Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
- Provides state-of-the-art coverage of CMR technologies and guidelines, including basic principles, imaging techniques, ischemic heart disease, right ventricular and congenital heart disease, vascular and pericardium conditions, and functional cardiovascular disease.
- Includes new chapters on non-cardiac pathology, pacemaker safety, economics of CMR, and guidelines as well as new coverage of myocarditis and its diagnosis and assessment of prognosis by cardiovascular magnetic resonance, and the use of PET/CMR imaging of the heart, especially in sarcoidosis.
- Features more than 1,100 high-quality images representing today’s CMR imaging.
- Covers T1, T2 and ECV mapping, as well as T2* imaging in iron overload, which has been shown to save lives in patients with thalassaemia major
- Discusses the cost-effectiveness of CMR.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| ES2_Expert Consult ad | IFC2 | ||
| Common Abbreviations Used in the Text | IFC3 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | i | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Contributors | vii | ||
| Foreword | xiii | ||
| Preface | xv | ||
| Acknowledgments | xvii | ||
| Table Of Contents | xix | ||
| Braunwald’s Heart Disease Family of Books | xxi | ||
| Braunwald’s Heart Disease Companions | xxi | ||
| Braunwald’s Heart Disease Review and Assessment | xxii | ||
| Braunwald’s Heart Disease Imaging Companions | xxii | ||
| I Basic Principles of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 1 | ||
| 1 Basic Principles of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 1 | ||
| Introduction | 1 | ||
| Detection of the MRI Signal | 1 | ||
| Alignment With the Main Magnetic Field | 1 | ||
| Radiofrequency Excitation | 2 | ||
| T1 Relaxation | 3 | ||
| T2* and T2 Relaxation: The Effects of Spin Phase | 3 | ||
| T2 Versus T2* | 3 | ||
| Spatial Localization | 4 | ||
| Magnetic Gradients | 4 | ||
| Slice-Selective Excitation: Position in Z | 5 | ||
| Frequency Encoding: Position in X | 6 | ||
| Phase Encoding: Position in Y | 7 | ||
| Raw k-Space Data and the Fast Fourier Transform | 7 | ||
| Pulse Sequences and Contrast | 8 | ||
| Spin Echo Imaging | 8 | ||
| Fast Spin Echo Imaging | 10 | ||
| Gradient Echo Imaging | 10 | ||
| Three-Dimensional Fast Gradient Echo: MR Angiography | 11 | ||
| Balanced Steady-State Free Precession | 12 | ||
| Echo Planar Imaging, Spiral and Radial | 12 | ||
| Preparation Pulses | 13 | ||
| New Hardware Advances | 14 | ||
| References | 14 | ||
| References | 14.e1 | ||
| 2 Techniques for T1, T2, and Extracellular Volume Mapping | 15 | ||
| T1 and Extracellular Volume Mapping | 15 | ||
| Brief History of Methods for T1 Mapping in the Heart | 16 | ||
| T1-Mapping Methods | 16 | ||
| ECV Mapping Methods | 18 | ||
| Reproducibility: Accuracy, Precision, and Confounding Factors | 19 | ||
| Limitations and Potential Pitfalls | 20 | ||
| Summary | 23 | ||
| T2 Mapping | 23 | ||
| Methods | 23 | ||
| Reproducibility: Accuracy, Precision, and Confounding Factors | 24 | ||
| Limitations and Potential Pitfalls | 26 | ||
| Summary | 26 | ||
| Conclusion | 26 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 26 | ||
| References | 26 | ||
| References | 26.e1 | ||
| 3 Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Contrast Agents | 27 | ||
| Introduction to the Biophysics of Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 27 | ||
| Commercial Contrast Agents and Those in Clinical Development | 28 | ||
| Extracellular Agents | 28 | ||
| Blood Pool Agents | 29 | ||
| Relaxivity | 31 | ||
| Contrast-Enhanced Tissue Relaxation | 34 | ||
| Novel Contrast Agents in Development | 35 | ||
| Safety | 38 | ||
| Conclusion | 39 | ||
| References | 39 | ||
| References | 39.e1 | ||
| 4 Myocardial Perfusion Imaging Theory | 40 | ||
| Introduction | 40 | ||
| The Physiologic Basis for Measuring Myocardial Perfusion | 40 | ||
| First-Pass Imaging With Exogenous Tracers | 41 | ||
| Advanced Techniques for Perfusion Imaging Acceleration | 43 | ||
| Endogenous Contrast for the Assessment of Myocardial Perfusion | 43 | ||
| Quantitative Evaluation of Myocardial Perfusion | 44 | ||
| Arterial Input Function | 46 | ||
| Practical Aspects of Magnetic Resonance Perfusion Imaging | 48 | ||
| Conclusions | 49 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 50 | ||
| References | 50 | ||
| References | 50.e1 | ||
| 5 Myocardial Perfusion Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 51 | ||
| Advanced Techniques | 51 | ||
| Acceleration Methods | 51 | ||
| k-t Undersampling Techniques | 51 | ||
| Non-Cartesian Techniques | 52 | ||
| Compressed Sensing | 54 | ||
| High-Resolution Perfusion Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 56 | ||
| Methods and Clinical Validation | 56 | ||
| Three-Dimensional Whole-Heart Perfusion Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 58 | ||
| Methods and Clinical Validation | 59 | ||
| Limitations of Highly Accelerated Perfusion Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 60 | ||
| Quantitative Analysis | 61 | ||
| Optimal Use of Acceleration | 61 | ||
| Conclusion | 61 | ||
| References | 65 | ||
| References | 65.e1 | ||
| 6 Blood Flow Velocity Assessment | 66 | ||
| Time-of-Flight Methods | 66 | ||
| Phase Flow Imaging Methods | 66 | ||
| Phase Contrast Velocity Mapping | 67 | ||
| Fourier Flow Imaging | 67 | ||
| Improving the Accuracy of Phase Contrast Velocity Measurements | 68 | ||
| Rapid Phase Flow Imaging Methods | 70 | ||
| Visualizing Flow and Flow Parameters | 71 | ||
| Four-Dimensional Phase Contrast Flow Velocity Mapping | 73 | ||
| References | 74 | ||
| References | 74.e1 | ||
| 7 Use of Navigator Echoes in Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Factors Affecting Their Implementation | 75 | ||
| Use of Navigator Information | 75 | ||
| Multiple Breath-Hold Methods | 75 | ||
| Free-Breathing Methods | 76 | ||
| Navigator Echo Implementation | 78 | ||
| Method of Column Selection | 78 | ||
| Correction Factors | 78 | ||
| Column Positioning | 80 | ||
| Multiple Column Orientations | 80 | ||
| Navigator Timing | 81 | ||
