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Book Details
Abstract
Extensively revised throughout, Nolte's Essentials of the Human Brain, 2nd Edition, offers a reader-friendly overview of neuroscience and neuroanatomy ideal for studying and reviewing for exams. Updated content, integrated pathology and pharmacology for a more clinical focus, and full-color illustrations make a complex subject easier to understand. Test and verify your knowledge with review questions, unlabelled drawings, and more.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| IFC_StudentConsult ad | IFC1 | ||
| Nolte's Essentials of the Human Brain | i | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| Preface | v | ||
| Table Of Contents | vii | ||
| 1 Introduction to the Nervous System | 1 | ||
| Keywords | 1.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 1 | ||
| The Nervous System Has Central and Peripheral Parts | 1 | ||
| The Principal Cellular Elements of the Nervous System Are Neurons and Glial Cells | 1 | ||
| Neurons Come in a Variety of Sizes and Shapes, but All Are Variations on the Same Theme | 1 | ||
| Neuronal Cell Bodies and Axons Are Largely Segregated Within the Nervous System | 3 | ||
| Neuronal Organelles Are Distributed in a Pattern That Supports Neuronal Function | 4 | ||
| Schwann Cells Are the Principal PNS Glial Cells | 4 | ||
| Several Diseases Can Lead to Peripheral Nerve Demyelina ting. | 5 | ||
| Peripheral Nerve Demyelinating Diseases. | 5 | ||
| CNS Glial Cells Include Oligodendrocytes, Astrocytes, Ependymal Cells, and Microglial Cells | 5 | ||
| Several Diseases Can Lead to the Demyelination of the Neurons in the CNS. | 6 | ||
| Central Nervous System Demyelinating Diseases. | 6 | ||
| Study Questions | 7 | ||
| 2 Development of the Nervous System | 8 | ||
| Keywords | 8.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 8 | ||
| The Neural Tube and Neural Crest Give Rise to the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems | 8 | ||
| The Sulcus Limitans Separates Sensory and Motor Areas of the Spinal Cord and Brainstem | 8 | ||
| The Neural Tube Has a Series of Bulges and Flexures | 8 | ||
| Growth of the Telencephalon Overshadows Other Parts of the Nervous System | 10 | ||
| Adverse Events During Development Can Cause Congenital Malformations of the Nervous System | 10 | ||
| Defective Closure of the Neural Tube Can Cause Spina Bifida or Anencephaly | 11 | ||
| Defective Secondary Neurulation Can Cause a Distinctive Set of Abnormalities | 11 | ||
| The Prosencephalon Can Develop Abnormally Even if Neural Tube Closure Is Complete | 11 | ||
| Study Questions | 11 | ||
| 3 Gross Anatomy and General Organization of the Central Nervous System | 13 | ||
| Keywords | 13.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 13 | ||
| The Long Axis of the CNS Bends at the Cephalic Flexure | 13 | ||
| Hemisecting a Brain Reveals Parts of the Diencephalon, Brainstem, and Ventricular System | 13 | ||
| Named Sulci and Gyri Cover the Cerebral Surface | 14 | ||
| Each Cerebral Hemisphere Includes a Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal, and Limbic Lobe | 14 | ||
| The Diencephalon Includes the Thalamus and Hypothalamus | 16 | ||
| Most Cranial Nerves Are Attached to the Brainstem | 16 | ||
| The Cerebellum Includes a Vermis and Two Hemispheres | 16 | ||
| Sections of the Cerebrum Reveal the Basal Ganglia and Limbic Structures | 16 | ||
| Parts of the Nervous System Are Interconnected in Systematic Ways | 17 | ||
| Axons of Primary Afferents and Lower Motor Neurons Convey Information to and From the CNS | 17 | ||
| Somatosensory Inputs Participate in Reflexes, Pathways to the Cerebellum, and Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex | 18 | ||
| Somatosensory Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex Cross the Midline and Pass Through the Thalamus. | 18 | ||
| Somatosensory Cortex Contains a Distorted Map of the Body. | 18 | ||
