BOOK
Miller - Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy, Volume 9 E-Book
R. Eric Miller | Nadine Lamberski | Paul Calle
(2018)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Bringing together a globally diverse range of timely topics related to zoo and wild animals, Fowler’s Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Volume 9 is an invaluable tool for any professional working directly with wildlife and zoo animals. The text’s user-friendly format guides readers through biology, anatomy, and special physiology; reproduction; restraint and handling; housing requirements; nutrition and feeding; surgery and anesthesia; diagnostics, and therapeutics for each animal. Two new co-editors and a globally diverse group of expert contributors each lend their expertise on a wide range of new topics — including a new section on emerging wildlife diseases covering topics like MERS, Equine Herpesvirus, and Ebola in great apes. Other new topics integrated into this ninth volume include: stem cell therapy in zoo medicine, cardiac disease in great apes, disease risk assessment in field studies, Tasmanian devil tumors, and the latest information on the elephant herpes virus. With all its synthesized coverage of emerging trends, treatment protocols, and diagnostic updates new to the field, Fowler’s is a reference you don’t want to be without.
- Current therapy format ensures that each CT volume in the series covers all new topics that are relevant at the time of publication.
- Synthesized topics offer the right amount of depth — often fewer than 10 pages — to maintain an accessible format.
- General taxon-based format covers all terrestrial vertebrate taxa plus selected topics on aquatic and invertebrate taxa.
- Updated information from the Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS) has been incorporated to keep readers up to date on this worldwide system.
- Globally diverse panel of expert contributors each incorporate the latest research and clinical management of captive and free-ranging wild animals throughout the world.
- NEW! Two new co-editors (for a total of three editors) each lend their expertise on a wide range of new wild and zoo animal topics.
- NEW! Section on emerging wildlife diseases includes chapters on MERS, SARS, Ebola in great apes, and a variety of other emerging wildlife diseases.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| Miller - Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy, Volume 9 | i | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| A Tribute to Murray E. Fowler | v | ||
| Contributors | vii | ||
| Preface | xviii | ||
| Acknowledgments | xix | ||
| Table Of Contents | xxi | ||
| 1 General | 1 | ||
| 1 The Role of Veterinary Advisors in Animal Management Plans | 2 | ||
| Introduction | 2 | ||
| Background | 2 | ||
| Veterinary Advisor Responsibilities | 2 | ||
| Additional Husbandry and Regulatory Roles | 3 | ||
| Conclusion | 3 | ||
| References | 3 | ||
| 2 Risk Analysis Framework Guidance for Wildlife Health Professionals | 4 | ||
| Risk Analysis | 4 | ||
| Jargon and Standards | 4 | ||
| Global Animal Trade and Infectious Disease Risk | 4 | ||
| Wildlife Disease Risk and the Wildlife Interface | 5 | ||
| Conducting the Process | 5 | ||
| Case Study: Characterization of the Risk (Pathways, Threats, Vulnerabilities, and Consequences) That the Trade of Wildlife and Wildlife Products Poses to the US Food and Agriculture Systems and Public Health | 5 | ||
| Problem Formulation | 5 | ||
| Hazard Identification | 6 | ||
| Risk Assessment | 6 | ||
| Risk Management | 8 | ||
| Risk Communication | 8 | ||
| Summary | 9 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 9 | ||
| References | 9 | ||
| 3 Wildlife Technologies | 11 | ||
| Biotelemetry and Biologging | 11 | ||
| Environmental Loggers | 12 | ||
| Digital Imaging | 13 | ||
| Video Systems | 13 | ||
| Conclusions | 13 | ||
| References | 13 | ||
| 4 International Sample Movement | 16 | ||
| Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora | 17 | ||
| Veterinary Import Permits | 17 | ||
| Nagoya Protocol | 18 | ||
| Packaging and Labeling Samples | 18 | ||
| Shipping and Port of Entry | 19 | ||
| Conclusions | 19 | ||
| References | 19 | ||
| 5 A Practical Guide for Statistics in Wildlife Studies | 21 | ||
| Introduction | 21 | ||
| Q1: Where Do I Start? | 21 | ||
| Q2: What Study Type Is Best for Me? | 21 | ||
| Q3: What May Affect the Validity of My Study? | 22 | ||
| Q4: How Many Animals (or Samples) Do I Need for My Study? | 22 | ||
| Q5: What Is the Formula or Software I Need to Use for Sample Size and Power Calculations? | 23 | ||
| Q6: Is My Study Invalid and/or Irrelevant Because of Small Sample Size? | 23 | ||
| Q7: How Do I Need to Structure the Data to Be Able to Conduct the Statistical Analysis? | 24 | ||
| Q8: What Do I Need to Do If the Observations in My Data Set Are Not Independent? | 24 | ||
| Q9: Which Statistical Test/Method Do I Need to Analyze My Data? | 25 | ||
| Q10: Are My Results Statistically Significant? | 26 | ||
| Q11: How Do I Present and Summarize My Results? | 26 | ||
| Q12: How Do I Communicate My Results? | 27 | ||
| Conclusion | 27 | ||
| References | 27 | ||
| 6 Opportunities to Inspire the Next Generation of Veterinarians | 28 | ||
| Introduction | 28 | ||
| Booths | 28 | ||
| Mentorship | 28 | ||
| Veterinary Windows | 29 | ||
| Public Dissections | 29 | ||
| Education Programming | 29 | ||
| Little Zoo Vets Program | 30 | ||
| Conclusions | 32 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 32 | ||
| References | 33 | ||
| 7 Strategic Planning for Zoo Veterinary Operations | 34 | ||
| Why Is Strategic Planning Important? | 34 | ||
| What Are the Components of a Strategic Plan? | 34 | ||
| How to Create a Strategic Plan? | 35 | ||
| Get Support From Leadership | 35 | ||
| Pick the Team | 35 | ||
| Use of a Facilitator | 36 | ||
| Set Aside Time and a Location | 36 | ||
| Create, Renew, or Review Your Vision and Mission Statement | 36 | ||
| Assess Your Overall Team/Environment | 36 | ||
| Identify Strategic Objectives and Priorities | 36 | ||
| Communicate Your Strategic Plan | 37 | ||
| Empower and Expect Leaders and Team Members to Set Goals and Establish Accountability | 38 | ||
| Review in Regular Intervals and Amend as Necessary | 38 | ||
| Conclusion | 38 | ||
| References | 38 | ||
| 8 Organizational Influence | 39 | ||
| Introduction | 39 | ||
| People: How Relationships Impact Organizational Influence | 40 | ||
| Begin With Humility | 40 | ||
| Seek to Serve Others First | 40 | ||
| Put Relationships Above Results | 40 | ||
| Build Trust | 41 | ||
| Honor Your Staff | 41 | ||
| Connect With Purpose | 41 | ||
| Practical Steps: Taking Your Influence to the Next Level | 42 | ||
| Give Up Control to Gain Influence | 42 | ||
| Create Principle-Based Standards | 42 | ||
| Develop Leaders | 43 | ||
| Example 1 | 43 | ||
| Example 2 | 44 | ||
| Looking Forward | 44 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 44 | ||
| References | 44 | ||
| 9 Contingency Planning for All Hazards and Foreign Animal Disease | 45 | ||
| Introduction | 45 | ||
| What Is Contingency Planning? And Why Is It Needed? | 45 | ||
| Contingency Planning Principles | 45 | ||
| Contingency Planning Step 1: Form a Collaborative Team | 46 | ||
| Contingency Planning Step 2: Understand the Situation | 47 | ||
| Contingency Planning Step 3: Determine Goals and Objectives | 47 | ||
| Contingency Planning Step 4: Plan Development | 48 | ||
| Development of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Incident Annex Using Secure Zoo Strategy | 48 | ||
| Contingency Planning Process Step 5: Plan Preparation, Review, and Approval | 51 | ||
| Conclusion | 51 | ||
| References | 52 | ||
| 10 Veterinary Occupational Health and Safety in the Zoo and Wildlife Setting | 53 | ||
| Introduction | 53 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 57 | ||
| References | 57 | ||
| 11 Research Study Design | 59 | ||