| Precision of Navigator Measurement | 81 | ||
| More Recent Approaches | 82 | ||
| Other Forms of Navigators | 82 | ||
| Projection-Based Self-Navigators | 82 | ||
| Image-Based Navigators | 82 | ||
| Motion Models | 82 | ||
| Computer Architecture | 83 | ||
| Conclusion | 83 | ||
| References | 83 | ||
| References | 83.e1 | ||
| 8 Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Assessment of Myocardial Oxygenation | 84 | ||
| Myocardial Oxygenation: Supply Versus Demand | 84 | ||
| Biophysics of Myocardial BOLD Contrast | 85 | ||
| Vasodilators in the Assessment of Myocardial Oxygenation | 85 | ||
| Common Pharmacologic Vasodilators | 85 | ||
| Hypercapnia as a New Potent Coronary Vasodilator | 86 | ||
| Myocardial BOLD CMR: Preclinical Studies | 87 | ||
| T2*- and T2-Prepared Methods | 87 | ||
| Steady-State BOLD CMR: Cardiac Phase–Resolved Imaging of Myocardial Oxygenation | 87 | ||
| Clinical Experience With BOLD CMR | 89 | ||
| T2*-Based BOLD CMR in Patients | 89 | ||
| T2-Prepared BOLD CMR in Patients | 91 | ||
| CP-BOLD CMR in Patients | 91 | ||
| Visualization and Quantification of BOLD Effects via Image Processing | 92 | ||
| Detecting and Quantifying Pixel-Level BOLD Changes Under Vasodilator Stress With ARREAS | 92 | ||
| Automating the Detection of Area-at-Risk Under Rest With CP-BOLD CMR | 94 | ||
| Need for Better Myocardial Registration and Segmentation | 94 | ||
| Evolving Importance and Need for Pixel-Level Detection of BOLD Contrast | 94 | ||
| Toward a More Reliable Stress BOLD CMR Examination | 95 | ||
| Future Directions of Myocardial BOLD CMR | 95 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 96 | ||
| References | 96 | ||
| References | 96.e1 | ||
| 9 Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy | 97 | ||
| Introduction | 97 | ||
| Physical Principles | 97 | ||
| Experimental Foundations | 98 | ||
| 31P-MRS | 98 | ||
| 1H-MRS | 99 | ||
| 13C-MRS | 100 | ||
| 23Na-CMR | 100 | ||
| Other Nuclei | 100 | ||
| Clinical Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Studies | 100 | ||
| Methodologic Considerations | 100 | ||
| Healthy Volunteers | 102 | ||
| Athlete’s Heart and Hypertension | 102 | ||
| Diabetes and Obesity | 102 | ||
| Heart Failure | 103 | ||
| Specific Gene Defects With Cardiac Pathology | 105 | ||
| Valvular Heart Disease | 105 | ||
| Ischemic Heart Disease | 105 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Stress Testing to Detect Ischemia | 105 | ||
| Myocardial Viability Assessment | 106 | ||
| Hypoxia/Altitude | 107 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy at 3 T and 7 T | 107 | ||
| Modeling Studies | 107 | ||
| Perspective and General Conclusions | 107 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 107 | ||
| References | 107 | ||
| References | 107.e1 | ||
| 10 Special Considerations for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 108 | ||
| Safety of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 108 | ||
| General Issues | 108 | ||
| Biologic Effects | 108 | ||
| Ferromagnetism | 108 | ||
| Effect of Rapidly Switched Magnetic Fields | 109 | ||
| Radiofrequency Time-Varying Field | 110 | ||
| Auditory Considerations | 110 | ||
| Superconducting System Issues | 111 | ||
| Psychological Effects | 111 | ||
| Safety Considerations Associated With CMR Contrast Agents | 111 | ||
| Patient Safety During Stress Conditions | 111 | ||
| Patient Monitoring and Electrocardiographic Setup | 112 | ||
| Contraindications to Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 113 | ||
| General Contraindications to Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 113 | ||
| Coronary Stents | 113 | ||
| Valvular Prostheses and Structural Heart Disease Intervention Devices | 114 | ||
| Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices | 114 | ||
| Conclusion | 116 | ||
| References | 117 | ||
| References | 117.e1 | ||
| 11 Pacemaker and Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Safety and Safe Scanning | 118 | ||
| Cardiac Implanted Electronic Devices and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Interactions | 118 | ||
| Clinical Studies With Nonmagnetic Resonance Imaging Conditional Devices | 118 | ||
| Up to 1.5 T | 118 | ||
| Retained/Orphaned Leads | 120 | ||
| High-Field Magnetic Resonance | 120 | ||
| Recommendations | 121 | ||
| The Johns Hopkins Protocol | 121 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging Conditional Devices | 121 | ||
| Cardiac Implantable Electronic Device–Related Artifacts | 124 | ||
| Implantable Long-Term Loop Recorders | 124 | ||
| Future Directions | 124 | ||
| Conclusion | 124 | ||
| Conflict of Interest | 124 | ||
| References | 124 | ||
| References | 124.e1 | ||
| 12 Special Considerations | 125 | ||
| Generalized Protocol of CMR for Congenital Heart Disease | 126 | ||
| Anatomic Imaging (Noncontrast) | 126 | ||
| Function/Anatomy: Cine CMR (Fig. 12.5) | 126 | ||
| Anatomy: Gadolinium-Based CMR (Figs. 12.9–12.11) | 128 | ||
| Blood Flow: Phase Contrast CMR (Figs. 12.7, 12.8, and 12.12) | 130 | ||
| Tissue Characterization (Figs. 12.13 and 12.14) | 132 | ||
| Late Gadolinium Enhancement Imaging | 132 | ||
| Perfusion | 134 | ||
| Myocardial Iron | 134 | ||
| Myocarditis | 134 | ||
| T1 Mapping | 134 | ||
| Other Important Techniques Used in Congenital Heart Disease | 134 | ||
| Real-Time Cine Imaging and Phase Contrast CMR | 134 | ||
| Coronary Artery Imaging | 134 | ||
| Exercise Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 134 | ||
| Myocardial and Blood Tagging | 134 | ||
| Tumor/Mass Characterization (see Fig. 12.14) | 134 | ||
| Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy | 134 | ||
| Technical Considerations in Pediatric CMR | 136 | ||
| Spatial and Temporal Resolution | 136 | ||
| Inability of Pediatric Patients to Breath-Hold | 137 | ||
| Contrast-Based Techniques | 137 | ||
| Worked Examples of CMR for Congenital Heart Disease | 137 | ||
| Transposition of the Great Arteries (see Figs. 12.6, 12.9, and 12.11) | 137 | ||
| Single Ventricles (Figs. 12.2, 12.16, 12.17, and 12.18) | 138 | ||
| Coarctation of the Aorta (Figs. 12.4, 12.8, 12.19, and 12.20) | 139 | ||
| A Taste of the Future | 139 | ||