| Each Side of the Cerebellum Receives Information About the Ipsilateral Side of the Body. | 19 | ||
| Other Sensory Systems Are Similar to the Somatosensory System. | 19 | ||
| Higher Levels of the CNS Influence the Activity of Lower Motor Neurons | 19 | ||
| Corticospinal Axons Cross the Midline. | 19 | ||
| The Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum Indirectly Affect Contralateral and Ipsilateral Motor Neurons, Respectively. | 19 | ||
| Study Questions | 20 | ||
| 4 Meningeal Coverings of the Brain and Spinal Cord | 22 | ||
| Keywords | 22.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 22 | ||
| There Are Three Meningeal Layers: The Dura Mater, Arachnoid, and Pia Mater | 22 | ||
| The Dura Mater Provides Mechanical Strength | 22 | ||
| Dural Septa Partially Separate Different Intracranial Compartments | 22 | ||
| The Dura Mater Contains Venous Sinuses That Drain the Brain | 22 | ||
| The Dura Mater Has Its Own Blood Supply | 23 | ||
| The Dura Mater Is Pain-Sensitive | 23 | ||
| The Dura Mater Has an Arachnoid Lining | 23 | ||
| The Arachnoid Bridges Over CNS Surface Irregularities, Forming Cisterns | 23 | ||
| CSF Enters the Venous Circulation Through Arachnoid Villi | 23 | ||
| The Arachnoid Has a Barrier Function | 23 | ||
| Pia Mater Covers the Surface of the CNS | 24 | ||
| The Vertebral Canal Contains Spinal Epidural Space | 24 | ||
| Bleeding Can Open Up Potential Meningeal Spaces | 24 | ||
| Parts of the CNS Can Herniate From One Intracranial Compartment Into Another | 24 | ||
| Study Questions | 25 | ||
| 5 Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid | 27 | ||
| Keywords | 27.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 27 | ||
| The Brain Contains Four Ventricles | 27 | ||
| A Lateral Ventricle Curves Through Each Cerebral Hemisphere | 27 | ||
| The Third Ventricle Is a Midline Cavity in the Diencephalon | 27 | ||
| The Fourth Ventricle Communicates With Subarachnoid Cisterns | 27 | ||
| The Ventricles Contain Only a Fraction of the CSF | 28 | ||
| Choroid Plexus Is the Source of Most CSF | 28 | ||
| CSF Is a Secretion of the Choroid Plexus | 28 | ||
| CSF Circulates Through and Around the CNS, Eventually Reaching the Venous System | 28 | ||
| CSF Has Multiple Functions | 29 | ||
| Imaging Techniques Allow Both CNS and CSF to Be Visualized | 29 | ||
| Tomography Produces Images of Two-Dimensional “Slices” | 29 | ||
| CT Produces Maps of X-Ray Density | 29 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging Produces Maps of Water Concentration | 29 | ||
| Disruption of CSF Circulation Can Cause Hydrocephalus | 29 | ||
| Study Questions | 31 | ||
| 6 Blood Supply of the Brain | 32 | ||
| Keywords | 32.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 32 | ||
| The Internal Carotid Arteries and Vertebral Arteries Supply the Brain | 32 | ||
| The Internal Carotid Arteries Supply Most of the Cerebrum | 32 | ||
| The Vertebral-Basilar System Supplies the Brainstem and Parts of the Cerebrum and Spinal Cord | 32 | ||
| The Circle of Willis Interconnects the Internal Carotid and Vertebral-Basilar Systems | 33 | ||
| Blood Flow to the CNS Is Closely Controlled | 34 | ||
| Imaging Techniques Allow Arteries and Veins to Be Visualized | 34 | ||
| Strokes Result From Disruption of the Vascular Supply | 34 | ||
| A System of Barriers Partially Separates the Nervous System From the Rest of the Body | 35 | ||
| Superficial and Deep Veins Drain the Brain | 35 | ||
| Study Questions | 36 | ||
| 7 Electrical Signaling by Neurons | 38 | ||
| Keywords | 38.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 38 | ||
| A Lipid/Protein Membrane Separates Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids | 38 | ||
| The Resting Membrane Potential of Typical Neurons Is Heavily Influenced, but Not Completely Determined, by the Potassium Concentration Gradient | 38 | ||
| Concentration Gradients Are Maintained by Membrane Proteins That Pump Ions | 39 | ||