| Introduction | 59 | ||
| Study Designs for Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Interventions | 59 | ||
| Randomized Controlled Trials | 59 | ||
| Crossover Trials | 59 | ||
| Nonrandomized Studies | 60 | ||
| Study Designs for Identification of Underlying Disease Etiologies | 60 | ||
| Cohort Studies | 60 | ||
| Case-Control Studies | 61 | ||
| Cross-Sectional Studies | 61 | ||
| Study Designs for Evaluation of Diagnostic Techniques | 61 | ||
| Diagnostic Accuracy Studies | 61 | ||
| Method Comparison Studies | 61 | ||
| Reference Interval Studies | 61 | ||
| References | 61 | ||
| 2 Animal Welfare | 63 | ||
| 12 Overview of Animal Welfare in Zoos | 64 | ||
| Introduction to Animal Welfare in Zoos | 64 | ||
| Animal Welfare Assessments in Zoos | 64 | ||
| Establishing Practical Guidelines for Assessments | 64 | ||
| Animal Welfare Assessment Principles | 66 | ||
| Animal Welfare Committees in Zoos | 68 | ||
| Animal Welfare Departments | 70 | ||
| Veterinarian’s Role in Zoo Animal Welfare | 70 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 70 | ||
| References | 70 | ||
| 13 Stress and Animal Welfare—Endocrinological Evaluation | 73 | ||
| Overview of the Stress Response | 73 | ||
| Types of Samples Used for GC Assessment | 73 | ||
| Validation Procedures | 74 | ||
| References | 75 | ||
| 14 A Systematic Approach in Diagnosing Behavior Problems | 76 | ||
| Applied Behavior Analysis | 76 | ||
| Comprehensive Behavioral History | 77 | ||
| Thorough Physical Examination | 79 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 80 | ||
| References | 80 | ||
| 15 Quality-of-Life Assessment and End-of-Life Planning for Geriatric Zoo Animals | 83 | ||
| Introduction | 83 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 90 | ||
| References | 90 | ||
| 3 Conservation Medicine | 92 | ||
| 16 Evaluating Camel Health in Kenya—An Example of Conservation Medicine in Action | 93 | ||
| Introduction | 93 | ||
| What Is a Conservation Medicine Approach and How Do Zoos Fit Within It? | 94 | ||
| Project Design | 94 | ||
| Program Outcomes to Date and Future Plans | 96 | ||
| Future Work | 96 | ||
| Concluding Thoughts on Conservation Medicine Programs | 97 | ||
| References | 97 | ||
| 17 Disease Risks to Native Wildlife From Zoos and Aquariums | 99 | ||
| Introduction | 99 | ||
| Risk Analysis | 101 | ||
| References | 103 | ||
| 18 Feral Cat Dilemma | 104 | ||
| Brief Natural History of Cats | 104 | ||
| Cats and Human Culture | 104 | ||
| The Rise of Feral Cats | 104 | ||
| The Controversy | 104 | ||
| Stakeholders in the Controversy Over Feral Cats | 105 | ||
| Cats Hunt—So What? | 105 | ||
| Animal Welfare—From Both Sides | 106 | ||
| Public and Wildlife Health Concerns Related to Feral Cats | 106 | ||
| Management Alternatives to Trap-Neuter-Release or Euthanasia | 107 | ||
| The Role of Veterinarians in Feral Cat Management | 107 | ||
| References | 108 | ||
| 19 The United States Agency for International Development Emerging Pandemic Threats PREDICT Project—Global Detection of Emerging Wildlife Viral Zoonoses | 110 | ||
| Introduction | 110 | ||
| United States Agency for International Development Emerging Pandemic Threats PREDICT Project (2009–2014) | 111 | ||
| PREDICT Approach | 112 | ||
| Wildlife Surveillance at Human-Wildlife Interfaces | 112 | ||
| Virus Detection and Discovery | 112 | ||
| Information Management and Reporting | 113 | ||
| PREDICT Results | 113 | ||
| Novel Viruses (Table 19.1) | 113 | ||
| New Models for Emergence | 113 | ||
| Outbreak Response | 113 | ||
| Next Steps: PREDICT 2014–2019 | 115 | ||
| References | 116 | ||
| 20 Renewable Energy | 117 | ||
| Introduction | 117 | ||
| Bringing Renewable Energy Online in the United States: A Primer | 117 | ||
| Wildlife Impacts From Specific Energy Sources | 118 | ||
| Wind Energy | 118 | ||
| Discussion | 119 | ||
| Solar Photovoltaic and Concentrating Solar Thermal Power | 120 | ||
| Conclusion | 121 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 121 | ||