| Conclusion | 141 | ||
| References | 141 | ||
| References | 141.e1 | ||
| 13 Human Cardiac Magnetic Resonance at Ultrahigh Fields | 142 | ||
| Enabling Technical Innovations for UHF-CMR | 142 | ||
| Enabling Radiofrequency Antenna Technology | 143 | ||
| Multichannel Radiofrequency Transmission | 144 | ||
| Progress in Pulse Sequence Development | 144 | ||
| Ancillary Hardware Tailored for Ultrahigh Frenquency-Magnetic Resonance | 145 | ||
| Safety of Human Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance at 7 T | 146 | ||
| Radiofrequency Power Deposition | 146 | ||
| Radiofrequency-Induced Heating of Passive Conductive Devices | 147 | ||
| Early Applications and Clinical Studies | 149 | ||
| Black-Blood Imaging | 149 | ||
| Cardiac Chamber Quantification | 149 | ||
| First-Pass Myocardial Perfusion Imaging | 151 | ||
| Myocardial T2* Mapping | 151 | ||
| Myocardial T1 Mapping | 155 | ||
| Fat-Water Imaging | 155 | ||
| Coronary Artery Imaging | 156 | ||
| Vascular Imaging | 156 | ||
| Real-Time Imaging | 156 | ||
| Opportunities for Discoveries | 156 | ||
| Sodium MRI | 158 | ||
| Phosphorus Magnetic Resonance | 158 | ||
| Looking at the Horizon | 158 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 160 | ||
| References | 160 | ||
| References | 160.e1 | ||
| 14 Clinical Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging Techniques | 161 | ||
| Scouting (“Scan” = “Scout”) | 161 | ||
| Morphology (“Scan” = “Morphology”) | 163 | ||
| Contractile Function (“Scan” = “Cine”) | 165 | ||
| Perfusion at Stress and Rest (“Scan” = “Perfusion”) | 167 | ||
| Viability and Infarction (“Scan” = “Late Gadolinium Enhancement”) | 172 | ||
| Flow/Velocity Imaging (“Scan” = “Flow/Velocity”) | 173 | ||
| Angiography (“Scan” = “Angiography”) | 175 | ||
| Conclusion | 177 | ||
| References | 177 | ||
| References | 177.e1 | ||
| 15 Normal Cardiac Anatomy | 178 | ||
| Anatomic Variants | 182 | ||
| Common Variants | 183 | ||
| Cardiac Motion Artifacts (Fig. 15.4A and B) | 183 | ||
| Respiratory Motion Artifacts (see Fig. 15.4A and B) | 185 | ||
| Metal Artifact (Fig. 15.4C to I) | 185 | ||
| Chemical Shift Artifact (Fig. 15.4J to K) | 186 | ||
| Normal Cardiac Systolic and Diastolic Function | 186 | ||
| Left Ventricle | 186 | ||
| Right Ventricle | 186 | ||
| Stroke Volume | 186 | ||
| Ventricular Mass | 187 | ||
| Left and Right Atria | 187 | ||
| Effect of Imaging Sequence and Magnetic Field Strength on Ventricular Volumes and Mass, and Implications for Reference Standards | 187 | ||
| Aortic Flow | 189 | ||
| Pulmonary Artery Flow | 189 | ||
| Normal Valvular Function | 189 | ||
| Conclusion | 191 | ||
| References | 191 | ||
| References | 191.e1 | ||
| II Ischemic Heart Disease | 192 | ||
| 16 Assessment of Cardiac Function | 192 | ||
| The Population Impact of Cardiac Dysfunction | 192 | ||
| The Importance of Measuring Cardiac Function | 192 | ||
| Techniques for Assessing Cardiac Function | 192 | ||
| Echocardiography | 192 | ||
| Nuclear Cardiology | 193 | ||
| Computed Tomography | 194 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 195 | ||
| From Gradient Echo to Steady-State Free Precession Cine Sequences | 197 | ||
| Steady-State Free Precession Cine Sequences at 1.5 T vs. 3 T Magnetic Fields | 199 | ||
| Accuracy and Reproducibility of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 199 | ||
| A Practical Guide to Functional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 201 | ||
| Other Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Measures of Global Function: Brief Synopsis | 203 | ||
| Systolic Function | 203 | ||
| Diastolic Function | 204 | ||
| Regional Function | 204 | ||
| The Future | 207 | ||
| References | 207 | ||
| References | 207.e1 | ||
| 17 Stress Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 208 | ||
| Intravenous Dobutamine and Atropine | 208 | ||
| Safety Profile of Dobutamine and Atropine Stress Testing | 208 | ||
| Dobutamine Stress Echocardiography | 209 | ||
| Dobutamine Stress Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 209 | ||
| Utility of Dobutamine Stress Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance for Identifying Inducible Ischemia | 210 | ||
| Utility of Dobutamine Stress Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance for Identifying Contractile Reserve | 215 | ||
| Determination of Cardiac Prognosis | 217 | ||
| Tissue Tagging During Dobutamine Stress Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 219 | ||
| Role of Dobutamine Perfusion Imaging | 222 | ||
| Limitations to Left Ventricular Wall Motion Assessments During Dobutamine Stress | 222 | ||
| Adenosine and Dipyridamole as Wall Motion Stress Agents During Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 223 | ||
| Left Ventricular Wall Motion During Exercise Stress Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 224 | ||
| Conclusion | 225 | ||
| References | 225 | ||
| References | 225.e1 | ||
| 18 Stress Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 226 | ||
| The Rationale for Perfusion Imaging | 226 | ||
| The Perfusion Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Protocol | 226 | ||
| Stress-Only Versus Stress-Rest Examination for the Detection of Hemodynamically Significant Lesions | 226 | ||
| Options for Inducing Stress in Cardiac Perfusion Studies | 227 | ||
| Endogenous Versus Exogenous Contrast Media | 228 | ||
| Endogenous Contrast Media | 228 | ||
| Exogenous Contrast Media for Perfusion Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 229 | ||
| Extravascular Contrast Media | 229 | ||
| Intravascular Contrast Media | 229 | ||
| Hyperpolarized Contrast Media | 229 | ||
| Perfusion Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance: What Is Established and What Is Not | 229 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Data Readout | 229 | ||
| Magnetization Preparation | 230 | ||
| Field Strength: 1.5 T Versus 3 T | 231 | ||
| Analysis of Perfusion Data | 231 | ||
| Visual Assessment | 231 | ||
| Quantitative Approach | 232 | ||
| Quantitative Approach: Perfusion-Related Parameters | 232 | ||
| Quantitative Approach: Absolute Tissue Perfusion | 233 | ||