| Inputs to Neurons Cause Slow, Local Potential Changes | 40 | ||
| Membrane Capacitance and Resistance Determine the Speed and Extent of the Response to a Current Pulse | 40 | ||
| Action Potentials Convey Information Over Long Distances | 40 | ||
| Opening and Closing of Voltage-Gated Sodium and Potassium Channels Underlies the Action Potential | 40 | ||
| Action Potentials Are Followed by Brief Refractory Periods | 41 | ||
| Action Potentials Are Propagated Without Decrement Along Axons | 41 | ||
| Action Potentials Can Be Altered by Medications | 42 | ||
| Medications Act at Voltage-Gated Sodium and Potassium Channels to Decrease Neuronal Activity | 42 | ||
| Study Questions | 43 | ||
| 8 Synaptic Transmission Between Neurons | 44 | ||
| Keywords | 44.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 44 | ||
| There Are Five Steps in Conventional Chemical Synaptic Transmission | 44 | ||
| Neurotransmitters Are Synthesized in Presynaptic Endings and in Neuronal Cell Bodies | 44 | ||
| Neurotransmitters Are Packaged Into Synaptic Vesicles Before Release | 44 | ||
| Presynaptic Endings Release Neurotransmitters Into the Synaptic Cleft | 44 | ||
| Medications Can Inhibit Neurotransmitter Release by Altering Voltage-Gated Ca2+ Channel Function. | 45 | ||
| Neurotransmitters Diffuse Across the Synaptic Cleft and Bind to Postsynaptic Receptors | 45 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Action Is Terminated by Uptake, Degradation, or Diffusion | 45 | ||
| Medications Take Advantage of These Transporters and Enzymes. | 45 | ||
| Synaptic Transmission Can Be Rapid and Point-to-Point, or Slow and Often Diffuse | 46 | ||
| Rapid Synaptic Transmission Involves Transmitter-Gated Ion Channels | 46 | ||
| Slow Synaptic Transmission Usually Involves Postsynaptic Receptors Linked to G Proteins | 46 | ||
| The Postsynaptic Receptor Determines the Effect of a Neurotransmitter | 47 | ||
| The Size and Location of a Synaptic Ending Influence the Magnitude of Its Effects | 47 | ||
| Presynaptic Endings Can Themselves Be Postsynaptic. | 47 | ||
| Synaptic Strength Can Be Facilitated or Depressed | 47 | ||
| Medications and Toxins Can Have an Influence on the Amount of Neurotransmitter Released | 47 | ||
| Messages Also Travel Across Synapses in a Retrograde Direction | 47 | ||
| Most Neurotransmitters Are Small Amine Molecules, Amino Acids, or Neuropeptides | 47 | ||
| Gap Junctions Mediate Direct Current Flow From One Neuron to Another | 48 | ||
| Study Questions | 49 | ||
| 9 Sensory Receptors and the Peripheral Nervous System | 50 | ||
| Keywords | 50.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 50 | ||
| Receptors Encode the Nature, Location, Intensity, and Duration of Stimuli | 50 | ||
| Each Sensory Receptor Has an Adequate Stimulus, Allowing It to Encode the Nature of a Stimulus | 50 | ||
| Many Sensory Receptors Have a Receptive Field, Allowing Them to Encode the Location of a Stimulus. | 50 | ||
| Receptor Potentials Encode the Intensity and Duration of Stimuli | 50 | ||
| Most Sensory Receptors Adapt to Maintain Stimuli, Some More Rapidly Than Others. | 51 | ||
| Sensory Receptors All Share Some Organizational Features | 51 | ||
| Sensory Receptors Use Ionotropic and Metabotropic Mechanisms to Produce Receptor Potentials. | 51 | ||
| All Sensory Receptors Produce Receptor Potentials, but Some Do Not Produce Action Potentials. | 51 | ||
| Somatosensory Receptors Detect Mechanical, Chemical, or Thermal Changes | 52 | ||
| Nociceptors Have Both Afferent and Efferent Functions | 52 | ||
| Receptors in Muscles and Joints Detect Muscle Status and Limb Position | 53 | ||
| Visceral Structures Contain a Variety of Receptive Endings | 53 | ||
| Peripheral Nerves Convey Information to and From the CNS | 53 | ||
| The Diameter of a Nerve Fiber Is Correlated With Its Function | 54 | ||
| Study Questions | 54 | ||
| 10 Spinal Cord | 56 | ||
| Keywords | 56.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 56 | ||
