Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
This most up-to date book addresses the interdisciplinary area of drinking water quality monitoring by microbiological sensors. It is edited and written by leading water professionals and experts, and binds together interests and competences within sensing technology, system behavior, business needs, legislation, education, data handling, and intelligent response algorithms.
The book contains chapters on:
- the history of water monitoring and early sensors
- the current landscape of microbiological sensors and different measuring concepts
- needs from the water industry
- detailed description of several state-of-the-art sensor technologies
- water industry case stories with operator experience
- examples of on-line data collection and data handling
- microbiological sensors applied in education and industry workshops
- regulator aspects of introducing microbiological sensors
It is the hope that the book will be widely used by water utility managers, technical staff working with drinking water safety, educators in the field of water quality and regulators in this field worldwide. Furthermore, that it will help bridge the gaps between these diverse and otherwise differently oriented water professionals.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| Editorial preface | xv | ||
| Foreword by Eberhard Morgenroth | xix | ||
| HOW TO MAKE GOOD USE OF MORE INFORMATION FOR SAFE DRINKING WATER | xix | ||
| Foreword by Koen Huysman | xxi | ||
| HOW TO LINK SENSORS WITH YOUR GOALS FOR OPERATIONAL EXCELLENCE | xxi | ||
| About the Editors | xxv | ||
| List of Contributors | xxvii | ||
| Section 1: Background and perspectives | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1: History and perspective – the challenge of the gap between legislation and scientific achievements: The new era of enlightenment | 3 | ||
| 1.1 INTRODUCTION | 3 | ||
| 1.2 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE-BASED METHODS | 4 | ||
| 1.3 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CLASSICAL CULTURE-BASED METHODS | 5 | ||
| 1.4 MEASURING GENERAL MICROBIAL POPULATIONS OR MICROBIAL INDICATORS | 5 | ||
| 1.5 MONITORING FOR COMPLIANCE WITH GUIDELINES VERSUS PROCESS CONTROL | 6 | ||
| 1.6 SENSORS | 7 | ||
| 1.7 OPPORTUNITIES OFFERED BY SENSORS | 7 | ||
| 1.8 NEW INSIGHTS THROUGH MONITORING WITH SENSORS | 9 | ||
| 1.9 THE POSITION OF REGULATORS AND UTILITIES | 9 | ||
| 1.10 REFERENCES | 11 | ||
| Chapter 2: The need for speed – rapid evolution of microbiological testing in drinking water | 15 | ||
| 2.1 INTRODUCTION | 15 | ||
| 2.2 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL TIMES – EARLY MICROBIOLOGICAL SENSING | 16 | ||
| 2.3 19TH CENTURY – LINKING THE WATER CYCLE TO HUMAN HEALTH | 18 | ||
| 2.4 20TH CENTURY – ESTABLISHMENT OF REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS | 20 | ||
| 2.4.1 Pressure | 21 | ||
| 2.4.2 Turbidity | 21 | ||
| 2.4.3 Disinfectant residual | 21 | ||
| 2.4.4 Faecal indicators | 22 | ||
| 2.5 21ST CENTURY – A NEW PARADIGM | 22 | ||
| 2.5.1 Aging infrastructure and shifting demand | 22 | ||
| 2.5.2 Changing workforce | 23 | ||
| 2.5.3 Consumer awareness | 23 | ||
| 2.5.4 Evolving science | 24 | ||
| 2.6 THE ECONOMICS OF TIME IN DRINKING WATER | 24 | ||
| 2.6.1 Water and chemical conservation | 25 | ||
| 2.6.2 Time and travel conservation | 25 | ||
| 2.6.3 Boil Water advisory mitigation | 25 | ||
| 2.6.4 Infrastructure preservation | 26 | ||
| 2.7 UPGRADING THE TOOLBOX | 26 | ||
| 2.7.1 Online cell counting and sensing | 27 | ||
