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Electrochromic Smart Materials

BOOK

Electrochromic Smart Materials

Jian Wei Xu | Ming Hui Chua | Kwok Wei Shah

(2019)

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Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN
978-1-78801-666-7
Edition
1
Language
English
Pages
547
Subjects
Materials science
Electronics engineering
Electronic devices & materials
Applied optics

Abstract

Interest in and attention on electrochromic technology has been growing since the 1970s, with the advent of numerous electrochromic devices in commercial and industrial settings. Many laboratory-based colour-changing electrochromic device prototypes have surfaced following research breakthroughs in recent years, and the consumer market has been expanding continuously. Electrochromic devices have a wide range of applications, such as displays, self-dimming mirrors for automobiles, electrochromic e-skins, textiles, and smart windows for energy-efficient buildings. Electrochromic Smart Materials covers major topics related to the phenomenon of electrochromism, including fundamental principles, different classes and subclasses of electrochromic materials, and device processing and manufacturing. It also highlights a broad range of existing and potential applications of electrochromic devices, with an analysis of the current market needs and future trends. Providing a comprehensive overview of the field, this book will serve as introductory reading to those new to this area, as well as a resource providing detailed, in-depth knowledge and insights to the seasoned audience. Featuring contributions from researchers across the globe, it will be of interest to postgraduate students and researchers in both academia and industry interested in smart design, materials science and engineering.


Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover Cover
Preface vii
Contents ix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Electrochromism 1
1.1 General Introduction 1
1.2 History of Electrochromism 2
1.3 Mechanism of Electrochromism and EC Devices 3
1.4 Applications of EC Materials 4
1.4.1 Smart Glass/Windows 4
1.4.2 Car Rear-view Mirrors 7
1.4.3 EC Displays 7
1.4.4 Wearable Apparel and Devices 8
1.4.5 Modulation of Microwave and Near-Infrared Radiation 13
1.5 Conclusion 14
References 15
Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electrochromic Materials and Devices 22
2.1 Introduction 22
2.1.1 Types of Electrochromes 22
2.2 Classes of Electrochromic Materials 23
2.2.1 Metal Oxides 24
2.2.2 Metal Hexacyanometallates 25
2.2.3 Metal Phthalocyanines 25
2.2.4 Viologens 28
2.2.5 Conjugated Polymers 29
2.2.6 Other Organic Electrochromes 32
2.3 Architecture and Components of Electrochromic Devices 33
2.3.1 Electrode 34
2.3.1.1 Optically Transparent Electrode 34
2.3.1.2 Reflective Electrode 35
2.3.2 Electrolyte 35
2.3.2.1 Liquid Electrolytes 35
2.3.2.2 Semi-solid/Solid Electrolytes 35
2.3.2.3 Room Temperature Ionic Liquids 37
2.3.2.4 Green and Biodegradable Electrolytes 37
2.3.3 Electrochromic Layer 37
2.3.3.1 Film Deposition and Patterning 37
2.3.3.2 Film Morphology 40
2.3.4 Charge-storing/Counter Layer 40
2.3.5 Sealant 41
2.4 Electrochromic Performance Parameters 41
2.4.1 Colour Quantification 42
2.4.2 Optical Contrast/Photopic Contrast 42
2.4.3 Switching Time 44
2.4.4 Colouration Efficiency 44
2.4.5 Optical Memory 44
2.4.6 Stability/Cycle Life 45
2.5 Concluding Remarks 45
References 46
Chapter 3 Conjugated Polymers for Electrochromic Applications 51
3.1 Introduction 52
3.2 RGB (Red, Green, Blue) Based Electrochromics 53
3.3 CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Key) Based Electrochromics 62
3.4 Water Processable Electrochromic Polymers 68
3.5 PEDOT and Its Derivatives: Attractive Electrochromic Polymers 71
3.6 Fluorescent Polymers 78
3.7 Triphenylamine (TPA) Bearing Polymers 89
3.8 Concluding Remarks 97
References 98
Chapter 4 Donor-Acceptor Type Conjugated Electrochromic Polymers 103
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2 Color Engineering of D-A Polymers 107
4.2.1 D-A Polymers with Neutral Primary Red-Green-Blue Colors 107
4.2.2 D-A Polymers with Secondary or Tertiary Colors 111
4.2.3 D-A Polymers with Multi-color Switching 113
4.2.4 D-A Polymers with NIR Switching Ability 116
4.3 D-A Polymers Showing High Performance in Electrochromic Devices 117
4.3.1 High Optical Contrast and Fast Switching Speed 117
4.3.2 High Coloration Efficiency 119
4.3.3 High Cycling Stability 122
4.4 Conclusion 123
Acknowledgments 124
References 124
Chapter 5 Electrochromic, Electrofluorescent and Light-induced Coloration Effects 129
5.1 Introduction 129
5.2 Multifunctional Device and Material Films 130
5.2.1 AIEE-active and Electrochromic Bifunctional Polymer and Device 130
5.2.2 Trifunctional CdSe Quantum Dots-Polymer Composite Film 133
5.2.3 Bi-functional Europium Ion Doped WO3 Film 142
5.3 Conclusion 149
Acknowledgments 149
References 149
Chapter 6 Bistable Electrochromic Windows from Conjugated Polymers 151
6.1 Introduction 151
6.1.1 Optical Memory 152
6.1.2 Key Parameters for OM and Bistability 152
6.1.3 OM of Molecular Level EC Materials 153
6.2 Optical Memory of π-conjugated Polymers 155
6.2.1 Optical Memory in Electrochromic PEDOTs 155
6.2.2 Optical Memory in Thiophenyl Copolymers 155
6.2.3 Optical Memory in Indole-containing Copolymers with PEDOT Layer 158
6.2.4 Optical Memory in Polyselenophenes 161
6.2.5 Donor-Acceptor Type ECPs 165
6.3 Electrochromic Bistability of Conjugated Polymers 168
6.3.1 Optical Memory of Poly (2,2-dimethyl-3,4-propylenedioxythiophene) (PProDOT-Me2) 168
6.3.2 IET and IDT Mechanism to Reach Bistability 171
6.3.3 Bistability of Side Chain Engineered ProDOTs 174
6.3.4 Charge Balanced Bistable ECDs 182
6.4 Conclusion 188
Acknowledgments 189
References 189
Chapter 7 Electroluminochromism: Classical Materials and New Developments 192
7.1 Introduction 192
7.2 Conventional Mechanism of Electroluminochromism 193
7.3 Electroluminochromism Based on Small Organic Molecules 194
7.4 Electroluminochromism Based on Emissive Polymeric Films 200
7.5 Electroluminochromism Based on Photofunctional Transition-metal Complexes 204
