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The Visionary Realism of German Economics

The Visionary Realism of German Economics

Erik S. Reinert | Rainer Kattel

(2019)

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Abstract

The Visionary Realism of German Economics forms a collection of Erik S. Reinert’s essays bringing the more realistic German economic tradition into focus as an alternative to Anglo-Saxon neoclassical mainstream economics. Together the essays form a holistic theory explaining why economic development—by its very nature—is a very uneven process. Herein lie the important policy implications of the volume.


Erik S. Reinert is Professor of Technology Governance and Development Strategies at Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia, and also Chairman of the Other Canon Foundation in Norway. He holds a BA from Hochschule St. Gallen, Switzerland, an MBA from Harvard University, and a PhD in economics from Cornell University. For almost 20 years he ran a manufacturing company producing in three European countries. This background brought Reinert close to economics as a “science of practice” (Erfahrungswissenschaft). Lecturing in five languages, Reinert’s work has taken him to more than 65 different countries. His book How Rich Countries Got Rich … and Why Poor Countries Stay Poor, published in more than 20 languages, was shortlisted by the World Economics Association in 2016 for inclusion among the 10 most important economics books of the last 100 years.


“Erik Reinert’s 20 essays on three centuries of German economics are a remarkable work of scholarship by an outside observer. They highlight the focus on the role of the state and on development as well as the less abstract methodology and the interdisciplinary tradition as distinguishing characteristics. The book is strongly recommended to every reader longing for an economics which is not only rigorous but also relevant for solving the problems of the real world.”
—Harald Hagemann, Professor of Economic Theory, University of Hohenheim, Germany


"Almost but not quite alone, Erik Reinert has for decades tended the flame of an economics based on history and the urban, industrial, developmental state. These essays assemble his prodigious scholarship on the German tradition, a labor of love and dedication with enduring relevance, especially in today's Europe, dominated by a Germany alienated from centuries of her own ideas.”
—James K. Galbraith, Lloyd M. Bentsen Jr. Chair in Government/Business Relations, LBJ School of Public Affairs, and Professor of Government, University of Texas at Austin, USA, and Author of The End of Normal: The Great Crisis and the Future of Growth


“If Standard Textbook Economics does not work (and it doesn’t), then the classic older German tradition, with its committed insistence on realism rather than on self-referential modeling, is one of the best alternatives to check out. Erik Reinert, one of the most distinguished, erudite and solution-focused experts on the topic today, presents us here with this cornucopia of usable knowledge for the 21st century.”
—Wolfgang Drechsler, Professor of Governance, Ragnar Nurkse Department of Innovation and Governance, TalTech, Estonia, and Associate, Davis Center, Harvard University, USA


‘The Visionary Realism of German Economics’ forms a collection of Erik S. Reinert’s essays bringing the more realistic German economic tradition into focus as an alternative to Anglo-Saxon neoclassical mainstream economics. Together the essays form a holistic theory explaining why economic development––by its very nature––is a very uneven process. Herein lie the important policy implications of the volume.


“This important book reveals how the Anglocentric approach has impoverished both recognized economic thought and the profession of economics. Over three centuries, writers of the German Historical School made relevance (not available tools) the starting point for economic analysis and so incorporated insights from many other fields of knowledge. Reinert’s wisdom and erudition showcased here have immense methodological significance not just for economists but for all social scientists.”
—Jayati Ghosh, Professor of Economics, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India


Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover Cover 1
Front Matter i
Half-title i
Title page iii
Copyright information iv
Table of contents v
Chapter Int-chapter 20 1
Introduction 1
List of (Mostly) Forgotten German-Language Economists33 10
Chapter One German Economics as Development Economics: From the Thirty Years' War to World War II 15
Permanent Characteristics of the German Economic Tradition 17
Cameralist Economic Policy: From Veit von Seckendorff (1626–1692) to Wilhelm von Hörnigk (1640–1714) 20
The Eighteenth Century: The Birth of Academic Economics and of Specialization in the Field 24
The ‘Historical Schools’ of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 26
The Social Problem and the Verein für Sozialpolitik 29
1945–47: The Morgenthau Plan Validates the German Economics Tradition 32
References 33
Chapter Two The role of the state in economic growth 37
1. Introduction: ‘‘The Renaissance State’’ vs ‘‘Natural Harmony’’ 38
2. Mechanisms causing and diffusing economic growth and welfare: the view of the production-based... 42
2.1. Assumptions about the causes of economic growth 43
2.2. Assumptions about the mechanisms which diffuse growth and welfare 44
2.3. The different philosophical underpinnings of the activistic-idealistic tradition 45
3. The three roles of the State 48
4. New knowledge, systemic effects and positive feedback-loops in Renaissance... 54
4.1. The size and density of the population 56
4.2. The different ‘‘qualities’’ of economic activities 56
4.3. Diversity, synergies and positive feed-back mechanisms in Renaissance economics 59
Particular factors 61
General factors 62
5. The role of the Renaissance State in the light of recent economic theory 63
6. The two canons of economic theory 68
7. ‘‘United by a common misconception about our past’’ – the decline and fall of Renaissance economics 72
8. The role of public enterprises in this system 75
9. Exogenizing the engines of growth: Adam Smith and the loss of knowledge, institutions... 78
10. The loss of the state and the revenge of the centaur 82
Appendix 1 89
Appendix 2 90
References and further reading 91
Chapter Three A Brief Introduction to Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff (1626–1692) 95
1. Introduction 95
2. The Thirty Years’ War and the context of Seckendorff’s writings 96
3. Secckendorff’s life 98
4. Seckendorff’s writings 100
5. Seckendorff as a mercantilist/cameralist 102
6. Conclusion: The right to rule becomes the duty to develop the nation 103
References 104
Chapter Four Exploring the Genesis of Economic Innovations: The Religious Gestalt-Switch... 107
Introduction 107
1. The tension between creativity and formalism in economics 113
2. Exploring the sources of growth and forever finding new ones 114
3. Evolutionary vs. neoclassical economics—the historical roots of the conflict 119
4. The religious gestalt-switch: From religion as a deterrent, to religion as a promoter of economic growth 124
5. The gestalt-switch and the industrialization of England 130
6. Leibniz’ and Wolff’s system: Monads, duties and the holistic attitude to economics 138
7. Man’s will, invention, and creativity in Wolff’s ‘System of Duties’ 142
8. Conclusion. Understanding Growth: Wolff and the duty to venture beyond a barter-centered economic theory 146
Chapter Five Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi (1717–1771): The Life and Times of an Economist Adventurer 163
Introduction: ‘State Adventurers’ in English and German Economic History 163
1. Justi’s Life 166
2. Justi’s Influence in Denmark-Norway 174
3. Systematizing Justi’s Writings 177
4. Justi as the Continuity of the Continental Renaissance Filiation of Economics 181
5. Economics at the Time of Justi: ‘Laissez-faire with the Nonsense Left out’ 184
6. What Justi knew, but Adam Smith and David Ricardo later left out of Economics 188
Geography 189