| The Spinal Cord Is Segmented | 56 | ||
| Each Spinal Cord Segment Innervates a Dermatome | 56 | ||
| All Levels of the Spinal Cord Have a Similar Cross-Sectional Structure | 56 | ||
| The Spinal Cord Is Involved in Sensory Processing, Motor Outflow, and Reflexes | 57 | ||
| Spinal Gray Matter Is Regionally Specialized | 57 | ||
| Reflex Circuitry Is Built Into the Spinal Cord | 58 | ||
| Reflexes Are Modifiable | 58 | ||
| Ascending and Descending Pathways Have Defined Locations in the Spinal White Matter | 59 | ||
| The Posterior Column–Medial Lemniscus System Conveys Information About Touch and Limb Position | 59 | ||
| The Spinothalamic Tract Conveys Information About Pain and Temperature | 59 | ||
| Additional Pathways Convey Somatosensory Information to the Thalamus | 60 | ||
| Spinal Information Reaches the Cerebellum Both Directly and Indirectly | 60 | ||
| Descending Pathways Influence the Activity of Lower Motor Neurons | 60 | ||
| The Autonomic Nervous System Monitors and Controls Visceral Activity | 61 | ||
| Preganglionic Parasympathetic Neurons Are Located in the Brainstem and Sacral Spinal Cord | 61 | ||
| Preganglionic Sympathetic Neurons Are Located in Thoracic and Lumbar Spinal Segments | 61 | ||
| Visceral Distortion or Damage Causes Pain That Is Referred to Predictable Dermatomes | 61 | ||
| A Longitudinal Network of Arteries Supplies the Spinal Cord | 62 | ||
| Spinal Cord Damage Causes Predictable Deficits | 62 | ||
| Study Questions | 63 | ||
| 11 Organization of the Brainstem | 65 | ||
| Keywords | 65.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 65 | ||
| The Brainstem Has Conduit, Cranial Nerve, and Integrative Functions | 65 | ||
| The Medulla, Pons, and Midbrain Have Characteristic Gross Anatomical Features | 65 | ||
| The Internal Structure of the Brainstem Reflects Surface Features and the Position of Long Tracts | 66 | ||
| The Reticular Core of the Brainstem Is Involved in Multiple Functions | 68 | ||
| Some Brainstem Nuclei Have Distinctive Neurochemical Signatures | 69 | ||
| Neurons of the Locus Ceruleus Contain Norepinephrine | 69 | ||
| Neurons of the Substantia Nigra and Ventral Tegmental Area Contain Dopamine | 69 | ||
| Neurons of the Raphe Nuclei Contain Serotonin | 69 | ||
| Neurons of the Rostral Brainstem and Basal Forebrain Contain Acetylcholine | 70 | ||
| The Brainstem Is Supplied by the Vertebral-Basilar System | 70 | ||
| Study Questions | 71 | ||
| 12 Cranial Nerves and Their Nuclei | 72 | ||
| Keywords | 72.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 72 | ||
| Cranial Nerve Nuclei Have a Generally Predictable Arrangement | 72 | ||
| Cranial Nerves III, IV, VI, and XII Contain Somatic Motor Fibers | 72 | ||
| The Abducens Nucleus Also Contains Interneurons That Project to the Contralateral Oculomotor Nucleus | 74 | ||
| The Hypoglossal Nerve (XII) Innervates Tongue Muscles | 75 | ||
| Branchiomeric Nerves Contain Axons From Multiple Categories | 75 | ||
| The Trigeminal Nerve (V) Is the General Sensory Nerve for the Head | 75 | ||
| The Main Sensory Nucleus Receives Information About Touch and Jaw Position. | 75 | ||
| The Spinal Trigeminal Nucleus Receives Information About Pain and Temperature. | 75 | ||
| The Trigeminal Motor Nucleus Innervates Muscles of Mastication. | 77 | ||
| The Facial Nerve (VII) Innervates Muscles of Facial Expression | 77 | ||
| Upper Motor Neuron Damage Affects the Upper and Lower Parts of the Face Differently. | 77 | ||
| The Vagus Nerve (X) Is the Principal Parasympathetic Nerve | 77 | ||
| The Accessory Nerve Innervates Neck and Shoulder Muscles | 78 | ||
| Brainstem Damage Commonly Causes Deficits on One Side of the Head and the Opposite Side of the Body | 78 | ||
| Study Questions | 79 | ||
| 13 The Chemical Senses of Taste and Smell | 81 | ||
| Keywords | 81.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 81 | ||