| References | 121 | ||
| 4 Reproduction | 123 | ||
| 21 Female Infertility in Zoo Animals | 124 | ||
| Female Infertility | 124 | ||
| Causes of Subfertility Associated With Regular Cyclicity | 124 | ||
| Male Subfertility | 124 | ||
| Abnormal Genitalia | 124 | ||
| Parturition-Related Injury | 124 | ||
| Age-Related Changes | 125 | ||
| Uterine Disease | 126 | ||
| Breeding Management Errors | 126 | ||
| Causes of Subfertility Associated With Irregular Cyclicity | 126 | ||
| Intersex Conditions | 126 | ||
| Poor Nutrition | 127 | ||
| Endocrine Disorders | 127 | ||
| Age-Related Changes | 127 | ||
| Anovulatory Follicles and Persistent Corpora Lutea | 127 | ||
| Causes of Subfertility Associated With Early Embryonic Loss | 128 | ||
| References | 128 | ||
| 22 Changes in Reproductive Management | 130 | ||
| The Sustainability Crisis | 130 | ||
| Reproductive Management | 130 | ||
| Limiting Reproduction | 131 | ||
| Genetic Management Versus Reproductive Management | 132 | ||
| Lifetime Reproductive Planning | 132 | ||
| References | 133 | ||
| 23 Issues Surrounding Surplus Animals in Zoos | 134 | ||
| Sustainable Populations | 134 | ||
| Meeting the Demand | 134 | ||
| Breeding Is “Natural” | 135 | ||
| How to Deal With Surplus Animals | 135 | ||
| The Public Perception | 136 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 136 | ||
| References | 136 | ||
| 5 Therapeutics | 137 | ||
| 24 Stem Cell Therapy in Zoo Medicine | 138 | ||
| What Are Stem Cells? | 138 | ||
| How Do Stem Cells Work? | 139 | ||
| Stem Cell Collection | 139 | ||
| Stem Cells in Clinical Medicine | 140 | ||
| Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Zoo Medicine | 141 | ||
| References | 142 | ||
| 25 Compounding Pharmacies | 145 | ||
| Pharmaceutical Legislative History and Current Perspectives | 145 | ||
| Compounding—What It Is and Is Not | 146 | ||
| Appropriate Compounding Situations | 147 | ||
| Compounding Relevance and Considerations for the Zoo and Wildlife Specialty | 148 | ||
| Conclusion | 148 | ||
| References | 149 | ||
| 6 Anesthesia and Analgesia | 150 | ||
| 26 Sustained-Release and Long-Acting Opioid Formulations of Interest in Zoological Medicine | 151 | ||
| Introduction | 151 | ||
| Opioid Drugs | 151 | ||
| Fentanyl | 152 | ||
| Mammalian | 152 | ||
| Avian | 153 | ||
| Reptilian | 153 | ||
| Buprenorphine | 153 | ||
| Mammalian | 153 | ||
| Avian | 160 | ||
| Butorphanol | 161 | ||
| Avian | 161 | ||
| Summary | 161 | ||
| References | 161 | ||
| 27 Use of Naltrexone and Atipamezole in Emergency Response to Human Exposure to Ultra-Potent Opioids and Alpha-2 Agonists in Zoo and Wildlife Medicine | 164 | ||
| Introduction | 164 | ||
| Ultra-Potent Opioids and Alpha-2 Agonists Used in Zoo and Wildlife Anesthesia | 164 | ||
| Ultra-Potent Opioids and Antagonists | 164 | ||
| Etorphine | 164 | ||
| Thiafentanil | 165 | ||
| Carfentanil | 165 | ||
| Etorphine, Thiafentanil, and Carfentanil Potency Comparisons | 165 | ||
| Butorphanol | 165 | ||
| Opioid Antagonists | 165 | ||
| Ultra-Potent Alpha-2 Agonists and Antagonists | 166 | ||
| Medetomidine | 166 | ||
| Dexmedetomidine | 166 | ||
| Other Alpha-2 Agonists | 166 | ||
| BAM | 166 | ||
| Alpha-2 Antagonists | 166 | ||
| Routes and Significance of Accidental Exposure | 166 | ||
| Routes of Exposure | 167 | ||
| Significance of an Exposure | 168 | ||
| Mathematics of Exposures | 169 | ||
| Needle Stick Exposure | 169 | ||
| Spray Exposure | 169 | ||
| Medical Management for Accidental Veterinary Anesthetic Exposure | 169 | ||
| Agent-Specific Resuscitation Protocols | 169 | ||
| Ultra-Potent Opioids: Etorphine, Carfentanil, and Thiafentanil | 169 | ||
| Alpha-2 Agonists: Medetomidine and Dexmedetomidine | 171 | ||
| Exposure to a Combination of Potent Anesthetic Drugs | 173 | ||
| Controversies in the Use of Antagonists in Human Exposure to Dangerous Drugs | 173 | ||
| Naltrexone Use in Humans | 173 | ||
| Atipamezole Use in Humans | 174 | ||
| Legal Concerns | 174 | ||
