Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world but how does the production influence chemistry and quality? This book covers coffee production, quality and chemistry from the plant to the cup. Written by an international collection of contributors in the field who concentrate on coffee research, it is edited expertly to ensure quality of content, consistency and organization across the chapters.
Aimed at advanced undergraduates, postgraduates and researchers and accompanied by a sister volume covering how health is influenced by the consumption of coffee, these titles provide an impactful and accessible guide to the current research in the field.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Coffee: Production, Quality and Chemistry | i | ||
| Preface | v | ||
| Contents | vii | ||
| Part I Coffee Production | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1 - Introduction to Coffee Plant and Genetics | 3 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 3 | ||
| 1.2 The Genus Coffea | 4 | ||
| 1.3 Origin and Distribution of Subgenus Coffea in Africa | 6 | ||
| 1.4 The Coffee Plant | 10 | ||
| 1.4.1 Root System | 10 | ||
| 1.4.2 Orthotropic and Plagiotropic Branches | 12 | ||
| 1.4.3 The Leaves | 13 | ||
| 1.4.4 Flowering | 16 | ||
| 1.4.5 The Fruit | 17 | ||
| 1.4.5.1 Stages of Fruit Growth | 18 | ||
| 1.4.5.2 Fruit Anatomy | 19 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 22 | ||
| References | 22 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Coffee Growing and Post-harvest Processing | 26 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 26 | ||
| 2.2 Adaptation and Improvements of the Main Commercial Species | 27 | ||
| 2.3 The Basics of Coffee Plant Growth | 28 | ||
| 2.4 Coffee Plant Propagation Techniques | 31 | ||
| 2.5 Planting the Coffee Crop | 39 | ||
| 2.6 Crop Management | 45 | ||
| 2.7 Coffee Cultivation in Agroforestry Systems | 50 | ||
| 2.8 Coffea arabica L. Prunings | 51 | ||
| 2.9 Coffea canephora Pierre Prunings | 55 | ||
| 2.10 Pests, Diseases, and Nematodes in Coffee Cultivation | 56 | ||
| 2.10.1 Identification of Signs and Symptoms in Plants for Accurate Diagnosis | 56 | ||
| 2.10.2 Coffee Plant Pests | 57 | ||
| 2.10.2.1 The Coffee Leaf Miner (Leucoptera coffeella Guérin-Mèneville & Perrottet, 1842; Leucoptera caffeina Washbourn, 1940; Leu... | 57 | ||
| 2.10.2.2 Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari, 1867) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) | 58 | ||
| 2.10.2.3 Cicadas (Quesada sp., Fidicina sp., Carineta sp., Dorisiana sp.) (Homoptera: Cicadidae) | 59 | ||
| 2.10.2.4 Mites – Oligonychus ilicis (Mcgregor, 1917) (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes, 1939) (Acari: Te... | 59 | ||
| 2.10.2.5 Other Pests | 59 | ||
| 2.10.3 Coffee Plant Diseases | 60 | ||
| 2.10.3.1 Damping Off (Rhizoctonia solani) | 60 | ||
| 2.10.3.2 Brown Eye (Cercospora) Spot (Cercospora coffeicola Berk et Cook.) | 60 | ||
| 2.10.3.3 Coffee Rust (Hemileia vastatrix Berk. et Br.) | 61 | ||
| 2.10.3.4 Bacterial Blight (Pseudomonas syringae Pv. Garcae) | 62 | ||
| 2.10.3.5 Pseudomonas cichorii | 63 | ||
| 2.10.3.6 Phoma Leaf Spot (Phoma tarda Stewart, 1957; Phoma costarricensis Echandi, 1957) | 63 | ||
| 2.10.3.7 Coffee Berry Disease – Colletotrichum kahawae Waller et Bridge (Syn. Colletotrichum Coffeanum Noack Var. ‘Virulans’ Rayn... | 63 | ||
| 2.10.3.8 Other Diseases | 64 | ||
| 2.10.4 Coffee Plant Nematodes | 64 | ||
| 2.11 Coffee Harvesting: Manual Selective, Manual Stripping, and Mechanical | 65 | ||
| 2.11.1 Manual Selective Harvest | 66 | ||
| 2.11.2 Manual Strip Picking | 66 | ||
| 2.11.3 Mechanized Harvesting | 66 | ||
| 2.11.3.1 Mechanical Harvesting with Portable Harvesters | 68 | ||
| 2.11.3.2 Large Tractor-pulled or Self-propelled Mechanical Harvesters | 68 | ||
| 2.12 Coffee Post-harvest Processing | 71 | ||
| 2.12.1 Winnowing and Coffee Separation | 71 | ||
| 2.12.2 The Dry Process Method – Natural Coffee | 73 | ||
| 2.12.3 The Wet Processing Method | 76 | ||
| 2.12.4 The Wet-hulled Method | 79 | ||
| 2.12.5 Animal Processing | 79 | ||