| The Perception of Flavor Involves Gustatory, Olfactory, Trigeminal, and Other Inputs | 81 | ||
| Taste Is Mediated by Receptors in Taste Buds, Innervated by Cranial Nerves VII, IX, and X | 81 | ||
| Taste Receptor Cells Are Modified Epithelial Cells With Neuronlike Properties | 81 | ||
| Second-Order Gustatory Neurons Are Located in the Nucleus of the Solitary Tract | 82 | ||
| Information About Taste Is Coded, in Part, by the Pattern of Activity in Populations of Neurons | 83 | ||
| Olfaction Is Mediated by Receptors That Project Directly to the Telencephalon | 83 | ||
| Olfactory Receptor Neurons Utilize a Large Number of G Protein–Coupled Receptors to Detect a Wide Range of Odors | 84 | ||
| Olfactory Information Bypasses the Thalamus on Its Way to the Cerebral Cortex | 84 | ||
| Conductive and Sensorineural Problems Can Affect Olfactory Function | 84 | ||
| Multiple Flavor-Related Signals Converge in Orbital Cortex | 84 | ||
| Study Questions | 84 | ||
| 14 Hearing and Balance | 86 | ||
| Keywords | 86.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 86 | ||
| Auditory and Vestibular Receptor Cells Are Located in the Walls of the Membranous Labyrinth | 86 | ||
| Endolymph Is Actively Secreted, Circulates Through the Membranous Labyrinth, and Is Reabsorbed | 86 | ||
| Auditory and Vestibular Receptors Are Hair Cells | 86 | ||
| The Cochlear Division of the Eighth Nerve Conveys Information About Sound | 87 | ||
| The Outer and Middle Ears Convey Airborne Vibrations to the Fluid-Filled Inner Ear | 88 | ||
| The Cochlea Is the Auditory Part of the Labyrinth | 88 | ||
| Inner Hair Cells Are Sensory Cells; Outer Hair Cells Are Amplifiers. | 88 | ||
| Auditory Information Is Distributed Bilaterally in the CNS | 89 | ||
| Activity in the Ascending Auditory Pathway Generates Electrical Signals That Can Be Measured From the Scalp. | 89 | ||
| Efferents Control the Sensitivity of the Cochlea | 89 | ||
| Conductive and Sensorineural Problems Can Affect Hearing | 90 | ||
| The Vestibular Division of the Eighth Nerve Conveys Information About Linear and Angular Acceleration of the Head | 91 | ||
| Receptors in the Utricle and Saccule Detect Linear Acceleration and Position of the Head | 91 | ||
| Receptors in the Semicircular Ducts Detect Angular Acceleration of the Head | 91 | ||
| Vestibular Primary Afferents Project to the Vestibular Nuclei and the Cerebellum | 92 | ||
| The Vestibular Nuclei Project to the Spinal Cord, Cerebellum, and Nuclei of Cranial Nerves III, IV, and VI | 92 | ||
| The Vestibular Nuclei Participate in the Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex. | 93 | ||
| Nystagmus Can Be Physiological or Pathological. | 93 | ||
| Position Sense Is Mediated by the Vestibular, Proprioceptive, and Visual Systems Acting Together | 94 | ||
| Study Questions | 94 | ||
| 15 Brainstem Summary | 96 | ||
| Keywords | 96.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 96 | ||
| Caudal Medulla | 97 | ||
| Rostral Medulla | 98 | ||
| Caudal Pons | 99 | ||
| Rostral Pons | 100 | ||
| Caudal Midbrain | 101 | ||
| Rostral Midbrain | 102 | ||
| 16 The Thalamus and Internal Capsule | 103 | ||
| Keywords | 103.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 103 | ||
| The Diencephalon Includes the Epithalamus, Subthalamus, Hypothalamus, and Thalamus | 103 | ||
| The Thalamus Is the Gateway to the Cerebral Cortex | 103 | ||
| The Thalamus Has Anterior, Medial, and Lateral Divisions, Defined by the Internal Medullary Lamina | 103 | ||
| Intralaminar Nuclei Are Embedded in the Internal Medullary Lamina. | 104 | ||
| The Thalamic Reticular Nucleus Partially Surrounds the Thalamus. | 104 | ||
| Patterns of Input and Output Connections Define Functional Categories of Thalamic Nuclei | 104 | ||
| Thalamic Projection Neurons Have Two Physiological States. | 105 | ||
| There Are Relay Nuclei for Sensory, Motor, and Limbic Systems. | 105 | ||
| The Dorsomedial Nucleus and Pulvinar Are the Principal Association Nuclei. | 105 | ||