| Clinical Performance of Perfusion Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 235 | ||
| Single-Center Studies: Visual Interpretation | 235 | ||
| Single-Center Studies: Quantitative Semiautomatic Analysis | 237 | ||
| Multicenter Studies | 237 | ||
| Perfusion Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Prediction of Outcome | 238 | ||
| Perspectives | 238 | ||
| References | 240 | ||
| References | 240.e1 | ||
| 19 Acute Myocardial Infarction | 241 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance for Detecting Acute Coronary Syndrome and Acute Myocardial Infarction | 241 | ||
| Late Gadolinium Enhancement of Acute Myocardial Infarction | 243 | ||
| Validation of Late Gadolinium Enhancement in Acute Myocardial Infarction | 243 | ||
| Microvascular Obstruction After Acute Myocardial Infarction | 245 | ||
| T1, T2, T2*, and ECV as Quantitative CMR Characteristics of AMI | 245 | ||
| Prognosis in Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction Related to Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Characteristics | 247 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance to Assess Complications of Acute Myocardial Infarction | 248 | ||
| Conclusion | 250 | ||
| References | 250 | ||
| References | 250.e1 | ||
| 20 Acute Myocardial Infarction | 251 | ||
| Ventricular Volumes, Ejection Fraction, and Mass | 251 | ||
| Regional Contractility | 253 | ||
| Wall Thickening and Endocardial Displacement: Cine Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 253 | ||
| Strain Imaging | 254 | ||
| Tissue Tagging | 254 | ||
| Phase-Based Strain Imaging | 254 | ||
| Feature Tracking | 255 | ||
| Myocardial Fiber Structure: Diffusion Tensor Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 255 | ||
| Tissue Characterization | 255 | ||
| Infarct Characterization and Predictors of Left Ventricular Remodeling | 255 | ||
| Late Gadolinium Enhancement | 255 | ||
| No-Reflow Phenomenon: Microvascular Obstruction and Intramyocardial Hemorrhage | 256 | ||
| Intramyocardial Hemorrhage | 257 | ||
| T1 Mapping: Infarct Characterization and Extracellular Volume | 258 | ||
| Area at Risk and Myocardial Salvage | 258 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in the Assessment of Post-MI Remodeling Therapies | 258 | ||
| Animal Studies | 259 | ||
| Human Studies | 260 | ||
| Conclusion | 261 | ||
| References | 261 | ||
| References | 261.e1 | ||
| 21 Myocardial Viability | 262 | ||
| Features of Viable Myocardium Detectable by Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 262 | ||
| Scar Formation and Left Ventricular Wall Thickness | 262 | ||
| Contractile Reserve of Viable Myocardium | 263 | ||
| Noninvasive Observation of Tissue Edema | 263 | ||
| No-Reflow Phenomenon and Early Hypoenhancement With Gadolinium | 263 | ||
| Late Gadolinium Enhancement in Infarcted Tissue | 264 | ||
| High-Energy Phosphates and Viability | 264 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance to Detect Viable Myocardium in Acute Myocardial Infarction | 264 | ||
| Signal Intensity Changes on T2-Weighted Images | 264 | ||
| Late Enhancement With Gadolinium in Acute Infarction | 264 | ||
| No-Reflow by Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 268 | ||
| Late Gadolinium Enhancement and Recovery of Function | 269 | ||
| Combining T2-Weighted Images and Late Enhancement Images for Evaluation of Myocardial Salvage After Early Reperfusion | 269 | ||
| Wall Thickness and Wall Thickening Measurements | 270 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in Chronic Myocardial Infarction | 271 | ||
| Myocardial Wall Thickness as a Feature of Viable Myocardium | 271 | ||
| Contractile Reserve During Low-Dose Dobutamine Infusion | 272 | ||
| Late Gadolinium Enhancement in Chronic Infarction | 272 | ||
| Viability by Late Gadolinium Enhancement Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Recovery Following Revascularization | 273 | ||
| Thickness of the Viable Epicardial Rim and Recovery of Function | 275 | ||
| Comparison of Late Contrast Enhancement With Other Imaging Modalities | 275 | ||
| Comparison of Different Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Techniques for the Diagnosis of Viability | 276 | ||
| Viability Testing After Surgical Treatment for Ischemic Heart Failure Trial | 278 | ||
| Conclusion | 281 | ||
| References | 281 | ||
| References | 281.e1 | ||
| 22 Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Tagging for Assessment of Left Ventricular Diastolic Function | 282 | ||
| Cardiac Motion | 282 | ||
| Systolic and Diastolic Heart Motion | 282 | ||
| Assessment of Cardiac Rotation/Motion: Noncardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Methods | 282 | ||
| Assessment of Cardiac Rotation/Motion: Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Methods | 282 | ||
| Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization: Technical Developments | 283 | ||
| Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization Tagging | 283 | ||
| Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization With Slice-Following | 283 | ||
| Data Acquisition Trajectory in Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization | 284 | ||
| Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization Sequence Development Approaches | 286 | ||
| Magnitude Reconstruction | 286 | ||
| Real-Part Reconstruction | 287 | ||
| Fat Suppression in Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization | 287 | ||
| Off-Resonance Insensitive–Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization | 287 | ||
| Orthogonal Complementary Spatial Modulation of Magnetization | 287 | ||
| Tagging Analysis | 287 | ||
| Clinical Applications | 288 | ||
| Ventricular Rotation | 288 | ||
| Ventricular Hypertrophy | 289 | ||
| Aortic Stenosis | 289 | ||
| Diastolic Heart Failure | 289 | ||
| Limitations | 289 | ||
| Conclusion | 290 | ||
| References | 290 | ||
| References | 290.e1 | ||
| 23 Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Coronary Arteries | 291 | ||
| Coronary Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 291 | ||
| Cardiac-Induced Motion | 292 | ||
| Respiratory-Induced Motion | 292 | ||