| 2.13 Dry Milling | 81 | ||
| 2.14 Defects | 81 | ||
| References | 83 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Breeding Strategies | 89 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction: Coffea Species | 89 | ||
| 3.2 Biological Aspects of Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora | 90 | ||
| 3.3 Genetics Aspects Associated with Fruit Development and Cup Quality | 91 | ||
| 3.4 The Importance of Germoplasm Collections | 92 | ||
| 3.4.1 Natural Genetic Variability of Coffee Fruits and Seeds | 93 | ||
| 3.4.2 Use of Natural Genetic Resources in Breeding for Quality | 93 | ||
| 3.4.3 Naturally Caffeine-free Mutant – a Success Case of Wild-type Resource Use | 95 | ||
| 3.4.4 Selection of High-Oil Plants | 95 | ||
| 3.4.5 Genetic Diversity for Fat Components | 96 | ||
| References | 97 | ||
| Chapter 4 - Coffee Plant Biochemistry | 100 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 100 | ||
| 4.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism in Coffee | 101 | ||
| 4.3 Nitrogen Metabolism | 106 | ||
| 4.4 Biosynthesis and Catabolism of Caffeine | 109 | ||
| 4.4.1 The De Novo Biosynthetic Pathway of Caffeine | 109 | ||
| 4.4.2 Caffeine Biosynthesis from Purine Nucleotides | 111 | ||
| 4.4.3 N-Methyltransferases Involved in Caffeine Biosynthesis in Coffee Plants | 113 | ||
| 4.4.3.1 Genes of N-Methyltransferases | 113 | ||
| 4.4.3.2 Enzymatic Properties of Recombinant Enzymes | 114 | ||
| 4.4.4 Metabolism of Caffeine in Coffea Plants | 119 | ||
| 4.4.4.1 Catabolic Pathways of Caffeine | 119 | ||
| 4.4.4.2 Biosynthesis of Methyluric Acid | 122 | ||
| 4.4.5 Occurrence of Caffeine in Coffea Plants | 122 | ||
| 4.4.6 Physiological Aspects of Caffeine Metabolism in Coffea Plants | 125 | ||
| 4.5 Biosynthesis of Trigonelline | 130 | ||
| 4.5.1 The De Novo Biosynthetic Pathway of Trigonelline | 130 | ||
| 4.5.2 Pyridine Nucleotide Cycle for Nicotinic Acid Formation in C. arabica | 130 | ||
| 4.5.3 Direct Formation of Nicotinic Acid from NaMN | 133 | ||
| 4.5.4 Trigonelline Biosynthesis from Nicotinic Acid | 134 | ||
| 4.5.5 Metabolism of Trigonelline in Coffea Plants | 134 | ||
| 4.5.6 Occurrence of Trigonelline in Coffea Plants | 135 | ||
| 4.5.7 Physiological Aspects of Trigonelline Metabolism in Coffea Plants | 135 | ||
| 4.5.8 In Planta Function of Trigonelline in Coffea Plants | 139 | ||
| 4.6 Biosynthesis of Chlorogenic Acids | 139 | ||
| 4.6.1 Biosynthetic Pathways of Chlorogenic Acids | 141 | ||
| 4.6.2 Enzymes Involved in the Caffeoylquinic Acids Biosynthesis in Coffea Plants | 143 | ||
| 4.6.2.1 Hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA Shikimate/Quinate Hydroxycinnamoyltransferase (HCT) | 143 | ||
| 4.6.2.2 Hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA Quinate Hydroxycinnamoyltransferase (HQT) | 144 | ||
| 4.6.2.3 p-Coumaroylester 3ʹ-Hydroxylases | 144 | ||
| 4.6.3 Shikimic Acid Pathway in Plants | 145 | ||
| 4.6.4 Metabolism of Chlorogenic Acids in Coffea Plants | 147 | ||
| 4.6.5 Occurrence of Chlorogenic Acids in Coffea Plants | 147 | ||
| 4.6.6 Physiological Aspects of Chlorogenic Acid Biosynthesis in Coffea Plants | 150 | ||
| 4.6.7 In Planta Function of Chlorogenic Acids in Coffea Plants | 155 | ||
| 4.7 Conclusions | 155 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 156 | ||
| References | 156 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Mineral Nutrition and Fertilization | 163 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 163 | ||
| 5.2 Nutrient Accumulation and Exportation | 164 | ||
| 5.3 Dynamic of Mineral Accumulation in Flowers and Fruits | 167 | ||
| 5.4 Macronutrients, Micronutrients, and Beneficial and Toxic Elements: Their Effect on Coffee Plant Growth, Production, and the Q... | 170 | ||
| 5.4.1 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium | 170 | ||
| 5.4.2 Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur | 173 | ||
| 5.4.3 Micronutrients | 174 | ||
| 5.4.4 Silicon | 177 | ||
| 5.4.5 Aluminum | 177 | ||
| 5.5 Diagnosis of Nutritional Status | 178 | ||
| 5.5.1 Visual Diagnosis | 179 | ||
| 5.5.2 Diagnosis Based on Tissue Analysis | 179 | ||