| The Thalamic Reticular Nucleus Projects to Other Thalamic Nuclei and Not to the Cerebral Cortex. | 105 | ||
| Small Branches of the Posterior Cerebral Artery Provide Most of the Blood Supply to the Thalamus | 105 | ||
| Interconnections Between the Cerebral Cortex and Subcortical Structures Travel Through the Internal Capsule | 105 | ||
| Small Branches of the Middle Cerebral Artery Provide Most of the Blood Supply to the Internal Capsule | 106 | ||
| Study Questions | 107 | ||
| 17 The Visual System | 108 | ||
| Keywords | 108.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 108 | ||
| The Eye Has Three Concentric Tissue Layers and a Lens | 108 | ||
| Intraocular Pressure Maintains the Shape of the Eye | 108 | ||
| The Cornea and Lens Focus Images on the Retina | 109 | ||
| The Iris Affects the Brightness and Quality of the Image Focused on the Retina | 109 | ||
| A System of Barriers Partially Separates the Retina From the Rest of the Body | 109 | ||
| The Retina Contains Five Major Neuronal Cell Types | 109 | ||
| The Retina Is Regionally Specialized | 110 | ||
| Retinal Neurons Translate Patterns of Light Into Patterns of Contrast | 110 | ||
| Photopigments Are G Protein–Coupled Receptors That Cause Hyperpolarizing Receptor Potentials | 111 | ||
| Ganglion Cells Have Center-Surround Receptive Fields | 111 | ||
| Rod and Cone Signals Reach the Same Ganglion Cells. | 111 | ||
| Half of the Visual Field of Each Eye Is Mapped Systematically in the Contralateral Cerebral Hemisphere | 111 | ||
| Damage at Different Points in the Visual Pathway Results in Predictable Deficits | 112 | ||
| Some Fibers of the Optic Tract Terminate in the Superior Colliculus, Accessory Optic Nuclei, and Hypothalamus | 112 | ||
| Primary Visual Cortex Sorts Visual Information and Distributes It to Other Cortical Areas | 113 | ||
| Visual Cortex Has a Columnar Organization | 113 | ||
| Visual Information Is Distributed in Dorsal and Ventral Streams | 113 | ||
| Early Experience Has Permanent Effects on the Visual System | 113 | ||
| Reflex Circuits Adjust the Size of the Pupil and the Focal Length of the Lens | 114 | ||
| Illumination of Either Retina Causes Both Pupils to Constrict | 114 | ||
| Both Eyes Accommodate for Near Vision | 115 | ||
| Study Questions | 116 | ||
| 18 Overview of Motor Systems | 118 | ||
| Keywords | 118.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 118 | ||
| Each Lower Motor Neuron Innervates a Group of Muscle Fibers, Forming a Motor Unit | 118 | ||
| Lower Motor Neurons Are Arranged Systematically | 118 | ||
| There Are Three Kinds of Muscle Fibers and Three Kinds of Motor Units | 118 | ||
| Motor Units Are Recruited in Order of Size | 119 | ||
| Motor Control Systems Involve Both Hierarchical and Parallel Connections | 119 | ||
| The Corticospinal Tract Has Multiple Origins and Terminations | 120 | ||
| Corticospinal Axons Arise in Multiple Cortical Areas | 120 | ||
| Corticospinal Input Is Essential for Only Some Movements. | 120 | ||
| Upper Motor Neuron Damage Causes a Distinctive Syndrome. | 121 | ||
| There Are Upper Motor Neurons for Cranial Nerve Motor Nuclei | 121 | ||
| Study Questions | 122 | ||
| 19 Basal Ganglia | 124 | ||
| Keywords | 124.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 124 | ||
| The Basal Ganglia Include Five Major Nuclei | 124 | ||
| Basal Ganglia Circuitry Involves Multiple Parallel Loops That Modulate Cortical Output | 125 | ||
| Interconnections of the Basal Ganglia Determine the Pattern of Their Outputs | 127 | ||
| The Cerebral Cortex, Substantia Nigra, and Thalamus Project to the Striatum | 127 | ||
| The Internal Segment of the Globus Pallidus and the Reticular Part of the Substantia Nigra Provide the Output From the Basal Ganglia | 127 | ||
| The Subthalamic Nucleus Is Part of an Indirect Pathway Through the Basal Ganglia | 127 | ||
| Perforating Branches From the Circle of Willis Supply the Basal Ganglia | 127 | ||