7.6 Electroluminochromism Based on Emissive Nanocomposite Films 210
7.7 Summary and Outlook 213
Acknowledgments 215
References 215
Chapter 8 Donor-Acceptor Electrochromic Conjugated Polymers with Different Structures 218
8.1 Introduction and Background 218
8.1.1 Electrochromism in Conjugated Polymer 218
8.1.2 Donor-Accepter Approach 219
8.2 Representative Donor Units 220
8.2.1 Thiophene and Its Derivatives 220
8.2.2 EDOT and Its Derivatives 222
8.2.3 Pyrrole and Its Derivatives 224
8.2.4 Carbazole and Its Derivatives 226
8.2.5 Triphenylamine and Its Derivatives 226
8.3 Electrochromic Polymers with Different D-A Structures 228
8.3.1 EC Polymers with D and A Units in the Backbone 230
8.3.1.1 Thiophene and Its Derivatives as D Units 230
8.3.1.2 EDOT and Its Derivatives as D Units 234
8.3.1.3 Other D Systems 241
8.3.2 D-A Polymers with Pendent A Units 242
8.3.3 D-A Polymers Based on Cruciform Monomers 245
8.3.4 D-A polymers Based on Star-shaped Monomers 246
8.3.5 D-A Polymers Based on Dendritic Monomers 250
8.4 Conclusion and Outlook 251
Acknowledgments 252
References 252
Chapter 9 Electrochromic and Electrofluorescence Liquid Crystals 261
9.1 Introduction 261
9.1.1 Electrochromic/Electrofluorochromic Devices 262
9.2 Smart Electrochromic Liquid Crystalline Materials 266
9.2.1 Electrochromic Ionic Liquid Crystals with p-Type Character 267
9.2.2 Electrochromic Liquid Crystals Incorporating the Classic Viologen as Redox Active Unit (n-Type) 269
9.2.3 Viologen-based Liquid Crystalline Rotaxanes 274
9.3 Extended Viologens as Multifunctional Smart Liquid Crystals 277
9.3.1 Thienoviologens Liquid Crystals 280
9.4 Electrofluorochromic Liquid Crystals 284
9.5 Conclusions 287
Acknowledgments 288
References 288
Chapter 10 Electrochemical Properties and Electrochromic Device Applications of Polycarbazole Derivatives 293
10.1 Fundamental Chemistry of Carbazole 293
10.2 Electrochemistry and Electropolymerization of Carbazole Derivatives 294
10.3 Electrochromic Properties of Polycarbazoles 298
10.3.1 Polymers from Monomers Containing One Carbazole Unit 301
10.3.2 Polymers from Monomers Containing Two Carbazole Units 304
10.3.3 Polymers from Monomers Containing Multiple Carbazole Units 308
10.4 Smart Windows Application of Polycarbazole Derivatives 313
10.5 Conclusion 318
References 319
Chapter 11 Arylamine-based High Performance Polymers for Electrochromic Applications 323
11.1 Introduction 323
11.1.1 High-performance Polymers 323
11.1.2 Electrochromic Arylamine-based Molecules 328
11.2 Typical Arylamine-based Electrochromic HPPs 328
11.2.1 Polyimides 328
11.2.2 Polyamides 329
11.2.3 Poly(amide-imide)s 329
11.2.4 Poly(ether-imide)s and Poly(ether-amide)s 330
11.2.4.1 Organosoluble Poly(ether-imide)s 333
11.2.4.2 Fluorinated Poly(ether-imide)s 333
11.2.4.3 TPA-based Poly(ether-imide)s and Poly(ether-amide)s 337
11.2.5 Poly(hydrazide)s and Poly(oxadiazole)s 337
11.2.6 Poly(arylamine)s 339
11.3 Development of Triarylamine-based Electrochromic Polymers 339
11.3.1 Introduction of Protection Groups 339
11.3.2 Strategies for Increasing Electrochromic-coloring Stages 342
11.3.3 Facile Electropolymerization for Poly(arylamine)s 347
11.4 Electrochromic Devices 350
11.4.1 Single Layer Electrochromic Devices 353
11.4.2 Complementary Electrochromic Devices 356
11.4.3 Flexible Electrochromic Devices 359
11.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 363
Acknowledgments 364
References 364
Chapter 12 Viologens-based Electrochromic Materials and Devices 372
12.1 Introduction 372
12.2 Electrochemistry and Electrochromism of Viologens 373
12.2.1 Influence of Anions on Direduced Viologens 374
12.2.2 Electrochromism of Viologen Radical Cations 374
12.2.2.1 Viologen Radical Cations in Organic Solvents 374
12.2.2.2 Dimerized Viologen Radical Cations 374
12.2.2.3 Insoluble Viologen Radical Cations 376
12.2.2.4 Aging of Insoluble Viologen Radical Cations 377
12.2.2.5 Influence of Substitution Groups on Viologen Radical Cations 379
12.3 Viologens in Electrochromic Devices 381
12.3.1 Mechanism of Viologen-based Electrochromic Devices 381
12.3.2 Type-1 Electrochromes-viologens in Non-aqueous Solvents 384
12.3.3 Type-2 Electrochromes-insoluble Viologen Radical Cations 387
12.3.4 Type-3 Electrochromes-immobilized Viologens 388
12.3.4.1 Anchored Viologens 389
12.3.4.2 Polyviologens 390
12.3.4.3 Viologens in Gel or Solid-state Electrolytes 394
Acknowledgments 400