| 5.5.2.1 Sampling and Preparation Procedures | 183 | ||
| 5.5.2.2 Chemical Analysis of Tissue | 184 | ||
| 5.5.2.3 Interpretation of Tissue Analysis Results | 184 | ||
| 5.5.2.3.1\rCritical Level and Sufficiency Ranges.The critical level of a nutrient in a given part of the plant is the level that is associa... | 184 | ||
| 5.5.2.3.2\rDiagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS).Although very useful and relatively easy to apply, the interpretation of l... | 186 | ||
| 5.5.2.3.3\rPotential of Response to Fertilization.One of the difficulties of using the mean Nutritional Balance Index (IBNm) as a diagnosti... | 189 | ||
| 5.6 Soil Requirements for Coffee Plant | 191 | ||
| 5.6.1 Physical Characteristics | 191 | ||
| 5.6.2 Chemical Characteristics | 192 | ||
| 5.7 Liming | 194 | ||
| 5.8 Gypsum Use | 195 | ||
| 5.9 Fertilization | 196 | ||
| 5.9.1 Crop Settlement | 196 | ||
| 5.9.2 Crop Formation | 196 | ||
| 5.9.3 Crop Production | 197 | ||
| 5.9.4 Fertilization with Micronutrients | 197 | ||
| References | 199 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Coffee Grading and Marketing | 202 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 202 | ||
| 6.2 Cleaning | 203 | ||
| 6.3 Separation by Size | 203 | ||
| 6.4 Separation of Defects | 205 | ||
| 6.5 Examples of Grading Systems | 206 | ||
| 6.5.1 Brazil/New York Method | 206 | ||
| 6.5.2 Kenyan Grading and Classification | 207 | ||
| 6.5.3 Specialty Coffee Association (SCA) Green Coffee Classification | 207 | ||
| 6.6 Grading and Quality | 210 | ||
| 6.7 Other Dimensions of Grading | 211 | ||
| Reference | 212 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Decaffeination and Irradiation Processes in Coffee Production | 213 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 213 | ||
| 7.2 Decaffeination | 215 | ||
| 7.2.1 Decaffeination Process Using Organic Solvents | 217 | ||
| 7.2.2 Natural Processes: Water or Swiss Water Decaffeination | 217 | ||
| 7.2.3 Natural Process Using Supercritical CO2 | 218 | ||
| 7.2.4 Chemical Differences and Health Effects | 220 | ||
| 7.3 Irradiation | 222 | ||
| 7.4 Conclusions | 226 | ||
| References | 226 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Roasting | 230 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 230 | ||
| 8.2 Chemical and Physical Transformations During Coffee Roasting | 231 | ||
| 8.2.1 Drying Process (up to 150 °C) | 232 | ||
| 8.2.2 Roasting Initial Stage (150 °C–180 °C) | 233 | ||
| 8.2.3 Roasting – Stage 2 (180 °C–230 °C) | 233 | ||
| 8.2.4 Roasting – Stage 3 (Above 230 °C) | 236 | ||
| 8.3 Heat Transfer Systems and Types of Industrial Roasters | 237 | ||
| 8.3.1 A Brief History of Industrial Roasters Evolution | 238 | ||
| 8.3.2 Positive Aspects of Convection for the Coffee Roasting Process | 247 | ||
| 8.4 In Roasting Profile, Control of Coffee Bean Temperature Is the Key | 248 | ||
| 8.4.1 Hot Air Temperature, Hot Air Flow, Heat Transfer | 248 | ||
| 8.4.2 Bean Temperature Is What Roasting Is All About | 250 | ||
| 8.5 Environmental Aspects in Coffee Roasting | 251 | ||
| References | 255 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Post-roasting Processing: Grinding, Packaging and Storage | 258 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 258 | ||
| 9.2 Grinding | 260 | ||
| 9.2.1 Particle Size | 260 | ||
| 9.2.2 Grinding Equipment | 262 | ||
| 9.2.3 Roasted and Ground Beans Degassing | 263 | ||
| 9.2.4 Ground Coffee Oxidation | 264 | ||
| 9.3 Packaging | 264 | ||
| 9.3.1 Packaging Materials and Techniques | 264 | ||
| 9.4 Storage | 267 | ||
| 9.5 Conclusions | 269 | ||
| References | 269 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Beverage Preparation | 272 | ||
| 10.1 Introduction | 272 | ||
| 10.2 Coffee Brewing Methodology | 273 | ||
| 10.2.1 Boiled Coffee | 274 | ||
| 10.2.2 Turkish Coffee | 275 | ||
| 10.2.3 Vacuum Coffee | 276 | ||
| 10.2.4 Plunger Coffee | 276 | ||
| 10.2.5 Percolator Coffee | 276 | ||
| 10.2.6 Filter Coffee/Drip Coffee | 277 | ||
| 10.2.7 Napoletana Coffee | 277 | ||
| 10.2.8 Mocha Coffee | 277 | ||
| 10.2.9 Espresso Coffee | 278 | ||