| Many Basal Ganglia Disorders Result in Abnormalities of Movement | 128 | ||
| Study Questions | 128 | ||
| 20 Cerebellum | 130 | ||
| Keywords | 130.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 130 | ||
| The Cerebellum Can Be Divided Into Transverse and Longitudinal Zones | 130 | ||
| Deep Nuclei Are Embedded in the Cerebellar White Matter | 130 | ||
| Three Peduncles Convey the Input and Output of Each Half of the Cerebellum | 131 | ||
| All Parts of the Cerebellum Share Common Organizational Principles | 131 | ||
| Inputs Reach the Cerebellar Cortex as Mossy and Climbing Fibers | 131 | ||
| Purkinje Cells of the Cerebellar Cortex Project to the Deep Nuclei | 131 | ||
| One Side of the Cerebellum Affects the Ipsilateral Side of the Body | 132 | ||
| Details of Connections Differ Among Zones | 132 | ||
| Cerebellar Cortex Receives Inputs From Multiple Sources | 133 | ||
| Vestibular Inputs Reach the Flocculus and Vermis | 133 | ||
| The Spinal Cord Projects to the Vermis and Medial Hemisphere | 133 | ||
| Cerebral Cortex Projects to the Cerebellum by Way of Pontine Nuclei | 133 | ||
| Climbing Fibers Arise in the Inferior Olivary Nucleus | 133 | ||
| Visual and Auditory Information Reaches the Cerebellum | 133 | ||
| Each Longitudinal Zone Has a Distinctive Output | 134 | ||
| Patterns of Connections Indicate the Functions of Longitudinal Zones | 134 | ||
| The Lateral Hemispheres Are Involved in Planning Movements | 134 | ||
| The Medial Hemispheres Are Involved in Adjusting Limb Movements | 134 | ||
| The Vermis Is Involved in Postural Adjustments | 135 | ||
| The Flocculus and Vermis Are Involved in Eye Movements | 135 | ||
| The Cerebellum Is Involved in Motor Learning | 136 | ||
| The Cerebellum Is Also Involved in Cognitive Functions | 136 | ||
| Clinical Syndromes Correspond to Functional Zones | 136 | ||
| Study Questions | 136 | ||
| 21 Control of Eye Movements | 138 | ||
| Keywords | 138.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 138 | ||
| Six Extraocular Muscles Move the Eye in the Orbit | 138 | ||
| The Medial and Lateral Recti Adduct and Abduct the Eye | 138 | ||
| The Superior and Inferior Recti and the Obliques Have More Complex Actions | 138 | ||
| There Are Fast and Slow Conjugate Eye Movements | 139 | ||
| Fast, Ballistic Eye Movements Get Images Onto the Fovea | 139 | ||
| The Frontal Eye Fields and Superior Colliculus Trigger Saccades to the Contralateral Side. | 140 | ||
| Slow, Guided Eye Movements Keep Images on the Fovea | 140 | ||
| The Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex Compensates for Head Movement. | 140 | ||
| Smooth Pursuit Movements Compensate for Target Movement. | 141 | ||
| Changes in Object Distance Require Vergence Movements | 141 | ||
| The Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum Participate in Eye Movement Control | 141 | ||
| Study Questions | 142 | ||
| 22 Cerebral Cortex | 143 | ||
| Keywords | 143.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 143 | ||
| Most Cerebral Cortex Is Neocortex | 143 | ||
| Different Neocortical Layers Have Distinctive Connections | 143 | ||
| The Corpus Callosum and Anterior Commissure Interconnect the Two Cerebral Hemispheres. | 143 | ||
| Association Bundles Interconnect Areas Within Each Cerebral Hemisphere. | 144 | ||
| Neocortex Also Has a Columnar Organization | 144 | ||
| Neocortical Areas Are Specialized for Different Functions | 144 | ||
| There Are Sensory, Motor, Association, and Limbic Areas | 144 | ||
| Language Areas Border the Lateral Sulcus, Usually on the Left. | 146 | ||
| The Right and Left Cerebral Hemispheres Are Specialized for Different Functions. | 146 | ||
| Prefrontal Cortex Mediates Working Memory and Decision Making. | 146 | ||
| The Corpus Callosum Unites the Two Cerebral Hemispheres | 147 | ||
| Disconnection Syndromes Can Result From White Matter Damage | 147 | ||
| Consciousness and Sleep Are Active Processes | 147 | ||
| There Are Two Forms of Sleep | 148 | ||