| Image Quality Assessment | 294 | ||
| Coronary Magnetic Resonance Imaging—Advanced Methods | 296 | ||
| Coronary Artery Wall Imaging | 298 | ||
| Coronary Vein Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 299 | ||
| References | 299 | ||
| References | 299.e1 | ||
| 24 Coronary Artery Imaging | 300 | ||
| Identification of Anomalous Coronary Arteries | 300 | ||
| Coronary Artery Aneurysms and Kawasaki Disease | 300 | ||
| Native Vessel Coronary Artery Stenoses | 301 | ||
| Comparison of Coronary Artery CMR and Other CMR Components | 303 | ||
| Coronary Artery Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Prognosis | 304 | ||
| Comparison of Coronary Artery Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance With Multidetector Computed Tomography | 305 | ||
| Coronary Artery Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance for Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Assessment | 306 | ||
| Conclusion | 308 | ||
| References | 308 | ||
| References | 308.e1 | ||
| 25 Coronary Artery and Sinus Velocity and Flow | 309 | ||
| Indirect Assessment of Total Coronary Flow and Flow Reserve | 309 | ||
| Coronary Sinus Flow | 309 | ||
| Total Coronary Flow Reserve From Measurements in the Aortic Root | 311 | ||
| Direct Assessment of Coronary Artery Velocity | 312 | ||
| Bolus Tagging | 312 | ||
| Echo Planar Time-of-Flight Technique | 313 | ||
| Gradient Echo Phase Velocity Mapping | 313 | ||
| Breath-Hold Techniques | 313 | ||
| Navigator Techniques | 314 | ||
| Interleaved Spiral Phase Velocity Mapping | 316 | ||
| Coronary Flow, Coronary Flow Reserve and Coronary Flow Velocity Reserve | 316 | ||
| Validation and Feasibility Studies | 316 | ||
| Patient Studies | 321 | ||
| Conclusion and Future Developments | 323 | ||
| References | 324 | ||
| References | 324.e1 | ||
| 26 Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Imaging and Assessment of Flow | 325 | ||
| Imaging Modalities Capable of Evaluating Grafts | 325 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance of Bypass Grafts | 325 | ||
| Bypass Graft Anatomic Imaging Techniques | 325 | ||
| Conventional Spin Echo and Gradient Echo Imaging | 325 | ||
| Two-Dimensional Breath-Hold Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Angiography | 326 | ||
| Three-Dimensional Respiratory-Gated Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Angiography | 326 | ||
| Three-Dimensional Contrast-Enhanced Breath-Hold Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Angiography | 327 | ||
| Imaging Strategy | 328 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Quantification of Graft Flow and Flow Reserve | 329 | ||
| Limitations | 333 | ||
| Indications | 334 | ||
| Conclusion | 334 | ||
| References | 334 | ||
| References | 334.e1 | ||
| 27 Atherosclerotic Plaque Imaging | 335 | ||
| Pathobiology of Atherosclerosis | 335 | ||
| Imaging Atherosclerosis | 336 | ||
| Assessments of Plaque Burden | 336 | ||
| Plaque Characteristics | 336 | ||
| Positive Remodeling | 336 | ||
| Multicontrast Magnetic Resonance | 337 | ||
| Imaging Acute Thrombus and Plaque Hemorrhage | 337 | ||
| Early Imaging of Aortic Stenosis and Calcification | 337 | ||
| Angiogenesis | 337 | ||
| Fibrous Cap | 338 | ||
| Three-Dimensional Plaque Imaging | 338 | ||
| Molecular Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Atherosclerosis | 338 | ||
| Plaque Inflammation | 339 | ||
| Endothelial Adhesion Molecules | 340 | ||
| Angiogenesis | 340 | ||
| Thrombus | 340 | ||
| Extracellular Matrix | 341 | ||
| High-Density Lipoprotein Imaging | 341 | ||
| Hybrid Positron Emission Tomography/Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 341 | ||
| Conclusion and Future Directions | 342 | ||
| Acknowledgments and Funding | 342 | ||
| References | 342 | ||
| References | 342.e1 | ||
| 28 Atherosclerotic Plaque Imaging | 343 | ||
| Diagnostic Performance of Coronary Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 343 | ||
| Technical Challenges | 343 | ||
| Coronary Magnetic Resonance Imaging Techniques | 343 | ||
| Motion Compensation Techniques | 344 | ||
| Cardiac Motion Compensation | 344 | ||
| Respiratory Motion Compensation | 344 | ||
| Self-Navigation | 344 | ||
| Accelerated Imaging Techniques | 345 | ||
| K-Space Filling | 345 | ||
| Pulse Sequences | 345 | ||
| Noncontrast Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Coronary Artery Disease | 345 | ||
| Vascular Remodeling and Plaque Burden | 345 | ||
| Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Coronary Artery Disease | 347 | ||
| Targeted Contrast Agents for Biological Characterization of Atherosclerosis | 347 | ||
| Hybrid Positron Emission Tomography/Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 349 | ||
| Assessment of Endothelial Function by Noncontrast–Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 350 | ||
| Conclusion | 350 | ||
| References | 351 | ||
| References | 351.e1 | ||
| 29 Assessment of the Biophysical Mechanical Properties of the Arterial Wall | 352 | ||
| Arterial Structure | 352 | ||
| Definition of Vascular Wall Stiffness | 353 | ||
| Measurement of Arterial Wall Stiffness | 353 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance of Regional Aortic Compliance | 353 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance of Flow Wave Velocity | 353 | ||
| Reflected Waves | 356 | ||
| Clinical Use of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance for Assessing Arterial Wall Stiffness | 357 | ||
| Assessment of Endothelial Function | 360 | ||
| Arterial Wall Shear Stress | 361 | ||
| Conclusion | 364 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 364 | ||
| References | 364 | ||
| References | 364.e1 | ||
| III Functional Disease | 365 | ||
| 30 Valvular Heart Disease | 365 | ||
| Basic Principles | 367 | ||
| Slice Thickness and the Visualization of Thin Structures | 367 | ||
| Visualization and Planimetry of Jets by Cine Imaging | 368 | ||
| Phase Contrast Velocity Mapping | 369 | ||
| Jet Velocity Mapping for the Assessment of Stenoses | 370 | ||
| Regurgitant Flow Measurements | 370 | ||
| Fourier Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Velocity Traces | 370 | ||