References 400
Chapter 13 Metallo-supramolecular Polymers with Electrochromic Properties 406
13.1 Metallo-supramolecular Polymers: A Comparison with Organic Polymers 406
13.1.1 Organic Polymers 406
13.1.2 Linear Structures 407
13.1.3 Branched Structures 409
13.1.4 π-Conjugated Structures 409
13.1.5 Metallo-supramolecular Polymers 410
13.1.6 Color of Metallo-supramolecular Polymers 412
13.2 Linear Metallo-supramolecular Polymers 413
13.2.1 Synthesis 413
13.2.2 Optical and Electrochemical Properties 414
13.2.3 Electrochromic Properties 416
13.3 Hyperbranched Metallo-supramolecular Polymers 417
13.3.1 Synthesis 417
13.3.2 Electrochromic Properties 418
13.4 Heterometallo-supramolecular Polymers 421
13.4.1 Synthesis 421
13.4.2 Electrochemical Properties 423
13.4.3 Multicolor Electrochromism 424
13.5 Electrochromic Devices with Metallo-supramolecular Polymers 425
13.5.1 Device Fabrication 425
13.5.2 Flexible Electrochromic Devices 426
13.6 Conclusion 428
Acknowledgments 428
References 428
Chapter 14 Nanostructured Electrochromic Materials 430
14.1 Introduction 430
14.2 One-dimensional Nanomaterials for Enhanced Electrochromism 431
14.2.1 The Advantages of One-dimensional Nanostructures for Electrochromism 431
14.2.2 Synthesis of One-dimensional Nanostructures 432
14.2.2.1 Template-free Approaches 433
14.2.2.1.1 Solution-based Process 433
14.2.2.1.1.1 Hydrothermal Synthesis 433
14.2.2.1.1.2 Ambient Pressure Solution Process 435
14.2.2.1.2 Vapor-based Process 436
14.2.2.1.3 Electrospinning Process 438
14.2.2.1.4 Chemical Oxidative and Electrochemical Polymerization Processes 439
14.2.2.2 Template-derived Approaches 441
14.2.2.2.1 AAO and PC Templating 441
14.2.2.2.2 Surfactant-assistant Templating 443
14.2.3 Electrochromism of One-dimensional Nanostructures 445
14.2.3.1 WO3 and TiO2 1D Nanostructures 445
14.2.3.2 NiO and Co3O4 1D Nanostructures 448
14.2.3.3 V2O5 and MoO3 1D Nanostructures 449
14.2.3.4 Conductive Polymer 1D Nanostructures 452
14.2.4 Outlook of One-dimensional Nanostructures for Electrochromsim 454
14.3 3D Nanostructured Electrochromic Materials 454
14.3.1 3D nanostructured Inorganic Electrochromic Materials 455
14.3.1.1 The Role of 3D Nanostructures in Inorganic Electrochromic Materials 455
14.3.1.2 Preparation and Performance of Inorganic Electrochromic Thin Films 456
14.3.1.2.1 Physical Vapor Deposition 456
14.3.1.2.2 Hydrothermal Synthesis 458
14.3.1.2.3 CBD 458
14.3.1.2.4 Electrochemical Anodization 460
14.3.1.2.5 Electrodeposition 460
14.3.1.2.6 Templating 461
14.3.2 3D Nanostructured Organic Electrochromic Materials 466
14.3.3 Outlook of 3D Nanostructured Electrochromic Materials 467
References 469
Chapter 15 Electrodeposition Based Electrochromic System 475
15.1 Metal Electrodeposition as an Electrochromic Process 475
15.2 Metal Deposition Mechanism and Electrochemical Kinetics 481
15.2.1 Current for Ag Deposition Under Electrode Reaction Control or Diffusion Control 481
15.2.2 Size-selective Electrodeposition of Metal Particles and the Kinetics 482
15.3 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) in Metal Nanoparticles for Full Color EC Devices 484
15.3.1 Absorption and Diffusion of Light by LSPR 485
15.3.2 Color of Silver Nanostructures with LSPR 486
15.3.2.1 Silver Nanospheres 487
15.3.2.2 Silver Nanoplates 487
15.3.2.3 Silver Thin Films 489
15.4 Multicolor EC Device with Reversible Metal Electrodeposition 489
Acknowledgments 491
References 492
Chapter 16 Electrochromic Smart Windows for Green Building Applications 494
16.1 Introduction to Electrochromic Smart Windows 494
16.2 Electrochromic Materials for Smart Windows 498
16.3 Evaluation of Electrochromic Smart Windows 499
16.3.1 Energy Savings 499
16.3.2 Lighting Performance 502
16.3.3 Operation and Control 505
16.3.4 Durability 507
16.4 Challenge and Future of Electrochromic Smart Windows in Green Building Applications 509
16.4.1 Main Challenges 510
16.4.2 Future Development 510
16.4.2.1 Modification of EC Materials: Solar Absorptive to Solar Reflective 510
16.4.2.2 Connection of EC Smart Windows and the Internet of Things (IoT) 512
16.4.2.3 Integration of EC Smart Windows and Passive Technologies 513
16.5 Market Potential of Electrochromic Smart Windows for Green Building Applications 514
16.6 Summary 515
Acknowledgments 516
References 516
Subject Index 521

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