| 2.7.2 Portable and rapid microbiological methods | 27 | ||
| 2.7.3 Microorganism identification | 28 | ||
| 2.8 THE FUTURE AND THE HOLY GRAIL | 29 | ||
| 2.9 CONCLUSION | 31 | ||
| 2.10 REFERENCES | 32 | ||
| Chapter 3: Microbiological sensors for drinking water: Terminology and central concepts | 35 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 35 | ||
| 3.2 MICROORGANISMS | 35 | ||
| 3.2.1 Dead or alive? | 36 | ||
| 3.2.2 Planktonic or sessile? | 37 | ||
| 3.2.3 Pathogenic or harmless? | 38 | ||
| 3.3 MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION | 40 | ||
| 3.3.1 Sources of microbiological contamination in drinking water | 40 | ||
| 3.3.2 Location of contamination sources | 42 | ||
| 3.3.3 Contamination patterns | 43 | ||
| 3.4 MICROBIOLOGICAL SENSORS | 44 | ||
| 3.4.1 Goals of monitoring with microbiological sensors | 45 | ||
| 3.4.2 Sensor attributes | 47 | ||
| 3.4.3 Metrics and measurement principles | 49 | ||
| 3.4.4 Monitoring strategies | 51 | ||
| 3.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 52 | ||
| 3.6 REFERENCES | 52 | ||
| Section 2: Industry needs | 55 | ||
| Chapter 4: Water quality monitoring at Danish utilities – current state and needs for the future | 57 | ||
| 4.1 INTRODUCTION | 57 | ||
| 4.2 OBJECTIVES OF MONITORING WATER QUALITY | 58 | ||
| 4.2.1 Legal compliance | 58 | ||
| 4.2.1.1 Grab samples | 58 | ||
| 4.2.1.2 Online microbiological sensors | 59 | ||
| 4.2.2 Detection of contamination | 60 | ||
| 4.2.2.1 Severity of contamination | 60 | ||
| 4.2.2.2 Source tracking | 60 | ||
| 4.2.2.3 Decision support | 61 | ||
| 4.2.3 Prevention of contamination | 61 | ||
| 4.2.4 Process control and optimisation | 61 | ||
| 4.3 CURRENTLY APPLIED WATER QUALITY MONITORING METHODS | 61 | ||
| 4.3.1 Standardised methods generally applied by Danish utilities | 62 | ||
| 4.3.2 Other commercial methods applied by some Danish utilities | 62 | ||
| 4.3.2.1 Commercial sensors applied by utilities | 63 | ||
| 4.3.2.2 Additional commercial methods applied by utilities | 63 | ||
| 4.4 RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN MONITORING OBJECTIVES AND CURRENTLY APPLIED METHODS | 64 | ||
| 4.5 FUTURE NEEDS FOR WATER QUALITY MONITORING | 69 | ||
| 4.6 REFERENCES | 70 | ||
| Chapter 5: On-line monitoring of bacteria in drinking water systems: Expected benefits and new challenges for utility operators | 73 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 73 | ||
| 5.2 EXPECTED BENEFITS | 74 | ||
| 5.2.1 On-line monitoring in raw water at Drinking Water Treatment Plant (DWTP) | 75 | ||
| 5.2.1.1 Fecal contamination monitoring | 75 | ||
| 5.2.1.2 Cyanobacteria-associated bloom monitoring | 76 | ||
| 5.2.2 On-line monitoring in Drinking Water Treatment Processes (DWTP) | 76 | ||
| 5.2.3 On-line monitoring in Drinking Water Distribution System (DWDS) | 77 | ||
| 5.3 CHALLENGES | 78 | ||
| 5.3.1 On the track of the ideal sensor | 79 | ||
| 5.3.2 Monitoring parameters | 79 | ||
| 5.3.3 Validation of measurements | 81 | ||
| 5.3.4 Data management | 82 | ||
| 5.4 CASE STUDY | 83 | ||
| 5.5 CONCLUSION | 85 | ||
| 5.6 REFERENCES | 86 | ||
| Section 3: Sensor technologies | 89 | ||
| Chapter 6: Use of fully automated bacterial monitors for enhanced water safety | 91 | ||
| 6.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATED BACTERIAL MONITORS BY COLIFAST AS | 91 | ||
| 6.1.1 Analysis reagents | 92 | ||
| 6.1.2 First automated analyser | 92 | ||
| 6.1.3 Flexible on-line analyser | 93 | ||
| 6.1.4 Manual Field Kit | 95 | ||
| 6.1.5 On-line drinking water analyser | 96 | ||
| 6.2 METHODS | 98 | ||