| Stenotic Heart Valve and Outflow Tract Lesions | 370 | ||
| Aortic Valve Stenosis | 370 | ||
| Emerging Role of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance for Selecting Anatomically Suitable Patients for Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation | 371 | ||
| Subaortic Stenosis | 372 | ||
| Pulmonary and Other Stenoses of the Right Ventricular Outflow Tract | 373 | ||
| Mitral and Tricuspid Valve Stenosis | 374 | ||
| Valvular Regurgitation | 374 | ||
| General Principles | 374 | ||
| Aortic Regurgitation | 374 | ||
| Pulmonary Regurgitation | 375 | ||
| Mitral Regurgitation | 376 | ||
| Tricuspid Regurgitation | 378 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in Patients With Mechanical Heart Valves | 378 | ||
| Assessment of Interstitial Myocardial Fibrosis in Valvular Heart Disease | 378 | ||
| Myocardial Late Gadolinium Enhancement | 378 | ||
| Myocardial T1 Mapping | 379 | ||
| Conclusion | 382 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 382 | ||
| References | 382 | ||
| References | 382.e1 | ||
| 31 Role of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in Dilated Cardiomyopathy | 383 | ||
| Background | 383 | ||
| Treatment | 383 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Assessment of Dilated Cardiomyopathy | 384 | ||
| Morphology and Function | 384 | ||
| Tissue Characterization | 384 | ||
| Fibrosis | 385 | ||
| Late Gadolinium Enhancement Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Midwall Replacement Fibrosis | 386 | ||
| Confirming the Diagnosis | 387 | ||
| Research Techniques | 387 | ||
| T1 Mapping and Interstitial Fibrosis | 387 | ||
| Perfusion Imaging | 387 | ||
| Metabolic Imaging | 387 | ||
| Left Ventricular Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy | 388 | ||
| IV Right Ventricular and Congenital Heart Disease | 454 | ||
| 39 Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Assessment of Right Ventricular Anatomy and Function | 454 | ||
| Normal Right Ventricular Anatomy | 454 | ||
| Importance of Assessing Right Ventricular Dimensions and Function | 454 | ||
| Techniques for Assessing Right Ventricular Dimensions and Function | 455 | ||
| Echocardiography | 455 | ||
| Radionuclide Angiography | 457 | ||
| Multislice Computed Tomography | 457 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 457 | ||
| Imaging Strategies for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance of the Right Ventricle | 457 | ||
| Normal Right Ventricular Volumes and Systolic Function | 461 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Assessment of Right Ventricular Anatomy and Function in Disease | 467 | ||
| Right Ventricular Assessment in Heart Failure | 467 | ||
| Right Ventricular Assessment in Ischemic Heart Disease | 467 | ||
| Right Ventricular Assessment in Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy | 467 | ||
| Congenital Heart Disease | 467 | ||
| Pulmonary Hypertension and Lung Transplantation | 468 | ||
| Conclusion | 468 | ||
| References | 468 | ||
| References | 468.e1 | ||
| 40 Simple and Complex Congenital Heart Disease | 469 | ||
| Principles of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Evaluation in Congenital Heart Disease | 469 | ||
| Atrial Septal Defects and Other Interatrial Communications | 469 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 471 | ||
| Before Closure | 471 | ||
| After Closure | 472 | ||
| Ventricular Septal Defects | 472 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 473 | ||
| Patent Ductus Arteriosus | 474 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 474 | ||
| Partially Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection | 475 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 475 | ||
| Preoperative | 475 | ||
| Postoperative | 476 | ||
| Coarctation of the Aorta | 476 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 476 | ||
| Preintervention and Postintervention | 476 | ||
| Tetralogy of Fallot | 477 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 478 | ||
| Preoperative | 478 | ||
| Postoperative | 478 | ||
| Transposition of the Great Arteries | 479 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 479 | ||
| Preoperative | 479 | ||
| Postoperative Atrial Switch Operation | 479 | ||
| Postoperative Arterial Switch Operation | 480 | ||
| Single Ventricle | 481 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 485 | ||
| Before the First Operation | 485 | ||
| Before the Superior Cavopulmonary Anastomosis Operation | 485 | ||
| Before the Fontan Operation | 485 | ||
| After the Fontan Operation | 485 | ||
| Conclusion | 485 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 485 | ||
| References | 485 | ||
| References | 485.e1 | ||
| 41 Simple and Complex Congenital Heart Disease | 486 | ||
| Ebstein Anomaly | 486 | ||
| Anatomy and Natural History | 486 | ||
| Surgical Repairs | 486 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Evaluation of Ebstein Anomaly | 486 | ||
| Tricuspid Valve Anatomy and Tricuspid Regurgitation Fraction | 486 | ||
| Right Atrial and Right Ventricular Size and Function | 486 | ||
| Associated Cardiac Abnormalities | 487 | ||
| Coarctation of the Aorta | 487 | ||
| Anatomy and Natural History | 487 | ||
| Surgical Repairs | 488 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Evaluation of Aortic Coarctation | 488 | ||
| Aortic Arch | 488 | ||
| Left Ventricular Cavity Size and Function | 488 | ||
| Associated Cardiac Lesions | 488 | ||
| Tetralogy of Fallot | 488 | ||
| Anatomy and Natural History | 488 | ||
| Surgical Repairs | 489 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Evaluation of Tetralogy of Fallot Repair | 489 | ||
| Right Ventricular Outflow Tract Obstruction and Pulmonary Arteries | 489 | ||
| Pulmonary Regurgitation | 489 | ||
| Right Ventricular Size and Function | 490 | ||
| Tricuspid Regurgitation | 490 | ||
| Ascending Aorta | 490 | ||
| Myocardial Fibrosis | 490 | ||
| D-Loop Transposition of the Great Arteries | 492 | ||
| Anatomy and Natural History | 492 | ||
| Surgical Repairs | 492 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Evaluation of the Atrial Switch Operation | 493 | ||