| 10.3 Coffee Brewing Extraction | 278 | ||
| 10.4 Coffee Brewing Quality | 279 | ||
| 10.5 Water Influence in Coffee Brewing | 280 | ||
| 10.6 Physico-chemical Characteristics of Coffee Beverages | 281 | ||
| 10.7 Caffeine Extraction | 282 | ||
| 10.8 Phenolic Compounds and Non-phenolic Acids Extraction | 283 | ||
| 10.9 Carbohydrates and Melanoidins Extraction | 287 | ||
| 10.10 Lipids (Diterpenes) Extraction | 287 | ||
| 10.11 Volatiles Extraction | 288 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 288 | ||
| References | 288 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Instant Coffee Production | 292 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 292 | ||
| 11.2 Current Uses | 293 | ||
| 11.3 Definition | 294 | ||
| 11.4 Production | 294 | ||
| 11.4.1 Green Coffee | 294 | ||
| 11.4.2 Roasting | 295 | ||
| 11.4.3 Grinding | 296 | ||
| 11.4.4 Extraction | 296 | ||
| 11.4.5 Extract Clarification | 299 | ||
| 11.4.6 Extract Concentration | 299 | ||
| 11.4.7 Aroma Recovery | 300 | ||
| 11.4.8 Drying | 301 | ||
| 11.4.9 Spray Drying | 301 | ||
| 11.4.10 Freeze Drying | 304 | ||
| 11.5 Packaging | 305 | ||
| 11.6 Decaffeination | 305 | ||
| 11.7 Trends | 305 | ||
| References | 306 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Coffee By-products | 309 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 309 | ||
| 12.2 Definition of Coffee By-products | 311 | ||
| 12.2.1 Pulp | 311 | ||
| 12.2.2 Mucilage | 311 | ||
| 12.2.3 Parchment | 312 | ||
| 12.2.4 Husks | 312 | ||
| 12.2.5 Silverskin | 312 | ||
| 12.2.6 Spent Coffee Grounds | 313 | ||
| 12.3 Chemical Composition of Coffee By-products | 314 | ||
| 12.3.1 Pulp | 314 | ||
| 12.3.2 Mucilage | 316 | ||
| 12.3.3 Parchment | 316 | ||
| 12.3.4 Husks | 316 | ||
| 12.3.5 Silverskin | 316 | ||
| 12.3.6 Spent Coffee Grounds | 317 | ||
| 12.4 Applications of Coffee By-products | 319 | ||
| 12.4.1 In Foods | 319 | ||
| 12.4.1.1 Coffee Pulp | 319 | ||
| 12.4.1.2 Coffee Mucilage | 320 | ||
| 12.4.1.3 Coffee Husk | 320 | ||
| 12.4.1.4 Coffee Silverskin | 321 | ||
| 12.4.1.5 Spent Coffee Grounds | 321 | ||
| 12.4.2 In Health | 322 | ||
| 12.4.2.1 Coffee Pulp | 322 | ||
| 12.4.2.2 Coffee Silverskin | 323 | ||
| 12.4.2.3 Spent Coffee Grounds | 324 | ||
| 12.4.3 Other Applications | 324 | ||
| 12.5 Safety Concerns in the Use of Coffee By-products as a Natural Source of Compounds | 327 | ||
| 12.6 Conclusions | 328 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 329 | ||
| References | 329 | ||
| Part II Coffee Quality | 335 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Coffee Cupping: Evaluation of Green Coffee Quality | 337 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction – Overview of Cupping | 337 | ||
| 13.1.1 What is ‘Coffee Cupping’ | 338 | ||
| 13.1.2 Why Does the Coffee Industry Cup | 339 | ||
| 13.2 How to Cup Coffee | 341 | ||
| 13.2.1 Basic Cupping | 342 | ||
| 13.2.2 Materials: Environment, Equipment and Supplies | 343 | ||
| 13.2.2.1 Environment | 343 | ||
| 13.2.2.2 Equipment and Supplies | 343 | ||
| 13.2.3 Skill: Performing the Protocols and Etiquette | 346 | ||
| 13.2.3.1 Cupping Protocol | 348 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.1\rSample Roasting.Roast the sample within 24 hours of cupping as covered in Section 2.2.2. (Agtron 63, measured ground, etc.).6 Co... | 349 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.2\rWeighing.Weigh the coffee as whole beans into each cup plus an extra amount in a ‘purge’ cup. If a defect is present, it is impo... | 349 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.3\rGrinding.Grind no more than 15 minutes prior to water contact (30 minutes with lids). When the time comes to grind the coffee, f... | 349 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.4\rEvaluating Fragrance.Evaluate the fragrance of the dry coffee from 0–15 minutes after grinding, sniffing the dry grounds lightly... | 350 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.5\rPouring.Pour SCA Standard (125–175 ppm TDS) water at 93.33 °C (200 °F) directly onto the grounds to the rim of the cup (Figure 1... | 351 