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Book Details
Abstract
Tomato is one of the most widespread horticultural species in the world. Used in a wide and diverse range of forms, from being suitable for consumption fresh to use as a manufactured derivative, e.g. sauce, peeled, juices, ketchup, etc., it is hard to imagine tomato-free cuisine. With many national traditions and dishes based on this culinary vegetable, it is said to be one of the symbols of Mediterranean cuisine.
This book looks at the many changes that are taking place in the tomato market and industry; tomato producers are combining tomato origin, tradition, territory, quality, service and supply chain to adapt to the needs of the new consumers. It deals with the topics that are pertinent to the current industry: rheology and mechanical properties; origin determination; innovation and new product development; market research; sensory and consumer preference; quality control and new methods; volatile compounds and aroma; non-conventional processing technologies; functional and healthy compounds; waste and by-product valorization; and sustainability and traditional products.
Providing a comprehensive overview of the actual tomato industry; how it ensures product authenticity; new product development, particularly focused on consumer demands; the presence of bio-active substances able to prevent chronic diseases (carotenoids, phenolic and flavonoids); and how to convert industrial waste into added value by-products; this book will appeal to professionals and food product developers.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Preface | v | ||
| Contributors | vii | ||
| Editor | vii | ||
| Contents | xxi | ||
| Section One - Advances in Quality Control, Market and Consumer Demand | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1 Rheological Properties of Tomato Products | 3 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 3 | ||
| 1.2 Fundaments of Rheology | 4 | ||
| 1.2.1 Fluid Flow | 5 | ||
| 1.2.2 Viscoelastic Properties | 8 | ||
| 1.3 Steady-state Shear Behavior | 11 | ||
| 1.4 Time-dependent Behavior | 16 | ||
| 1.5 Viscoelastic Flow | 18 | ||
| 1.6 Conclusion | 23 | ||
| References | 23 | ||
| Chapter 2 Determination of the Origin of Tomato Products | 26 | ||
| 2.1 Regulatory Requirements | 26 | ||
| 2.2 The Ubiquity of Tomato Paste | 26 | ||
| 2.3 Isotopes, Elements, and Volatiles on Different Tomato Products | 27 | ||
| 2.4 NMR Spectroscopy | 29 | ||
| 2.4.1 Tomato Paste | 29 | ||
| 2.4.1.1 High Resolution (HR) NMR | 29 | ||
| 2.4.2 Cherry Tomatoes | 33 | ||
| 2.4.2.1 High Resolution Magic Angle Spinning (HR-MAS) NMR Spectroscopy | 33 | ||
| 2.4.2.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | 36 | ||
| 2.4.2.3 High Resolution (HR) NMR Spectroscopy | 37 | ||
| 2.5 Conclusion | 39 | ||
| References | 40 | ||
| Chapter 3 Scientific Psychophysics and the Commercially Oriented Study of Tomato Sauce | 41 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 41 | ||
| 3.1.1 An Intellectual History | 41 | ||
| 3.1.2 Psychophysics, Univariate and Multivariate | 42 | ||
| 3.2 The Prego Pasta Sauce Story, First Movement-Category Appraisal | 43 | ||
| 3.2.1 Choreographing a Multiple Product Test and Analyzing the Data | 44 | ||
| 3.2.2 From Theory to Practice | 45 | ||
| 3.2.2.1 Testing One Product Is Done for a Different Reason Than Testing an Array of Products | 45 | ||
| 3.2.2.2 Testing Several Products Comes from the Objective to Uncover Patterns Across the Products | 46 | ||