| Baffle Complications | 493 | ||
| Systemic Right Ventricle and Tricuspid Valve | 493 | ||
| Left Ventricular Outflow Tract Obstruction | 494 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Evaluation of the Arterial Switch Operation | 494 | ||
| Supravalvar Pulmonic Stenosis and Branch Pulmonary Artery Stenosis | 494 | ||
| Neoaortic Dilation and Regurgitation | 494 | ||
| Coronary Arteries | 494 | ||
| L-Loop Transposition of the Great Arteries | 494 | ||
| Anatomy and Natural History | 494 | ||
| Surgical Repairs | 495 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Evaluation of L-Loop Transposition of the Great Arteries Following Physiologic Repair | 496 | ||
| Systemic Right Ventricle | 496 | ||
| Tricuspid Valve | 496 | ||
| Double Outlet Right Ventricle | 496 | ||
| Anatomy and Natural History | 496 | ||
| Surgical Repairs | 496 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Evaluation of Double Outlet Right Ventricle | 497 | ||
| Single Ventricle (Fontan Procedure) | 497 | ||
| Anatomy and Natural History | 497 | ||
| Surgical Repairs | 497 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Evaluation of the Patient After Fontan Repair | 497 | ||
| Fontan Baffle, Branch Pulmonary Arteries, and Pulmonary Veins | 497 | ||
| Ventricular Size and Function | 498 | ||
| Ventricular Outflow Tract Obstruction | 498 | ||
| Systemic Venous to Pulmonary Venous Collaterals | 498 | ||
| Conclusion | 499 | ||
| References | 499 | ||
| References | 499.e1 | ||
| V Vascular/Pericardium | 500 | ||
| 42 Pulmonary Vein and Left Atrial Imaging | 500 | ||
| Imaging Methods: Pulmonary Veins | 500 | ||
| Image Display | 500 | ||
| Pulmonary Vein Embryology | 501 | ||
| Normal and Variant Pulmonary Venous Anatomy | 501 | ||
| Congenital Pulmonary Venous Anomalies | 503 | ||
| Pulmonary Veins and the Pathophysiology of Atrial Fibrillation | 504 | ||
| Imaging Before and After Atrial Fibrillation Ablation | 504 | ||
| Quantification of Pulmonary Vein Size Before and After Ablation | 505 | ||
| Left Atrial and Left Atrial Appendage Morphology | 505 | ||
| Late Gadolinium Enhancement of the Left Atrium and Pulmonary Veins | 506 | ||
| Scar and Fibrosis Measurement | 506 | ||
| Postablation Assessments of Atrial Scar | 508 | ||
| Atrial Fibrosis by Late Gadolinium Enhancement to Predict Atrial Fibrillation Recurrence Postablation | 508 | ||
| References | 508 | ||
| References | 508.e1 | ||
| 43 Thoracic Aortic Disease | 509 | ||
| Principles of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in Aortic Imaging | 509 | ||
| Spin Echo Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 509 | ||
| Gradient Echo Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Flow Mapping | 509 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Angiography | 510 | ||
| Dissection of the Thoracic Aorta | 511 | ||
| Aortic Intramural Hematoma | 513 | ||
| Penetrating Aortic Ulcer | 514 | ||
| Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm | 514 | ||
| Trauma to the Aorta | 514 | ||
| Aortic Coarctation | 516 | ||
| Aortitis | 516 | ||
| Interventional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 517 | ||
| Conclusion | 517 | ||
| References | 517 | ||
| References | 517.e1 | ||
| 44 Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Angiography | 518 | ||
| Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Angiography: Technical Approach | 518 | ||
| Three-Dimensional Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Angiography Pulse Sequences | 519 | ||
| Bolus Timing | 519 | ||
| Contrast-Enhanced Versus Non–Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Angiography | 519 | ||
| Black-Blood Imaging | 519 | ||
| Bright-Blood Imaging: Time of Flight | 520 | ||
| Bright-Blood Imaging: Phase-Contrast Angiography | 520 | ||
| Bright-Blood Imaging: Steady-State Free Precession | 520 | ||
| Bright-Blood Imaging: Dixon | 520 | ||
| Four-Dimensional Flow Visualization | 520 | ||
| Artifacts in Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Angiography | 521 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Angiography of Extracranial Carotid Arteries | 521 | ||
| Aortic Magnetic Resonance Angiography | 522 | ||
| Renal Artery Magnetic Resonance Angiography | 524 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Angiography of the Mesenteric Arteries | 525 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Angiography of the Peripheral Arteries | 527 | ||
| References | 528 | ||
| References | 528.e1 | ||
| 45 Pulmonary Artery | 529 | ||
| Pulmonary Embolism | 529 | ||
| Pulmonary Artery Hypertension | 530 | ||
| Congenital Vascular Disorders | 531 | ||
| Pulmonary Artery Tumors | 532 | ||
| Conclusion | 533 | ||
| References | 533 | ||
| References | 533.e1 | ||
| 46 The Pericardium | 534 | ||
| Imaging Modalities | 534 | ||
| Chest X-Ray | 534 | ||
| Echocardiography | 534 | ||
| Computed Tomography | 534 | ||
| Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 534 | ||
| Normal Pericardial Anatomy | 535 | ||
| Imaging Findings of Normal Anatomy | 535 | ||
| Pericardial Diseases | 536 | ||
| Pericardial Defects | 536 | ||
| Imaging Findings of Pericardial Defects | 536 | ||
| Pericardial Cysts | 536 | ||
| Imaging Findings of Pericardial Cysts | 536 | ||
| Pericarditis | 536 | ||
| Imaging Findings of Pericarditis | 537 | ||
| Pericardial Effusion | 537 | ||
| Imaging Findings of Pericardial Effusion | 537 | ||
| Constrictive Pericarditis | 539 | ||
| Imaging Findings of Constrictive Pericarditis | 539 | ||
| Pericardial Tumors | 540 | ||
| Primary Pericardial Tumors | 540 | ||
| Imaging Findings of Primary Pericardial Tumors | 540 | ||
| Secondary Malignant Pericardial Tumors | 541 | ||
| Imaging Findings of Metastatic Pericardial Tumors | 541 | ||
| Conclusion | 541 | ||
| References | 541 | ||
| References | 541.e1 | ||
| VI Interventional | 542 | ||
| 47 Interventional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 542 | ||
| Interventional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Laboratory Configuration | 542 | ||
| Communication, Monitoring and Image Display | 542 | ||
