Hoof | 619 | ||
| Examination and Diagnosis | 621 | ||
| Causes of Hoof Disorders in Nondomestic Artiodactylids | 622 | ||
| Noninfectious Disorders of the Hoof | 623 | ||
| Physical Injuries | 623 | ||
| Laminitis | 623 | ||
| Nutritional Problems | 623 | ||
| Sole Lesions | 624 | ||
| Fissures and Cracks | 624 | ||
| White Line Disease | 624 | ||
| Worn Soles | 624 | ||
| Interdigital Hyperplasia | 624 | ||
| Infectious Disorders of the Hoof | 624 | ||
| Infectious Pododermatitis | 624 | ||
| Interdigital Dermatitis | 625 | ||
| Papillomatous Digital Dermatitis | 625 | ||
| Viral Diseases | 625 | ||
| Foot-and-Mouth Disease | 625 | ||
| Prevention and Treatment | 625 | ||
| References | 626 | ||
| 81 Johne’s Disease and Free-Ranging Wildlife | 628 | ||
| Cause | 628 | ||
| Epidemiology | 629 | ||
| Ruminant Infections | 629 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 629 | ||
| Pathology | 630 | ||
| Bison | 630 | ||
| Deer and Elk | 630 | ||
| Nonruminant Infections | 631 | ||
| Camelids | 632 | ||
| Diagnosis | 632 | ||
| Culture | 632 | ||
| Polymerase Chain Reaction | 633 | ||
| Serologic Testing | 633 | ||
| Postmortem Testing | 633 | ||
| Treatment and Vaccines | 634 | ||
| Management and Control | 634 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 634 | ||
| References | 634 | ||
| 82 Practical Aspects of Ruminant Intensive Care | 636 | ||
| Rule of Twenty for Ruminants | 636 | ||
| 1. Fluid Balance | 636 | ||
| 2. Oncotic Pull | 638 | ||
| 3. Glucose | 639 | ||
| 4. Electrolytes and Acid-Base Balance | 639 | ||
| 5. Oxygenation and Ventilation | 639 | ||
| 6. Level of Consciousness | 639 | ||
| 7. Blood Pressure | 639 | ||
| 8. Heart Rate, Rhythm, and Contractility | 640 | ||
| 9. Albumin | 640 | ||
| 10. Coagulation | 640 | ||
| 11. Red Blood Cell and Hemoglobin Concentration | 640 | ||
| 12. Renal Function | 641 | ||
| 13. Immune Status, Antibiotic Selection, and White Blood Cell Count | 641 | ||
| 14. Gastrointestinal Motility and Mucosal Integrity | 641 | ||
| 15. Drug Dosages and Metabolism | 641 | ||
| 16. Nutrition | 641 | ||
| 17. Pain Control | 642 | ||
| 18. Nursing Care | 642 | ||
| 19. Wound Care and Bandage Changes | 642 | ||
| 20. Tender Loving Care | 642 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 643 | ||
| References | 643 | ||
| 15 Camelids | 645 | ||
| 83 Mycoplasma haemolamae in New World Camelids | 646 | ||
| Polymerase Chain Reaction Assay Development | 646 | ||
| Classification and Characteristics | 646 | ||
| Experimental Infections and Treatment Studies | 647 | ||
| Transmission | 648 | ||
| Prevalence | 648 | ||
| References | 648 | ||
| Index | 649 | ||
| A | 649 | ||
| B | 651 | ||
| C | 652 | ||
| D | 654 | ||
| E | 655 | ||
| F | 657 | ||
| G | 658 | ||
| H | 659 | ||
| I | 660 | ||
| J | 660 | ||
| K | 660 | ||
| L | 661 | ||
| M | 661 | ||
| N | 662 | ||
| O | 663 | ||
| P | 663 | ||
| Q | 664 | ||
| R | 664 | ||
| S | 666 | ||
| T | 667 | ||
| U | 668 | ||
| V | 668 | ||
| W | 668 | ||
| X | 669 | ||
| Y | 669 | ||
| Z | 669 |