| 3.2.3 Questions to Be Answered | 47 | ||
| 3.2.3.1 Question 1: What Attributes Should We Choose, and What Scale Should We Use? | 47 | ||
| 3.2.3.2 Question 2: How Do the Products Score? | 48 | ||
| 3.2.3.3 Question 3: How Does a Change in Sensory Attribute Drive Overall Liking, or Any Other Kind of Liking | 48 | ||
| 3.2.3.4 Question 4: Are There Opportunities in the Marketplace? | 49 | ||
| 3.2.4 Moving on from Mapping | 52 | ||
| 3.3 The Prego Pasta Sauce Story, Second Movement-Experimental Design | 53 | ||
| 3.3.1 Creating and Then Analyzing The Prego Data | 54 | ||
| 3.3.2 Analyzing the Data | 55 | ||
| 3.4 The Path Forward-From a Tortuous Process to a Streamlined App, the ‘‘Spirit of 2018’’ | 57 | ||
| 3.4.1 Specifics of the Approach | 58 | ||
| 3.4.1.1 Test with 25 Respondents | 58 | ||
| 3.4.1.2 Use a Small, Efficient, Easy-to-implement Experimental Design | 59 | ||
| 3.4.1.3 Do the Homework, Rather Than Select Promising Prototypes and Only Testing Those | 60 | ||
| 3.4.1.4 Acquire the Data in About 2 Hours and Automatically Report the Results | 60 | ||
| 3.4.1.5 Sensory Segmentation | 61 | ||
| 3.4.2 Beyond the Tongue to the Mind-New Frontiers in Developing Tomato-Based Products | 62 | ||
| 3.4.2.1 Mixtures of Ideas, Experimental Design of Messaging, and Analysis | 62 | ||
| 3.4.2.2 Implementing the Approach in Almost Real Time | 63 | ||
| 3.4.2.3 How the App Works | 63 | ||
| 3.4.2.4 From the Tongue to the Mind | 64 | ||
| 3.5 Encounters with Popularizers such as Malcolm Gladwell | 64 | ||
| References | 68 | ||
| Chapter 4 Consumer Perceptions and Sensory Preferences of Tomato and Tomato Products | 70 | ||
| 4.1 Consumers' Perceptions and Preferences | 70 | ||
| 4.1.1 Consumer’s Quality Perception | 70 | ||
| 4.1.2 Consumers’ Preferences | 71 | ||
| 4.1.3 Cross-country Studies for Studying Consumer Behaviour | 72 | ||
| 4.2 Drivers of the Selection and Use of Fresh Tomatoes and Processed Tomato Products | 73 | ||
| 4.2.1 Fresh Tomatoes | 74 | ||
| 4.2.2 Tomato Preserves | 74 | ||
| 4.2.2.1 Tomato Juice | 74 | ||
| 4.2.2.2 Tomato Paste | 74 | ||
| 4.2.2.3 Canned Whole Peeled Tomatoes | 76 | ||
| 4.2.2.4 Diced (Chopped) Tomatoes | 76 | ||
| 4.2.3 Tomato-based Foods | 77 | ||
| 4.2.3.1 Tomato Sauce | 77 | ||
| 4.2.3.2 Tomato Soup | 77 | ||
| 4.2.3.3 Ketchup | 77 | ||
| 4.2.4 Dried Tomatoes | 77 | ||
| 4.2.4.1 Dried Tomatoes | 77 | ||
| 4.2.4.2 Tomato Flakes | 78 | ||
| 4.3 Key Intrinsic and Extrinsic Quality Attributes | 78 | ||
| 4.3.1 Key Drivers for Choosing Fresh Tomatoes | 78 | ||
| 4.3.2 Key Drivers for Choosing Canned Whole Peeled Tomatoes | 79 | ||
| 4.4 Conclusion and Perspectives | 82 | ||
| References | 82 | ||
| Chapter 5 New Approaches for Rapid Tomato Quality Control | 85 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 85 | ||
| 5.2 Types of Sensors Used to Determine Quality Traits | 87 | ||
| 5.2.1 Electronic Noses | 88 | ||
| 5.2.2 Colorimeters and Spectrophotometers for Color Measurements | 93 | ||
| 5.2.3 Color Imaging for Sorting Ripeness | 96 | ||
| 5.2.4 Vibrational Spectroscopic Techniques | 97 | ||
| 5.2.4.1 Near-infrared Spectroscopy | 98 | ||
| 5.2.4.2 Mid-infrared Spectroscopy | 101 | ||
| 5.2.4.3 Raman Spectroscopy | 104 | ||
| 5.3 Conclusion | 108 | ||
| References | 108 | ||
| Chapter 6 Volatile Taste/Odour Active Compounds and Aroma Generation in Tomato Products | 114 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction and Analytical Approach | 114 | ||
| 6.2 Isolation and Extraction of Volatile Compounds | 115 | ||
| 6.2.1 Distillation | 115 | ||