International Trade Theory and Uneven Economic Development 189
The Reason for the Urban Bias of Early Economic Development 190
How Economic Activities Differ & The Role of Skills and Human Learning 191
Context Matters 192
Agriculture & Forestry 192
The Size of the Population & Population Density 192
The Limitations to the Power of the Nobility 193
Inventions, Innovations and Technological Change 193
Colonies 193
‘Dutch Disease’, or, How Too Much Unearned Wealth Destroys an Economy 194
7. Conclusion: Lost Relevance that Could be Regained 195
Bibliography 197
Chapter Six Jacob BIELFELD’S “ON the Decline of States” (1760) and its Relevance for Today 203
German Economics: Jacob Bielfeld and his contemporaries 205
Jacob Bielfeld – a brief account of life and work 207
The Chapter ‘On the Decline of States’ 210
E-1. Migration 211
E-2. War 212
E-3. Excessive demands from neighbouring states 212
E-4. Imperial over-extension 213
E-5. Dependency 213
E-6. Grandiosity of Independence 213
E-7. Division of Empire (or “Balkanisation”) 214
E-8. Single sovereign (or Sovereignty is indivisible) 215
I-1. Unwise Constitutions leading to inequity 215
I-2. Insane Sovereign 215
I-3. Requirements of state (Public Administration) 215
I-4. Relaxation of morals (importance of morals and Rule of Law) 216
I-5. Excessive Religion 216
I-6. Oppression / Limits on Liberty (or Despotism) 217
I-7. Excess of liberty 217
I-8. Decline of Production. Neglect of agriculture, commerce, sciences, useful arts and passion... 217
I-9. Arrogance, pride, and idleness 217
I-10. Senseless laws 218
I-11. Excessively large colonies 218
I-12. Epidemics and occupational Health 219
I-13. Abuse of Spirits and Strong Liquors 219
I-14. Relaxation of military discipline 219
I-15. Debt 219
I-16. Constant internal wrangling 220
I-16. Interfering with fundamental laws of government 220
I-17. Regicide or assassination of the sovereign 221
Bielfeld, Institutions Politiques, volume 2 221
Ch. XV. On the Decline of States36 221
Chapter Seven Raw Materials in the History of Economic Policy; Or, Why List (The Protectionist)... 243
Production-Centred vs. 244
Barter-Centred Economic Theory 244
On ‘good’ and ‘bad’ trade 247
On the differing capacity of economic activities to absorb skills and capital 249
The ‘Raw and the ‘Cooked’ – The Different Philosophical Underpinnings of Barter-Centred and Production-Centred Economics 250
Economic Theory: From ‘Physics Envy’ to ‘Biology Envy’ and From ‘Matter’ to ‘Mind’ 252
Cobden and List: The Repeal of the Corn Laws in King’s Taxonomy 257
Cobden: free trade in corn in order to achieve cheapness of manufactures 259
List: why protecting agriculture is entirely different from protecting industry 262
Chapter Eight Compensation Mechanisms and Targeted Economic Growth: Lessons from the History of Economic Policy 267
8.1 Introduction 267
8.2 The invention of innovation and the targeting of economic growth 269
8.3 The activity-specific nature of economic growth and of the possibility for creating compensation mechanisms 273
8.4 Technological unemployment in early economic thought 280
8.5 Unemployment and the death of Fordism in a historical perspective 281
8.6 The future: innovations or a backward-bending supply curve of labour? 285
References 286
Chapter Nine Karl Bücher and the Geographical Dimensions of Techno-Economic Change: Production-Based... 289
1. The Idea of Stages — from Tacitus to Karl Bücher and Carlota Perez 289
2. Stages, Postmodernity, and Harmony in Economic Theory 293
3. Anthropocentric Economics: Man and his Needs as the core of Economics 298
4. Stage Theories and Economic Development: An Overview 301
4.1 Early Theories – from Cycles to Stages 301
4.2 Friedrich List and Bruno Hildebrand – the First Modern Stage Theories (1840’s) 304
4.3 Richard Ely – the Main US Stage Theorist – and his Comparison of Stages (1903) 305
4.4 Oppenheimer’s Typology of Typologies 306