| 6.3 APPLICATION EXAMPLES, OPERATION AND INTEGRATION | 100 | ||
| 6.3.1 Monitoring raw water quality – Gothenburg, Sweden | 100 | ||
| 6.3.2 Process control – treatment step in small WTP | 104 | ||
| 6.3.3 Oslo municipality water and wastewater | 106 | ||
| 6.3.3.1 Monitoring of drinking water bacterial quality with Colifast ALARM | 106 | ||
| 6.3.3.2 Raw water monitoring with CALM | 107 | ||
| 6.3.3.3 Environmental monitoring with CALM | 108 | ||
| 6.4 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS | 109 | ||
| 6.5 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES | 112 | ||
| 6.6 REFERENCES | 113 | ||
| Chapter 7: Online flow cytometry: Towards a rapid, robust, and reliable microbial sensor | 115 | ||
| 7.1 INTRODUCTION: MICROBIAL DYNAMICS MATTER IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS | 115 | ||
| 7.2 FCM IS AN AUTOMATABLE MULTIVARIATE MICROBIAL SENSOR | 117 | ||
| 7.3 EXPERIENCE GAINED WITH DATA SETS GENERATED DURING THE LAST FIVE YEARS | 120 | ||
| 7.3.1 Periodic and aperiodic fluctuations in river water | 120 | ||
| 7.3.2 Precipitation-induced contamination of karstic spring water | 122 | ||
| 7.3.3 Operationally-induced fluctuations in river bank filtered water | 123 | ||
| 7.3.4 Characterising bacterial growth | 125 | ||
| 7.4 TOWARDS ROUTINE IMPLEMENTATION | 126 | ||
| 7.5 THE NEXT FRONTIERS: HIGH FREQUENCY REAL-TIME FLOW CYTOMETRY (RT-FCM) AND ONLINE VIABILITY ANALYSIS | 128 | ||
| 7.6 CONCLUSIONS | 130 | ||
| 7.7 REFERENCES | 130 | ||
| Chapter 8: Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) measurement technology | 137 | ||
| 8.1 INTRODUCTION | 137 | ||
| 8.2 ATP MEASUREMENT FUNDEMENTALS | 138 | ||
| 8.3 FIRST VERSUS SECOND GENERATION ATP MEASUREMENT | 140 | ||
| 8.3.1 Overcoming Interferences | 140 | ||
| 8.3.2 Extraction and Recovery | 141 | ||
| 8.3.3 Importance of Calibration | 141 | ||
| 8.3.4 Limit of Detection | 142 | ||
| 8.4 METHODS FOR DETECTION OF TOTAL MICROORGANISMS | 142 | ||
| 8.4.1 Why Measure Total Microorganisms? | 143 | ||
| 8.4.2 Population Specificity | 143 | ||
| 8.4.3 Particle Association and Agglomeration | 144 | ||
| 8.4.4 Disinfection Efficacy | 144 | ||
| 8.5 CASE STUDIES | 145 | ||
| 8.5.1 Direct Comparison of Second Generation ATP to Culture-Based Methods | 145 | ||
| 8.5.2 Using Second Generation ATP Testing to Optimize Biologically Active Filters | 146 | ||
| 8.5.3 The Membrane Biofouling Index | 148 | ||
| 8.5.4 Using Second Generation ATP Testing to Address Biological Hotspots | 149 | ||
| 8.5.5 Audit of Public Building Water Distribution System | 151 | ||
| 8.6 CONCLUSIONS | 152 | ||
| 8.7 REFERENCES | 153 | ||
| Chapter 9: Counting totally matters – using grundfos bacmon for network monitoring | 155 | ||
| 9.1 INTRODUCTION | 155 | ||
| 9.2 TECHNOLOGY AND SOLUTION | 157 | ||
| 9.2.1 Mimicking the human brain a bit | 157 | ||
| 9.2.2 How does it compare? | 158 | ||
| 9.2.3 Air bubbles, biofilm, and fouling taken into account | 160 | ||
| 9.3 OVERALL CONCEPT | 162 | ||
| 9.4 FROM DUSK TILL DAWN – APPLICATION CASES | 163 | ||
| 9.4.1 Flushing filters | 165 | ||
| 9.4.2 Network overview and optimization | 166 | ||
| 9.4.3 Red alert in food production | 168 | ||
| 9.5 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES | 169 | ||
| 9.6 REFERENCES | 170 | ||
| Chapter 10: Safety and quality control in drinking water systems by online monitoring of enzymatic activity of faecal indicators and total bacteria | 171 | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION | 171 | ||
| 10.1.1 The role of monitoring in water safety and quality | 171 | ||
| 10.1.2 Rationale for monitoring enzymatic activity | 173 | ||