| 6.2.2 Adsorption Techniques | 115 | ||
| 6.3 Odour Units | 118 | ||
| 6.4 Volatile Compounds of Fresh Tomato | 120 | ||
| 6.4.1 Volatile Compounds and Aroma of the ‘Pizzutello’ Tomato Variety | 127 | ||
| 6.5 Volatile Compounds of Processed Tomato | 132 | ||
| References | 136 | ||
| Section Two - New Technology, Processing, Products | 139 | ||
| Chapter 7 Development of New Tomato Products in a Very Consolidated Market | 141 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 141 | ||
| 7.1.1 Processed Tomatoes | 141 | ||
| 7.1.2 Current Market Conditions for Processed Tomatoes in the USA | 142 | ||
| 7.2 Why New Product Development? | 142 | ||
| 7.3 General Principles Guiding the Product Development Strategy | 143 | ||
| 7.4 Phases of New Tomato Product Development | 144 | ||
| 7.5 Internal Company Strategies-Processes and Talents Required for Success | 146 | ||
| 7.6 Food Trends and Product Qualities to Consider | 147 | ||
| 7.7 Potential of New, Innovative Tomato Products | 148 | ||
| 7.7.1 Food Products Based on Tomato By-product (Pomace) | 149 | ||
| 7.7.2 Green Tomato Products | 149 | ||
| 7.7.3 Organic Tomato Products | 150 | ||
| 7.7.4 Other Miscellaneous Tomato Products | 151 | ||
| References | 151 | ||
| Chapter 8 Chinese Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for Safety-certified Tomatoes: Evidence from Random nth-Price Auctions | 153 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 153 | ||
| 8.2 Experimental Design and Implementation | 155 | ||
| 8.2.1 Stimuli | 155 | ||
| 8.2.2 Participants | 155 | ||
| 8.2.3 Auction Procedure | 157 | ||
| 8.3 Theoretical Framework and Variable Settings | 158 | ||
| 8.3.1 Theoretical Framework | 158 | ||
| 8.3.2 Variable Settings | 159 | ||
| 8.4 Results and Discussion | 160 | ||
| 8.4.1 Consumer WTP for Different Safe Tomatoes | 160 | ||
| 8.4.2 Estimation Results of the MVP Model | 160 | ||
| 8.5 Conclusions | 163 | ||
| References | 164 | ||
| Chapter 9 Mechanical Properties of Tomato Fruit and Tissues and Their Impact on Processing | 166 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 166 | ||
| 9.2 Measurement Methods | 168 | ||
| 9.3 Mechanical Properties of Tomato Fruit | 169 | ||
| 9.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Tomato Fruit During Maturing | 170 | ||
| 9.3.2 Mechanical Properties of Tomato Fruit as Affected by Condition | 171 | ||
| 9.4 Mechanical Properties of Tomato Peel | 172 | ||
| 9.4.1 Changes in Mechanical Properties of Tomato Peel During Ripening | 172 | ||
| 9.4.2 Effects of Temperature and Relative Humidity on Mechanical Properties of Tomato Peels | 173 | ||
| 9.4.3 Mechanical Properties of Tomato Peels after Harvesting | 174 | ||
| 9.5 Mechanical Properties of Tomato Cells | 175 | ||
| 9.6 Summary and Research Needs | 176 | ||
| References | 176 | ||
| Chapter 10 Peeling of Tomatoes Using Infrared Heating Technology | 180 | ||
| 10.1 Introduction | 180 | ||
| 10.1.1 Tomato Production | 180 | ||
| 10.1.2 Structure and Nutritional Value of Tomato Peels | 181 | ||
| 10.1.3 Tomato Peeling Methods | 182 | ||
| 10.2 Principles of Infrared Radiation Heating | 183 | ||
| 10.3 Performance and Product Quality of IR Dry-peeling | 184 | ||
| 10.3.1 Peeling Performance | 184 | ||
| 10.3.2 Product Quality | 185 | ||
| 10.3.3 Textural Properties of Tomato Peel | 187 | ||
| 10.4 Mechanism of IR Peeling of Tomato | 189 | ||
| 10.5 Peeling Equipment and IR Emitters | 190 | ||
| 10.5.1 IR Heating Configuration | 190 | ||
| 10.5.2 Evaluation of IR Emitters | 191 | ||