4.5 Rostow’s Non-communist Manifesto (1960) 306
4.6 Porter and the Possibility of Regression (1990) 307
4.7 Techno-economic Paradigms – Perez and Freeman (1983/1991) 307
5. Bücher’s Four Techno-Geographic Economic Stages 309
5.1 Family Economy (Hauswirtschaft) 310
5.2 Town Economy (Stadtwirtschaft) 311
5.3 National Economy (Volkswirtschaft) 311
5.4 The Global Economy 312
6. Income Distribution Issues in the Four Stages 312
7. Are Stages ‘Obligatory Passage Points’ – or are Short-cuts Possible? 313
8. Conclusions and Brief Policy Implications 316
References 318
Chapter Ten: Austrian Economics and the Other Canon: The Austrians between the Activistic-Idealistic... 321
1. Typologies of Economic Theory and the Two Canons 322
2. The Two Canons Contrasted as Ideal Types 333
3. Canonical Battles: The Head- on Confrontations 334
Canonical Methodenstreit 1: Misselden vs. Malynes (1622– 23) 334
Canonical Methodenstreit 2: Anti- physiocracy vs. Physiocracy & Adam Smith (ca. 1770– 1830) 335
Canonical Methodenstreit 3: The American System vs. The British System (19th Century United States) 337
Canonical Methodenstreit 4: The Historical School vs. Marginalism (1883– 1908) 338
Canonical Methodenstreit 5. The US Institutional vs. The Neoclassical School (20th Century) 340
4. The Austrians and The Other Canon 341
5. The 20th Century Closing of the Economic Mind 348
6. Understanding Human Cognition: Carl Menger and the King Who Wanted to Make the Perfect Map 356
7. Relevance Lost: The Parallel Paths of Austrian and Neo-Classical Economics 361
Chapter Eleven Nietzsche and the German Historical School of Economics Neo-Classical Economics 365
1. Preface: Nietzsche and the late 19th Century Economic Agenda 365
2. The Kathedersozialist Program 368
3. Nietzsche and Renaissance Individualism 370
4. Nietzsche and the German Economic Tradition 371
5. Nietzsche: Social Justice and Welfare 374
6. Nietzsche: Entrepreneurship, Gradualism and Uniqueness 376
7. Nietzsche in the Middle: Kathedersozialismus and the True Third Way 379
8. Conclusion and Notes on Further Research 381
Bibliography 382
Chapter Twelve Creative Destruction in Economics: Nietzsche, Sombart, Schumpeter 385
1. Creative Destruction in Vogue 386
2. Creative Destruction before Nietzsche 388
2.1. Creative Destruction as a Universal Idea 388
2.2. Creative Destruction as a ‘German’ Idea: From Goethe to Nietzsche and Sombart 389
2.3. Creative Destruction, Cyclicality, and German Economics 391
3. Nietzsche and Creative Destruction 392
1st Principle: Creation and Destruction 394
2nd Principle: The Opposite of Creation and Destruction is Stagnation 395
3rd Principle: The Will to Power 397
4th Principle: Life is that which Constantly Overcomes Itself 398
5th Principle: Warfare is a Form of Therapy 400
Summary and Concluding Remarks about the Principles 402
4. Nietzsche in Economics: From Sombart to Schumpeter 403
5. Nietzsche and Economics at the Centenary of his Death 406
5.1. Methodology 406
5.2. Schumpeterian and Evolutionary Economics 409
Bibliography 410
Chapter Thirteen Schumpeter in the Context of two Canons of Economic Thought 413
Schumpeter and Marx: Lost Sailors in a Sea of Anglo-Saxon Economics 414
The ‘‘Schizophrenia’’ of Schumpeter’s Thought 416
Typologies of Economic Theory and Schumpeter’s Duality 418
Schumpeter and the Other Canon at Harvard 421
Herbert Somerton Foxwell (1849– 1936): The spirit of Kress Library 421
Edwin Francis Gay (1867–1946): Gustav Schmoller and the Harvard ‘‘case method’’ 423
Fritz Redlich (1892–1978): The Center for Entrepreneurial Studies at Harvard 424
Concluding Remarks: Schumpeter Ascending and in Context 427
References 427
Chapter Fourteen The Role of Technology in the Creation of Rich and Poor Nations: Underdevelopment... 431
Introduction 431
Anglo- Saxon vs German economics: theories of even vs theories of uneven growth 432
Technological change and Schumpeterian underdevelopment 437