| 10.1.2.1 Total bacteria (‘total activity’) | 173 | ||
| 10.1.2.2 Total coliforms and (faecal) indicators | 174 | ||
| 10.2 EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND OPERATION | 175 | ||
| 10.2.1 Bacterial enzymes | 175 | ||
| 10.2.2 Sampling the bacteria and their enzymes | 176 | ||
| 10.2.3 Enzymatic reaction | 176 | ||
| 10.2.4 Quantifying enzymatic activity | 177 | ||
| 10.2.5 Data storage, processing and flow | 178 | ||
| 10.2.6 Cleaning | 178 | ||
| 10.2.7 Speed: Frequency of sampling and analysis | 178 | ||
| 10.2.8 Improvements since the last validation study | 178 | ||
| 10.3 RESULTS OF VALIDATION STUDIES | 179 | ||
| 10.4 BARCELONA WATER WORKS CASE STUDY: TOTAL BACTERIAL ACTIVITY | 179 | ||
| 10.4.1 Description of the treatment plant | 179 | ||
| 10.4.1.1 Surface water, the Llobregat River | 180 | ||
| 10.4.1.2 Groundwater | 180 | ||
| 10.4.2 Monitoring points | 182 | ||
| 10.4.2.1 Sand-filtered water | 182 | ||
| 10.4.2.2 GAC-filtered water | 182 | ||
| 10.4.2.3 Treated water | 182 | ||
| 10.4.3 Quality events | 182 | ||
| 10.4.4 Verification strategy and methods | 183 | ||
| 10.4.5 Results | 183 | ||
| 10.4.5.1 Sand filters | 184 | ||
| 10.4.5.2 GAC filters | 187 | ||
| 10.4.5.3 Treated water | 189 | ||
| 10.4.6 Total activity vs. other verification methods | 190 | ||
| 10.4.6.1 GAC filtration | 190 | ||
| 10.4.6.2 Sand filtration | 190 | ||
| 10.4.7 User feedback of BACTcontrol | 191 | ||
| 10.5 DISCUSSION | 191 | ||
| 10.6 CONCLUSIONS | 192 | ||
| 10.7 Acknowledgements | 193 | ||
| 10.8 REFERENCES | 193 | ||
| Chapter 11: Mean oxidation state of organic carbon: A novel application to evaluate the extent of oxidation of natural organic matter in drinking water biological treatment | 197 | ||
| 11.1 INTRODUCTION | 197 | ||
| 11.2 BACKGROUND | 198 | ||
| 11.2.1 Quantifying natural organic matter by Photoelectrochemical Chemical Oxygen Demand (peCOD) | 198 | ||
| 11.2.2 Mean Oxidation State (MOS) of organic carbon (Cos) | 199 | ||
| 11.2.3 Biomass Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) | 200 | ||
| 11.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS | 201 | ||
| 11.3.1 Full-scale drinking water biofilters | 201 | ||
| 11.3.2 Analytical methods | 202 | ||
| 11.3.2.1 Total organic carbon (TOC)/dissolved organic carbon (DOC) | 202 | ||
| 11.3.2.2 Photoelectronchemical chemical oxygen demand (peCOD) | 202 | ||
| 11.3.2.3 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) of biomass | 202 | ||
| 11.3.2.4 Data analysis | 203 | ||
| 11.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 203 | ||
| 11.4.1 Mean oxidation state of organic carbon before/after biofiltration | 203 | ||
| 11.4.2 Evolution of biomass ATP and mean oxidation state of organic carbon | 204 | ||
| 11.4.3 Implications for drinking water utilities | 207 | ||
| 11.5 CONCLUSION | 208 | ||
| 11.6 REFERENCES | 208 | ||
| Section 4: Data collection and interpretation | 211 | ||
| Chapter 12: Test of sensor technologies for monitoring of microbiological drinking water quality | 213 | ||
| 12.1 INTRODUCTION | 213 | ||
| 12.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES | 214 | ||
| 12.2.1 Experimental setup | 214 | ||
| 12.2.2 Contaminant types | 215 | ||
| 12.2.3 Methodology | 215 | ||
| 12.2.4 Analyses | 217 | ||
| 12.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 218 | ||
| 12.3.1 Specificity and Sensitivity | 220 | ||
| 12.3.2 Speed | 221 | ||
| 12.3.3 User-friendliness | 222 | ||
| 12.3.4 Automatic sampling | 224 | ||
| 12.3.5 Characterization of contaminations | 225 | ||
| 12.4 CONCLUSIONS | 227 | ||