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.6\rFilling Dip Cups.Pour hot water into dip cups after all sample cups have been filled. During the cupping, if the dip cups become... | 352 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.7\rSteeping.Determine your target time and be consistent. Let the coffee steep unbroken for 3–5 minutes before evaluation (Figure 1... | 352 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.8\rBreaking the Crust.Break the crust of grounds with three distinct rotating or swiping motions without stirring too much, and sni... | 352 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.9\rSkimming.Skim the surface bubbles and surface grounds without agitating the cup or unsettling the grounds (Figure 13.7), dipping... | 353 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.10\rSteeping (Continued).Before the first taste, the protocol recommends the cupper allows the coffee to cool to ±71 °C (160 °F). Th... | 353 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.11\rTasting.Aspirate and taste; rinse, spit, document and repeat until cooled to 21 °C (70 °F). Cuppers often mention ‘three passes’... | 353 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.12\rDocumenting.Record as much as possible on the cupping forms. This practice will provide numerous benefits, both personal and pro... | 354 | ||
| 13.2.3.1.13\rCleaning up.Clean and maintain equipment and supplies to ensure that every cupping is uniform. Cuppers should not leave their sp... | 354 | ||
| 13.2.4 Knowledge: Cupping Form Terminology, Scoring and Lexicon | 354 | ||
| 13.2.4.1 Cupping Form Terminology | 355 | ||
| 13.2.4.2 Scoring | 355 | ||
| 13.2.4.2.1\rEvaluation Procedure.Below are general guidelines for scoring. The section that follows contains information on a lexicon for co... | 356 | ||
| 13.2.4.3 Lexicon | 358 | ||
| 13.2.5 Organization: Record-keeping | 359 | ||
| 13.3 Conclusion | 359 | ||
| References | 359 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Coffee – Sensory Aspects and Consumer Perception | 361 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 361 | ||
| 14.2 Extrinsic Factors Affecting Coffee Quality Perception | 362 | ||
| 14.2.1 Product Packaging and Label | 363 | ||
| 14.2.1.1 Consumer Expectations | 364 | ||
| 14.3 Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Studies. Methods Used in Sensory Evaluation – a Coffee Industry Perspective | 366 | ||
| 14.3.1 Sensory Panel – Individuals Who Perform a Sensory Test | 368 | ||
| 14.3.1.1 Discriminative Tests | 369 | ||
| 14.3.1.2 Descriptive Tests | 369 | ||
| 14.3.2 Consumer Panel | 370 | ||
| 14.3.2.1 Hedonic Tests | 371 | ||
| 14.3.2.2 Descriptive Test with Consumers: the Use of Check-All-That-Apply | 374 | ||
| 14.4 Concluding Remarks | 375 | ||
| References | 376 | ||
| Chapter 15 - An Emotion Lexicon for the Coffee Drinking Experience | 380 | ||
| 15.1 Introduction | 380 | ||
| 15.2 Why Study Food-evoked Emotions | 381 | ||
| 15.2.1 Emotions and Their Origin | 381 | ||
| 15.2.2 Measuring Emotions | 382 | ||
| 15.3 An Emotion Lexicon for the Coffee Drinking Experience (CDE) | 382 | ||
| 15.3.1 Developing the Initial Lexicon | 382 | ||
| 15.3.2 Refining the Initial Lexicon to Create the Final Lexicon | 383 | ||
| 15.3.3 A Further Insight into the Final Lexicon | 384 | ||
| 15.4 Conclusion | 386 | ||
| References | 386 | ||
| Chapter 16 - Influence of Genetics, Environmental Aspects and Post-harvesting Processing on Coffee Cup Quality | 387 | ||
| 16.1 Introduction | 387 | ||
| 16.2 Environment and Coffee Quality | 388 | ||
| 16.2.1 Climatic Suitability and Coffee Quality | 388 | ||
| 16.2.2 Ecological and Socio-environmental Benefits Associated with the Presence of Vegetation in Areas Planted to Coffee | 395 | ||
| 16.3 Genotype and Coffee Quality | 396 | ||
| 16.3.1 The Case of Yellow Bourbon | 400 | ||
| 16.3.2 Beverage Quality of Rust Resistant Cultivars | 400 | ||
| 16.4 Post-harvest Processing and Coffee Quality | 401 | ||
| 16.4.1 Brief History on Post-harvest Methods Nomenclature and Proposal for a New One | 401 | ||