| 10.5.3 Catalytic IR Peelers | 192 | ||
| 10.5.4 Electric IR Peelers | 192 | ||
| 10.6 Heat Transfer Modelling of IR Peeling Process | 195 | ||
| 10.7 Conclusion and Outlook | 197 | ||
| References | 197 | ||
| Chapter 11 The Use of Non-conventional Technologies for Processing Tomato Products: High-power Ultrasound, High-pressure Homogenization, High Hydrostatic Pressure, and Pulsed Electric Fields | 201 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 201 | ||
| 11.2 High-intensity Ultrasound Technology: Principles and Possible Uses in Tomato Processing | 202 | ||
| 11.2.1 Principles | 202 | ||
| 11.2.1.1 Mechanisms | 203 | ||
| 11.2.1.2 Application | 204 | ||
| 11.2.2 Uses in Tomato Processing | 205 | ||
| 11.2.2.1 Effects on Structure and Properties of Tomato Products | 205 | ||
| 11.2.2.2 Enzymic and Microbial Inactivation | 207 | ||
| 11.2.2.3 Drying, Extraction, Peeling and Pesticide Reduction | 208 | ||
| 11.2.2.3.1 Drying Process | 208 | ||
| 11.2.2.3.2 Extraction Process | 209 | ||
| 11.2.2.3.3 Tomato Peeling Process | 209 | ||
| 11.2.2.3.4 Pesticide Residue Reduction | 209 | ||
| 11.2.3 Final Considerations | 210 | ||
| 11.3 High Pressure Homogenization Technology: Principles and Possible Uses in Tomato Processing | 210 | ||
| 11.3.1 Principles | 210 | ||
| 11.3.2 Effect on Microstructure and Particle Size | 212 | ||
| 11.3.3 Effect on Rheology and Physical Stability | 214 | ||
| 11.3.4 Effect on Microbial and Enzymatic Inactivation | 215 | ||
| 11.4 High Hydrostatic Pressure Technology: Principles and Possible Uses in Tomato Processing | 216 | ||
| 11.4.1 Principles | 217 | ||
| 11.4.2 Application to Tomato Products | 218 | ||
| 11.4.2.1 Effect on Tomato Endogenous Enzymes | 218 | ||
| 11.4.2.2 Microbial Inactivation | 219 | ||
| 11.4.2.3 Effect on Quality Properties | 220 | ||
| 11.4.3 Final Considerations | 221 | ||
| 11.5 Pulsed Electric Fields Technology: Principles and Possible Uses in Tomato Processing | 221 | ||
| 11.5.1 Principles | 222 | ||
| 11.5.2 Application of PEF to Tomato Products | 223 | ||
| 11.5.2.1 Microbial Inactivation | 223 | ||
| 11.5.2.2 Examples of PEF Inactivation | 224 | ||
| 11.5.2.3 Effect on Constituents of Tomato Products | 224 | ||
| 11.5.3 Final Considerations | 225 | ||
| 11.6 Conclusions | 225 | ||
| References | 226 | ||
| Chapter 12 Tomato Seeds and Skins as a Source of Functional Compounds | 231 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 231 | ||
| 12.2 Tomato Seed Oil | 232 | ||
| 12.2.1 Production of Tomato Seed Oil | 232 | ||
| 12.2.2 Carotenoid and Sterolic Content of Tomato Seed Oil | 233 | ||
| 12.3 Functional Ingredients Extracted from Tomato Skins | 235 | ||
| 12.3.1 Xanthophylls | 235 | ||
| 12.3.2 Extraction of Xanthophylls | 239 | ||
| 12.3.3 Flavonoids | 239 | ||
| 12.3.3.1 Extraction of Flavonoids | 241 | ||
| 12.3.3.2 Microincapsulation | 242 | ||
| References | 243 | ||
| Section Three - Innovation, Waste Recovery and Valorization, Bioactive and Functional Compounds and Properties | 245 | ||
| Chapter 13 Valorization of Tomato Waste for Energy Production | 247 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction | 247 | ||
| 13.2 Energy Recovery from Residue Treatment | 248 | ||
| 13.2.1 Physical Treatment | 249 | ||
| 13.2.1.1 Pyrolysis | 249 | ||
| 13.2.2 Chemical Treatment | 249 | ||
| 13.2.2.1 Microbial-electrochemical Systems | 249 | ||
| 13.2.3 Biological Treatments | 249 | ||