| Interventional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Real-Time Scanner Interface | 544 | ||
| Safety Considerations | 544 | ||
| Real-Time Imaging | 544 | ||
| Interventional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Catheter Devices | 545 | ||
| Passive Devices | 546 | ||
| Active Devices | 546 | ||
| Device Solutions for Cardiovascular Applications | 547 | ||
| Applications | 547 | ||
| Extra-Anatomic Bypass | 547 | ||
| Endomyocardial Biopsy | 548 | ||
| Aortic Aneurysm, Dissection and Coarctation Stenting | 548 | ||
| Atrial Transseptal Procedures | 548 | ||
| Transthoracic Cardiac Access and Closure | 548 | ||
| Invasive Coronary Artery Imaging | 550 | ||
| Peripheral Vascular Disease | 550 | ||
| X-Ray Fused With Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 551 | ||
| Diagnostic Right Heart Catheterization | 551 | ||
| Tissue Delivery and Ablation | 551 | ||
| Cardiac Electrophysiology | 552 | ||
| Conclusion | 553 | ||
| References | 553 | ||
| References | 553.e1 | ||
| 48 Pediatric Interventional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 554 | ||
| Interventional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Systems | 554 | ||
| Merits of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Guidance | 554 | ||
| Improved Visualization of Cardiac Anatomy | 554 | ||
| Reduced Ionizing Radiation | 555 | ||
| Physiologic Information | 555 | ||
| Magnetic Instrumentation and Visualization Strategies | 555 | ||
| Passive Catheter Tracking and Visualization | 555 | ||
| Active Catheter Tracking and Visualization | 557 | ||
| Safety Issues | 558 | ||
| Bioeffects of Magnetic Fields | 558 | ||
| Heating and Electrical Safety of Interventional Equipment | 561 | ||
| Magnetic Force and Torque | 562 | ||
| X-Ray and Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Guidance | 562 | ||
| X-Ray and Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Facility Design | 562 | ||
| Performing X-Ray and Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Interventions | 563 | ||
| Early Experience in Humans | 564 | ||
| Interventional Cardiac Applications | 564 | ||
| Electrophysiology and Radiofrequency Ablation | 564 | ||
| Future Directions | 566 | ||
| Conclusion | 566 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 566 | ||
| References | 567 | ||
| References | 567.e1 | ||
| VII Economics and Guidelines | 568 | ||
| 49 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 568 | ||
| Basic Terminology | 568 | ||
| Cost-Minimization Analysis | 568 | ||
| Cost-Benefit Analysis | 568 | ||
| Cost-Effectiveness Analysis | 568 | ||
| Quality-Adjusted Life Year | 569 | ||
| Cost-Utility Analysis | 569 | ||
| Societal Perspective | 570 | ||
| Time Horizon | 570 | ||
| Cost-Effectiveness Thresholds | 570 | ||
| Challenges in Conducting Cost-Effectiveness Analysis in Cardiovascular Imaging | 570 | ||
| Cost-Effective Analyses of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 570 | ||
| US Perspective | 570 | ||
| European Perspective | 571 | ||
| Conclusion | 573 | ||
| References | 573 | ||
| References | 573.e1 | ||
| 50 Cardiac Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance | 574 | ||
| Technical Aspects and Implementation | 574 | ||
| Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance Scanners and Instrumentation | 574 | ||
| Attenuation Correction in Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance | 574 | ||
| Motion Correction | 575 | ||
| Electrocardiogram Gating | 575 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance-Based Motion Correction | 575 | ||
| Image Postprocessing, Visualization, and Quantification | 575 | ||
| Common Pitfalls | 575 | ||
| Segmentation and Misalignment Errors | 575 | ||
| Truncation of Field of View | 575 | ||
| Patient Preparation for Fludeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance Studies | 575 | ||
| Radiation Exposure | 576 | ||
| Coronary Artery Disease | 576 | ||
| Suspected and Known Coronary Artery Disease | 576 | ||
| Acute Coronary Syndrome | 576 | ||
| Inflammatory Heart Disease | 576 | ||
| Myocarditis | 578 | ||
| Cardiac Sarcoidosis | 578 | ||
| Endocarditis | 579 | ||
| Cardiac Tumors | 579 | ||
| Reporting | 580 | ||
| Conclusion | 581 | ||
| References | 581 | ||
| References | 581.e1 | ||
| 51 Guidelines for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 582 | ||
| References | 584 | ||
| References | 584.e1 | ||
| 52 Noncardiac Pathology | 585 | ||
| What Is an Incidental Noncardiac Finding? | 585 | ||
| Classification of Incidental Noncardiac Findings Based on Clinical Significance | 585 | ||
| Importance of the Incidental Noncardiac Findings | 586 | ||
| Prevalence of Incidental Findings in the Literature | 586 | ||
| Prevalence of Important Incidental Findings on Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 587 | ||
| Impact of Patient’s Gender on Incidental Findings | 588 | ||
| Impact of Patient’s Age on Incidental Findings | 588 | ||
| Cardiology and Radiology Reviewing of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance | 588 | ||
| Impact of Different Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Sequences in Detecting Incidental Pathology | 589 | ||
| Cost Effectiveness of Reporting Incidental Noncardiac Pathologies | 589 | ||
| Incidental Findings Classified by Body System | 589 | ||
| Conclusion: Pros and Cons of Reporting Incidental Findings | 592 | ||
| References | 592 | ||
| References | 592.e1 | ||
| Appendix A CMR Screening Form: Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC)—CMR Center | 593 | ||
| Appendix B CMR Sequence Protocols in Use (2018) at the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC)—CMR Center | 595 | ||
| Appendix C Analogous CMR Terminology Used by Various Vendors | 596 | ||
| Index | 598 | ||
| A | 598 | ||
| B | 599 | ||
| C | 600 | ||
| D | 605 | ||
| E | 605 | ||
| F | 606 | ||
| G | 607 | ||
| H | 607 | ||
| I | 608 | ||
| J | 609 | ||
| K | 609 | ||
| L | 609 | ||
| M | 609 | ||
| N | 611 | ||
| O | 612 | ||
| P | 612 | ||
| Q | 614 | ||
| R | 614 | ||
| S | 615 | ||
| T | 616 | ||
| U | 617 | ||
| V | 617 | ||
| W | 618 | ||
| X | 618 | ||
| Y | 618 | ||
| Z | 618 | ||
| ES7_Clinical Key ad | IBC1 |