| 16.4.2 Influence of Processing on Coffee Quality | 402 | ||
| 16.5 Spatial Distribution and Relationship Between Quality, Environment, Genotype, and Processing: Case Study of Specialty Coffee... | 404 | ||
| 16.6 Concluding Remarks | 411 | ||
| References | 412 | ||
| Chapter 17 - Coffee Certification | 418 | ||
| 17.1 Introduction | 418 | ||
| 17.2 The Focus of Certification: Grower or Consumer | 419 | ||
| 17.3 Certification, Verification and Others | 419 | ||
| 17.4 Sustainability | 420 | ||
| 17.4.1 Niche and Mainstream Markets | 423 | ||
| 17.4.2 Benefits to Growers and the Role of Government | 423 | ||
| 17.4.3 Labels or Not | 425 | ||
| 17.4.4 Traceability | 425 | ||
| 17.4.5 Sustainable Coffee Content | 425 | ||
| 17.5 Origin | 427 | ||
| 17.6 Quality | 427 | ||
| Reference | 428 | ||
| Part III Coffee Chemistry | 429 | ||
| Section I Natural Coffee Compounds and Derivatives | 429 | ||
| Chapter 18 - Proteins of Coffee Beans: Recent Advances | 431 | ||
| 18.1 Introduction | 431 | ||
| 18.2 The 11S Seed Storage Protein of Coffee | 434 | ||
| 18.3 A Family of 11S Proteins in Coffea | 435 | ||
| 18.4 2S Protein in Coffea | 435 | ||
| 18.5 Peptides and Proteases | 438 | ||
| 18.6 Does Coffee Have Bioactive Proteins and Peptides | 439 | ||
| 18.7 Conclusion | 440 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 441 | ||
| References | 441 | ||
| Chapter 19 - Polysaccharides and Other Carbohydrates | 445 | ||
| 19.1 Introduction | 445 | ||
| 19.2 Green Coffee Polysaccharides and Other Carbohydrates | 446 | ||
| 19.3 Roasting-induced Changes | 447 | ||
| 19.3.1 Structural Changes of Carbohydrates | 448 | ||
| 19.3.2 Differences in Thermal Stability of Coffee Galactomannans and Arabinogalactans | 451 | ||
| 19.3.3 Changes in Cell Walls and Extractability of Coffee Polysaccharides | 453 | ||
| 19.4 Conclusions | 455 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 456 | ||
| References | 456 | ||
| Chapter 20 - Lipids | 458 | ||
| 20.1 Introduction | 458 | ||
| 20.2 Coffee Oil | 459 | ||
| 20.2.1 Total Oil Content | 459 | ||
| 20.3 Fatty Acids | 460 | ||
| 20.3.1 Total Fatty Acids and Fatty Acids in Triacylglycerides | 460 | ||
| 20.3.2 Free Fatty Acids | 461 | ||
| 20.4 Diterpenes in the Lipid Fraction of Robusta and Arabica Coffees | 462 | ||
| 20.4.1 Free Diterpenes | 466 | ||
| 20.4.2 Diterpene Fatty Acid Esters | 468 | ||
| 20.4.3 Synthesis of Diterpene Esters | 469 | ||
| 20.4.4 Other Diterpene Compounds | 471 | ||
| 20.4.4.1 Atractylosides | 471 | ||
| 20.4.4.2 Arabiol | 472 | ||
| 20.4.4.3 Coffeadiol | 472 | ||
| 20.4.5 Diterpenes in the Lipid Fraction of Roasted Coffees | 474 | ||
| 20.4.6 Diterpenes in Coffee Beverages | 476 | ||
| 20.5 Sterols | 481 | ||
| 20.6 Tocopherols | 485 | ||
| 20.7 Coffee Wax | 487 | ||
| 20.7.1 Pyrolysis/GC-MS Experiments | 494 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 495 | ||
| References | 496 | ||
| Chapter 21 - Minerals | 505 | ||
| 21.1 Introduction | 505 | ||
| 21.2 Methods of Analysis | 506 | ||
| 21.3 Minerals in Green and Roasted Coffee Beans | 507 | ||
| 21.3.1 Green Coffee | 507 | ||
| 21.3.2 Ground Roasted Coffee | 508 | ||
| 21.3.3 Instant Coffee | 509 | ||
| 21.4 Minerals in Coffee Beverages | 510 | ||
| 21.5 Contribution of Coffee to Dietary Mineral Intake | 512 | ||
| 21.6 Conclusions | 513 | ||
| References | 514 | ||
| Chapter 22 - Organic Acids | 517 | ||
| 22.1 Introduction | 517 | ||
| 22.2 Coffee Organic Acids | 518 | ||
| 22.2.1 Methods Used for Determination of Acidity and Organic Acids Content in Coffee | 518 | ||
| 22.3 Organic Acids in Green Coffee | 524 | ||
| 22.4 Organic Acids in Ground Roasted Coffees | 525 | ||
| 22.5 Organic Acids in Brewed and Soluble Coffees | 528 | ||
| 22.6 Contribution of Organic Acids to Perceived Acidity and Cup Quality | 531 | ||
| 22.7 Coffee Organic Acids and Health | 533 | ||
| 22.8 Concluding Remarks | 535 | ||
| Acknowledgement | 536 | ||
| References | 536 | ||
| Chapter 23 - Caffeine and Minor Methylxanthines in Coffee | 543 | ||
| 23.1 Introduction | 543 | ||
| 23.2 Chemical Characterization of Methylxanthines | 544 | ||
| 23.3 Analysis of Methylxanthines | 546 | ||