| 12.5 REFERENCES | 228 | ||
| Chapter 13: From sensor to decision – augmented and automated decision-making based on real-time data | 231 | ||
| 13.1 INTRODUCTION | 231 | ||
| 13.2 CONNECTING SENSORS – LESSONS FROM INTERNET OF THINGS | 233 | ||
| 13.2.1 Device-to-Device connection | 233 | ||
| 13.2.2 Device-to-Cloud connection | 234 | ||
| 13.2.3 Device-to-Gateway connection | 235 | ||
| 13.2.4 Cloud-to-Cloud connection | 236 | ||
| 13.3 STORAGE STRATEGIES | 237 | ||
| 13.4 DATA ANALYTICS | 238 | ||
| 13.5 DECISION MAKING – AUGMENTED OR AUTOMATED | 240 | ||
| 13.6 REFERENCES | 241 | ||
| Section 5: Water safety, education and legislation | 243 | ||
| Chapter 14: HACCP in drinking water systems | 245 | ||
| 14.1 INTRODUCTION | 245 | ||
| 14.2 WATER SUPPLY IN DENMARK | 246 | ||
| 14.3 HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS | 248 | ||
| 14.4 HACCP – INTRODUCED TO DANISH UTILITIES | 249 | ||
| 14.5 HACCP – THE DANISH APPROACH | 250 | ||
| 14.5.1 Risk assessment | 251 | ||
| 14.5.2 HACCP as a management tool | 254 | ||
| 14.5.3 An efficient tool: education and HACCP training programmes | 255 | ||
| 14.5.4 Procedures: Drinking water safety brochure | 256 | ||
| 14.6 MONITORING OF THE QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER | 257 | ||
| 14.7 ON-LINE MICROBIOLOGICAL SENSORS | 259 | ||
| 14.8 HANDS-ON EXPERIENCE FROM TWO WATER UTILITIES | 259 | ||
| 14.8.1 HACCP and maintenance of pipe systems – an example | 260 | ||
| 14.8.2 Case study: Clean water tanks | 261 | ||
| 14.8.3 Case study: Truelsbjerg waterworks | 262 | ||
| 14.9 HACCP – AN ONGOING PROCESS | 263 | ||
| 14.10 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 264 | ||
| 14.11 REFERENCES | 264 | ||
| Chapter 15: Enhancing knowledge of microbiological sensors through education | 267 | ||
| 15.1 BETTER EDUCATION OF WORK FORCE IN THE WATER SECTOR | 267 | ||
| 15.2 Introduction OF MICROBIOLOGICAL SENSORS IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM | 270 | ||
| 15.2.1 Supply engineering education | 270 | ||
| 15.2.2 A representative student BSc project on Ice Pigging of drinking water pipes | 271 | ||
| 15.2.3 Industry courses and workshops | 272 | ||
| 15.2.3.1 Water quality | 273 | ||
| 15.2.3.2 Practical hygiene for people working with drinking water | 273 | ||
| 15.2.3.3 Practical hygiene for external contractors working for the waterworks | 274 | ||
| 15.2.3.4 Ad hoc industry workshops | 274 | ||
| 15.3 GAP ANALYSIS AND WAY FORWARD | 276 | ||
| 15.4 Acknowledgements | 277 | ||
| 15.5 REFERENCES | 277 | ||
| Chapter 16: Challenges of regulatory compliance using sensor technology for drinking water distribution systems | 279 | ||
| 16.1 INTRODUCTION | 279 | ||
| 16.1.1 USEPA drinking water standards | 280 | ||
| 16.1.2 Guidelines for canadian drinking water quality | 281 | ||
| 16.1.3 EU drinking water directive | 281 | ||
| 16.1.4 World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines | 282 | ||
| 16.2 STRATEGIES FOR REGULATORY COMPLIANCE | 283 | ||
| 16.2.1 Microbiological contaminants | 283 | ||
| 16.2.2 Contaminants specific to water sources | 284 | ||
| 16.2.3 Contaminants generated within the water distribution infrastructure | 285 | ||
| 16.3 REGULATORY SHORTFALLS | 288 | ||
| 16.3.1 Rise of class action lawsuits | 290 | ||
| 16.4 ALTERNATE REGULATORY METHODS | 291 | ||
| 16.5 ADVANTAGES OF SENSOR TECHNOLOGY FOR REGULATORY COMPLIANCE | 293 | ||
| 16.6 THE DATA ANALYTICAL APPROACH FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL SENSORS | 295 | ||
| 16.7 CONCLUSIONS | 297 | ||
| 16.8 REFERENCES | 298 | ||
| Index | 301 |