| 13.2.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion | 249 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.1 Substrate Composition | 250 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.2 Substrate Treatment | 251 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.3 Solid Content | 253 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.4 Inoculum | 253 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.5 Temperature | 254 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.6 Hydraulic Retention Time and Organic Loading Rate | 254 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.7 Reactor Design | 254 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.8 Co-digestion | 255 | ||
| 13.2.4 Final Remarks | 255 | ||
| References | 256 | ||
| Chapter 14 Other Uses of Tomato By-products | 259 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 259 | ||
| 14.2 Composition of Tomato Pomace | 260 | ||
| 14.3 Use of Tomato By-products in Foodstuffs | 264 | ||
| 14.3.1 Bakery Products | 264 | ||
| 14.3.2 Meat Products | 264 | ||
| 14.3.3 Oils and Fats | 268 | ||
| 14.3.4 Dairy Products | 269 | ||
| 14.3.5 Snacks (Extruded Products) | 269 | ||
| 14.3.6 Animal Feed | 270 | ||
| 14.3.6.1 Poultry | 270 | ||
| 14.3.6.2 Ruminants | 273 | ||
| 14.3.6.3 Other Animals | 274 | ||
| 14.3.6.3.1 Rabbits | 274 | ||
| 14.3.6.3.2 Dogs | 275 | ||
| 14.3.7 Other Uses of Tomato Pomace | 275 | ||
| 14.3.7.1 Anaerobic Digestion for Methane Production | 275 | ||
| 14.3.7.2 Biodiesel, Ethanol, and Bioelectricity Production | 276 | ||
| 14.3.7.3 Tomato Pomace as a Substrate for Fermentation | 277 | ||
| 14.3.7.4 Soil Enrichment | 278 | ||
| References | 279 | ||
| Chapter 15 Functional and Health-promoting Properties of Tomatoes: It’s Not Just Lycopene | 285 | ||
| 15.1 Why Functional Quality? | 285 | ||
| 15.2 Tomato as a Source of Bioactive Compounds in the Diet | 287 | ||
| 15.2.1 Carotenoids | 287 | ||
| 15.2.2 Beyond Lycopene: Vitamin C, Vitamin E, and Polyphenols | 289 | ||
| 15.2.3 Factors Affecting Antioxidant Composition of Tomato Products | 290 | ||
| 15.3 Health-promoting Properties of Tomato and its Constituents | 290 | ||
| 15.3.1 Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases | 290 | ||
| 15.3.2 Prevention of Cancer | 292 | ||
| 15.3.3 Other Diseases | 295 | ||
| 15.4 Plant Breeding Achievements in the Improvement of Tomato Functional Value | 296 | ||
| 15.4.1 Enhanced Carotenoid Content | 296 | ||
| 15.4.2 Enhanced Vitamin C Content | 297 | ||
| 15.4.3 Enhanced Polyphenol Content | 298 | ||
| References | 298 | ||
| Chapter 16 Traditional Tomato Products and the Need for Innovation | 304 | ||
| 16.1 The Unheard Needs of the Retail Tomato Market | 304 | ||
| 16.2 Genetically Modified Tomato Products | 305 | ||
| 16.2.1 Properties of Diced Tomato Prepared from Control and GM Tomatoes | 307 | ||
| 16.2.1.1 Colour (L, aL, bL) | 309 | ||
| 16.2.1.2 Firmness | 310 | ||
| 16.2.1.3 Total Acidity and pH | 310 | ||
| 16.2.1.4 Drained Weight and Syneresis | 310 | ||
| 16.2.1.5 Pectin Content | 311 | ||
| 16.2.2 Properties of Tomato Purée Prepared from Control and GM Tomatoes | 312 | ||
| 16.2.2.1 Syneresis (Blotter Test) | 313 | ||
| 16.2.2.2 Firmness and Pectin Content | 314 | ||
| 16.2.2.3 Principal Components Analysis (PCA) | 314 | ||
| 16.3 Addition of Calcium Chloride to Diced Tomatoes | 317 | ||
| 16.3.1 Drained Weight | 318 | ||
| 16.3.2 Colour (L, aL, bL) | 318 | ||
| 16.3.3 pH | 319 | ||
| 16.3.4 Calcium Content | 320 | ||
| 16.3.5 Sensory Analysis | 322 | ||
| 16.3.6 Conclusions | 323 | ||
| 16.4 Innovative Packaging | 324 | ||
| References | 329 | ||
| Subject Index | 330 |