| 23.4 Contents of Caffeine and Minor Methylxanthines in Coffee and Coffee Products | 548 | ||
| 23.4.1 Content of Methylxanthines in Regular Green Coffee | 548 | ||
| 23.4.2 Contents of Methylxanthines in Regular Roasted Coffee | 550 | ||
| 23.4.3 Contents of Methylxanthines in Coffee Brews | 550 | ||
| 23.4.4 Content of Methylxanthines in Decaffeinated and Low-Caffeine Coffees | 554 | ||
| 23.5 Concluding Remarks | 559 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 559 | ||
| References | 559 | ||
| Chapter 24 - Chlorogenic Acids | 565 | ||
| 24.1 Introduction – Chlorogenic Acids and Hydroxycinnamates | 565 | ||
| 24.2 Chlorogenic Acids and Derivatives: Analysis and Structure Elucidation | 569 | ||
| 24.3 Chlorogenic Acids Derivatives in Food Processing | 574 | ||
| 24.4 Intake of Chlorogenic Acids and Derivatives | 578 | ||
| 24.5 Final Considerations | 579 | ||
| References | 579 | ||
| Chapter 25 - Major Chlorogenic Acids' Contents and Distribution in Coffees | 584 | ||
| 25.1 Chlorogenic Acids Characterization | 584 | ||
| 25.2 Chlorogenic Acids Content in Green Coffee | 585 | ||
| 25.3 Chlorogenic Acids Content in Roasted Coffee | 595 | ||
| 25.4 Contribution of Chlorogenic Acids to Cup-quality | 604 | ||
| 25.5 Chlorogenic Acids Content in Coffee By-products | 605 | ||
| 25.6 Conclusions | 606 | ||
| References | 606 | ||
| Chapter 26 - Isoflavones, Lignans and Other Minor Polyphenols | 611 | ||
| 26.1 Introduction | 611 | ||
| 26.2 Chemistry | 613 | ||
| 26.2.1 Isoflavones | 613 | ||
| 26.2.2 Lignans | 615 | ||
| 26.3 Methods of Analysis | 617 | ||
| 26.4 Isoflavones Content in Coffee | 620 | ||
| 26.5 Lignans Content in Coffee | 622 | ||
| 26.6 Other Flavonoids in Coffee | 622 | ||
| 26.7 Conclusions | 624 | ||
| References | 625 | ||
| Chapter 27 - Trigonelline and Derivatives | 627 | ||
| 27.1 Introduction and Chemical Aspects | 627 | ||
| 27.2 Analysis of Trigonelline and Derivatives in Coffee | 628 | ||
| 27.3 Content of Trigonelline in Green Coffee Seeds | 630 | ||
| 27.4 Contents of Trigonelline, Nicotinic Acid, and Other Derivatives in Roasted Coffee Seeds | 633 | ||
| 27.5 Content of Trigonelline, Nicotinic Acid, and Other Derivatives in Coffee Brew | 637 | ||
| 27.6 Contribution of Trigonelline to Cup Quality | 637 | ||
| 27.7 Concluding Remarks | 638 | ||
| References | 638 | ||
| Chapter 28 - Bioactive Amines | 641 | ||
| 28.1 Introduction | 641 | ||
| 28.2 Chemical Characteristics of Coffee Bioactive Amines | 642 | ||
| 28.3 Synthesis of Bioactive Amines | 643 | ||
| 28.4 Functions of Bioactive Amines in Plants | 643 | ||
| 28.5 Methods for the Analysis of Bioactive Amines | 647 | ||
| 28.6 Bioactive Amines During Coffee Growth and Development | 648 | ||
| 28.7 Bioactive Amines in Green Coffee | 649 | ||
| 28.8 Influence of Post-harvest Processing on Bioactive Amines in Coffee | 652 | ||
| 28.9 Influence of Bean Quality on Bioactive Amines | 653 | ||
| 28.10 Influence of Coffee Roasting on Bioactive Amines | 654 | ||
| 28.11 Other Factors Affecting Bioactive Amines in Coffee | 655 | ||
| 28.12 Bioactive Amines in Coffee Beverages | 655 | ||
| 28.13 Bioactive Amines as Markers of Coffee Quality | 658 | ||
| 28.14 Concluding Remarks | 659 | ||
| Acknowledgement | 659 | ||
| References | 659 | ||
| Chapter 29 - Melanoidins | 662 | ||
| 29.1 Introduction | 662 | ||
| 29.2 Strategies for Quantitation, Isolation, and Purification of Coffee Melanoidins | 663 | ||
| 29.3 Structural Components of Coffee Melanoidins | 664 | ||
| 29.4 Possible Formation Routes of Coffee Melanoidins | 667 | ||
| 29.5 Biological Activities and Potential Health Impacts of Coffee Melanoidins | 670 | ||
| 29.6 Conclusions | 674 | ||
| References | 675 | ||
| Chapter 30 - Acrylamide | 679 | ||
| 30.1 Introduction | 679 | ||
| 30.2 Chemical Characteristics | 680 | ||
| 30.3 Historical and General Occurrence in Foods | 680 | ||
| 30.4 Mechanisms of Formation in Foods | 682 | ||
| 30.4.1 Formation in Coffee | 683 | ||
| 30.5 Occurrence and Factors Affecting the Formation of Acrylamide in Coffees | 685 | ||
| 30.6 Contribution of Coffee for the Human Intake of Acrylamide | 687 | ||