The uneven advances of the ‘technological frontier’ 438
The two ways in which the benefits from technical change spread 438
Three cases of Schumpeterian underdevelopment in the Caribbean 443
Cuban counterpoint of tobacco and sugar 444
Haiti — economic counterpoint in baseballs and golf balls 446
The Dominican Republic and technological change in pyjama production 446
The circular flow and the two economic roles of man 447
Conclusion: Schumpeterian underdevelopment — policy conclusions past and present 451
References 454
Chapter Fifteen Towards an Austro– German Theory of Uneven Economic Development? A Plea for Theorising by Inclusion 457
1 Introduction 457
2 Economics as theorising by exclusion 459
3 A study in the history of theorising by inclusion: why economic development requires ‘manufacturing’ 461
4 Increased poverty as the result of the break-down of the Fordist wage regime 469
5 Conclusion – creating an Austro–German development economics 471
References 473
Chapter Sixteen The Qualitative Shift in European Integration: Towards Permanent Wage Pressures... 477
Introduction: Types of Economic Integration and Definitions of Capitalism 477
1. Causes of Uneven Growth as the Basis for a Theory of Types of Economic Integration 479
2. From an Understanding of Uneven Development to a Taxonomy of Economic Integration 481
I. Symmetrical Free Trade Areas 484
A. Listian Integration (From Friedrich List) 484
B. Peripheral Symmetrical Integration 484
II. Asymmetrical Free Trade Areas 485
A. ‘Colonial’ and Non- Integrative 485
B. Flying Geese, or Sequential Technological Upgrading 486
C. Welfare Colonialism 487
D. Integrative and Asymmetrical Integration 487
3. The New Europe: Cost and Nature of the Integration 488
3.1 Characteristics of Transition 488
3.2 Quality of Industrial Change 491
3.3 International Trends and Regional Diversity add to the Problems 498
4. Conclusion 502
Appendix 1: The Flying Geese Pattern of Sequential Economic Development 508
Bibliography 509
Chapter Seventeen Primitivization of the EU Periphery: The Loss of Relevant Knowledge 513
1 Introduction 513
Knowledge Lost: A Brief Aside on the Financial Crisis 514
2 The Ignored Knowledge of von Thünen, List and Schumpeter 514
2.1 Von Thünen’s Model of Concentric Circles 515
2.2 Friedrich List’s Economic Principles 518
2.3 Schumpeter’s Concept of Innovation and Creative Destruction 520
3 Europe’s Failed Response: The Lisbon Strategy as a List of Good Intentions 522
4 Conclusion 524
References 527
Chapter Eighteen Mechanisms of Financial Crises in Growth and Collapse: Hammurabi, Schumpeter, Perez, and Minsky 529
Introduction 529
Financial Crises were understood from left to right – but unlearned all along the political axis 530
The Hammurabi Effect and ‘Debt Deflation’ 532
Hyman Minsky 535
Carlota Perez: Financial Crises and Technological Change 538
Save the Financial Economy or Save the Real Economy? 540
The Growth of the FIRE Sector Displaces the Real Economy 542
The FIRE Sector Takes Over: The Third World 543
The FIRE Sector Takes Over: The Second World 545
The FIRE Sector Takes Over: The First World 547
Conclusion: The Mentality that Created the Crisis, its Consequences and Possible Remedies 548
Chapter Nineteen Full Circle: Economics From Scholasticism Through Innovation and Back... 555
The schoolmen as a prototype of success and decay of science 557
The start of a new scientific trajectory: Meyen’s 1769 price essay, ‘‘Why is it that economics so far... 559
Meyen on the relationship between agriculture and manufacturing 562
Meyen on technology, science and innovations 563
Meyen on resistance to change 563
Meyen on ‘‘synergies’’ 564
Meyen on types of nations 564
Conclusion: history as the way out of scholasticism 565
References 566
Chapter Twenty Werner Sombart (1863–1941) and the Swan Song of German Economics 569
End Matter 577
Index 577