| Both Brainstem and Forebrain Mechanisms Regulate Sleep-Wake Transitions. | 148 | ||
| Study Questions | 149 | ||
| 23 Drives and Emotions | 150 | ||
| Keywords | 150.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 150 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Coordinates Drive-Related Behaviors | 150 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Can Be Subdivided in Both Longitudinal and Medial-Lateral Directions | 150 | ||
| Hypothalamic Inputs Arise in Widespread Neural Sites | 150 | ||
| Hypothalamic Outputs Largely Reciprocate Inputs | 151 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Controls Both Lobes of the Pituitary Gland. | 151 | ||
| Perforating Branches From the Circle of Willis Supply the Hypothalamus | 152 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Collaborates With a Network of Brainstem and Spinal Cord Neurons | 152 | ||
| Normal Micturition Involves a Central Pattern Generator in the Pons. | 152 | ||
| The Hypothalamus and Associated Central Pattern Generators Keep Physiological Variables Within Narrow Limits. | 152 | ||
| Limbic Structures Are Interposed Between the Hypothalamus and Neocortex | 152 | ||
| The Cingulate Gyrus, Hippocampus, and Amygdala Are Central Components of the Limbic Subsystem | 153 | ||
| The Cingulate Cortex Acts as the Gateway Between the Limbic System and Neocortex | 153 | ||
| The Amygdala Is Centrally Involved in Emotional Responses | 153 | ||
| The Amygdala Is Involved in Emotion-Related Aspects of Learning. | 154 | ||
| Study Questions | 154 | ||
| 24 Formation, Modification, and Repair of Neuronal Connections | 156 | ||
| Keywords | 156.e1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 156 | ||
| Both Neurons and Connections Are Produced in Excess During Development | 156 | ||
| Neurotrophic Factors Ensure That Adequate Numbers of Neurons Survive | 156 | ||
| Axonal Branches Are Pruned to Match Functional Requirements | 156 | ||
| Pruning of Neuronal Connections Occurs During Critical Periods. | 157 | ||
| Synaptic Connections Are Adjusted Throughout Life | 157 | ||
| There Are Short-Term and Long-Term Adjustments of Synaptic Strength | 157 | ||
| Multiple Memory Systems Depend on Adjustments of Synaptic Strength | 158 | ||
| The Hippocampus and Nearby Cortical Regions Are Critical for Declarative Memory | 159 | ||
| The Amygdala Is Centrally Involved in Emotional Memories | 160 | ||
| The Basal Ganglia Are Important for Some Forms of Nondeclarative Memory | 160 | ||
| The Cerebellum Is Important for Some Forms of Nondeclarative Memory | 161 | ||
| PNS Repair Is More Effective Than CNS Repair | 161 | ||
| Peripheral Nerve Fibers Can Regrow After Injury | 161 | ||
| CNS Glial Cells Impede Repair After Injury | 161 | ||
| Limited Numbers of New Neurons Are Added to the CNS Throughout Life | 161 | ||
| Study Questions | 162 | ||
| Appendix 1 Comprehensive Quiz | 163 | ||
| Appendix 2 Answers | 167 | ||
| Chapter 1 | 167 | ||
| Chapter 2 | 167 | ||
| Chapter 3 | 167 | ||
| Chapter 4 | 168 | ||
| Chapter 5 | 168 | ||
| Chapter 6 | 169 | ||
| Chapter 7 | 169 | ||
| Chapter 8 | 170 | ||
| Chapter 9 | 170 | ||
| Chapter 10 | 170 | ||
| Chapter 11 | 171 | ||
| Chapter 12 | 171 | ||
| Chapter 13 | 172 | ||
| Chapter 14 | 172 | ||
| Chapter 16 | 172 | ||
| Chapter 17 | 173 | ||
| Chapter 18 | 173 | ||
| Chapter 19 | 173 | ||
| Chapter 20 | 174 | ||
| Chapter 21 | 174 | ||
| Chapter 22 | 175 | ||
| Chapter 23 | 175 | ||
| Chapter 24 | 176 | ||
| Appendix 1: Comprehensive Quiz | 176 | ||
| Appendix 3 Blank Drawings | 178 | ||
| Index | 202 | ||
| A | 202 | ||
| B | 202 | ||
| C | 202 | ||
| D | 203 | ||
| E | 204 | ||
| F | 204 | ||
| G | 204 | ||
| H | 204 | ||
| I | 204 | ||
| J | 204 | ||
| K | 205 | ||
| L | 205 | ||
| M | 205 | ||
| N | 205 | ||
| O | 206 | ||
| P | 206 | ||
| Q | 206 | ||
| R | 206 | ||
| S | 207 | ||
| T | 207 | ||
| U | 208 | ||
| V | 208 | ||
| W | 208 | ||
| X | 208 |