| 30.7 Mitigation Strategies for the Reduction of Acrylamide in Coffees | 688 | ||
| 30.7.1 Mitigation Strategies Based on Reduction of Asparagine | 689 | ||
| 30.7.2 Mitigation Strategies Based on Alterations of the Roasting Processing Conditions | 691 | ||
| 30.7.3 Mitigation Strategies Based on Removing or Trapping of Acrylamide Already Formed | 692 | ||
| 30.8 Final Considerations | 693 | ||
| References | 694 | ||
| Chapter 31 - β-Carbolines | 697 | ||
| 31.1 Introduction | 697 | ||
| 31.2 Chemical Properties and Formation Routes | 698 | ||
| 31.3 β-Carbolines and Tetrahydro-β-carbolines in Beverages and Food | 699 | ||
| 31.4 Norharman and Harman β-Carbolines in Coffee | 701 | ||
| 31.5 Analysis of β-Carbolines and Tetrahydro-β-carbolines in Foods | 702 | ||
| 31.6 Conclusion | 703 | ||
| References | 704 | ||
| Chapter 32 - Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons | 705 | ||
| 32.1 Introduction | 705 | ||
| 32.2 Chemical Structures of PAHs | 706 | ||
| 32.3 PAHs Formation Mechanism | 708 | ||
| 32.4 PAHs Formation in Foods | 708 | ||
| 32.5 PAHs Formation During Coffee Roasting | 709 | ||
| 32.6 Analytical Methods for PAHs Determination | 711 | ||
| 32.7 Analytical Methods for PAHs Determination in Coffee | 712 | ||
| 32.8 Occurrence of PAHs in Coffee | 713 | ||
| 32.8.1 PAHs Formation under Controlled Roasting Conditions | 714 | ||
| 32.8.2 PAHs Occurrence in Coffee Samples from Commercial Brands | 717 | ||
| 32.8.3 PAHs Transfer to the Coffee Brew | 721 | ||
| 32.9 Conclusions | 722 | ||
| References | 723 | ||
| Chapter 33 - Coffee Volatile and Aroma Compounds – From the Green Bean to the Cup | 726 | ||
| 33.1 Introduction | 726 | ||
| 33.2 Coffee Aroma – From Seed to Cup | 727 | ||
| 33.3 The Sensory Experience of Coffee | 728 | ||
| 33.4 Dynamic Headspace Analysis of Green Bean Volatile Compounds | 733 | ||
| 33.5 Roasted Coffee Aroma Compounds | 736 | ||
| 33.6 Analytical Techniques for Coffee Aroma Analysis | 738 | ||
| 33.6.1 Gas Chromatography | 738 | ||
| 33.6.2 Olfactometry – When the Human Nose Becomes a Detector | 738 | ||
| 33.7 Trends and New Developments in Coffee Aroma Analysis | 747 | ||
| 33.7.1 Time-resolved Analytical Techniques | 747 | ||
| 33.7.2 Analysis of Aroma Formation During Roasting | 748 | ||
| 33.7.3 Extraction Kinetics of Coffee Aroma Compounds | 751 | ||
| 33.7.4 Moving Towards an Individualized Aroma Science – In-mouth Coffee Aroma | 752 | ||
| 33.7.5 Predicting Sensory Profile From Instrumental Measurements | 757 | ||
| 33.8 What Next | 758 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 759 | ||
| References | 759 | ||
| Chapter 34 - Phytochemicals From Coffea Leaves | 771 | ||
| 34.1 Introduction | 771 | ||
| 34.2 Phytochemical Composition of Coffee Leaves | 772 | ||
| 34.2.1 Chlorogenic Acids | 774 | ||
| 34.2.2 Mangiferins | 775 | ||
| 34.2.3 Rutin | 780 | ||
| 34.2.4 Caffeine | 781 | ||
| 34.3 Conclusions | 781 | ||
| References | 782 | ||
| Section II Incidental Contaminants | 789 | ||
| Chapter 35 - Mycotoxins | 791 | ||
| 35.1 Introduction | 791 | ||
| 35.2 Major Mycotoxins in Coffee | 792 | ||
| 35.2.1 General Features | 792 | ||
| 35.2.2 Ochratoxin A | 794 | ||
| 35.2.3 Aflatoxins | 798 | ||
| 35.2.4 Sterigmatocystin | 799 | ||
| 35.3 Analysis of Mycotoxins in Coffee Products | 799 | ||
| 35.3.1 Immunoassays | 800 | ||
| 35.3.2 Chromatographic Analysis | 800 | ||
| 35.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives | 801 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 801 | ||
| References | 801 | ||
| Chapter 36 - Pesticide Residues | 805 | ||
| 36.1 Introduction | 805 | ||
| 36.2 Pesticide Definition, Classification and Pesticide Use | 806 | ||
| 36.2.1 Insecticides | 807 | ||
| 36.2.2 Fungicides | 812 | ||
| 36.2.3 Herbicides | 813 | ||
| 36.3 Physicochemical Proprieties | 814 | ||
| 36.4 Legislation | 816 | ||
| 36.5 Analytical Methods for Pesticide Residues Determination | 816 | ||
| 36.6 Pesticide Residues in Coffee Beans and Beverage | 819 | ||
| 36.7 Final Considerations | 820 | ||
| References | 820 | ||
| Subject Index | 823 |