| Good Samaritan Law | 174 | ||
| Duty to Rescue | 174 | ||
| Summary | 175 | ||
| References | 175 | ||
| 28 Vaporizers and Field Anesthesia Equipment for Free-Ranging Wildlife | 177 | ||
| Introduction | 177 | ||
| Inhalant Anesthesia | 177 | ||
| Basic Inhalant Pharmacology | 177 | ||
| Vaporizers | 178 | ||
| Gas Anesthesia at Altitude | 179 | ||
| Anesthesia Machines | 179 | ||
| Field Oxygen Support | 181 | ||
| Oxygen Safety | 182 | ||
| Field Ventilatory Support | 182 | ||
| Patient Monitoring | 183 | ||
| Conclusion | 184 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 184 | ||
| References | 184 | ||
| 29 Perianesthetic Monitoring | 185 | ||
| Introduction | 185 | ||
| Monitoring the Cardiovascular System | 185 | ||
| Monitoring Heart Rate | 185 | ||
| Auscultation Using an External or Esophageal Stethoscope | 185 | ||
| Palpation of a Pulse | 185 | ||
| Use of Pulse Monitors (e.g., Doppler, Pulse Oximeter, Arterial Pressure Waveform) | 185 | ||
| Electrocardiogram | 185 | ||
| Monitoring Heart Rhythm | 186 | ||
| Electrocardiogram or Electrocardiograph | 186 | ||
| Monitoring Arterial Blood Pressure | 186 | ||
| Indirect (Riva-Rocci—\"Return of flow”) or Noninvasive Methods | 186 | ||
| Direct Methods | 187 | ||
| Monitoring Central Venous Pressure | 188 | ||
| Monitoring the Pulmonary System | 188 | ||
| Ventilation | 188 | ||
| Blood Gas Analysis | 188 | ||
| Capnography | 188 | ||
| Ventilometry and Clinical Assessment | 189 | ||
| Oxygenation | 189 | ||
| Measurement of PaO2 | 189 | ||
| Measurement of SaO2 | 190 | ||
| Relationship of SaO2 and PaO2 | 190 | ||
| Monitoring Body Temperature | 190 | ||
| Laboratory Parameters | 190 | ||
| Summary | 191 | ||
| References | 191 | ||
| 7 Diagnostics | 193 | ||
| 30 Wildlife Necropsy Primer | 194 | ||
| Introduction | 194 | ||
| Necropsy Basics | 194 | ||
| Necropsy Examination | 196 | ||
| Collection and Documentation of Relevant Historical Information | 196 | ||
| External and Internal Examination | 196 | ||
| Species/Age-Specific Considerations | 199 | ||
| Outbreak Investigations | 199 | ||
| Clean-Up and Carcass Disposal | 200 | ||
| Sample Collection and Management | 201 | ||
| Data Management and Sharing | 204 | ||
| Communication | 204 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 205 | ||
| References | 205 | ||
| 31 Use of Computed Tomography/Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Zoological Medicine | 206 | ||
| Introduction | 206 | ||
| Benefits of Cross-sectional Imaging in Zoological Medicine | 206 | ||
| Equipment Considerations | 208 | ||
| Equipment Access | 208 | ||
| Selection of Computed Tomography Equipment | 209 | ||
| Review of Cross-sectional Images | 212 | ||
| Data Management | 212 | ||
| Radiology Expertise | 213 | ||
| Optimization of Computed Tomography for Zoological Applications | 214 | ||
| Procedure Planning | 214 | ||
| Patient Positioning and Anesthesia | 214 | ||
| Scan Settings | 214 | ||
| Contrast Enhancement | 215 | ||
| Artifact Detection and Prevention | 215 | ||
| Interventional Computed Tomography Applications | 215 | ||
| Conclusions | 217 | ||
| References | 217 | ||
| 32 Moving Beyond Survey Radiographs | 218 | ||
| Introduction | 218 | ||
| Imaging Paradigm—Starting Point | 218 | ||
| Imaging Paradigm—What Next | 221 | ||
| Summary of Imaging Planning | 223 | ||
| Future Directions | 223 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 224 | ||
| References | 224 | ||
| 8 Emerging and Changing Infectious Diseases | 226 | ||
| 33 Equine Herpesviruses and Interspecies Infections | 227 | ||
| Equine Herpesvirus Background | 227 | ||
| Diagnostics | 227 | ||
| Experimental Interspecies Infections | 229 | ||
| Nonexperimental Interspecies Infections | 230 | ||
| Modes of Transmission | 230 | ||
| To Vaccinate or Not? | 231 | ||
| Conclusions | 231 | ||
| References | 231 | ||
| 34 Ebola Virus Disease in Great Apes | 233 | ||
| Introduction | 233 | ||
| Ebola Virus Disease | 233 | ||
| Impact of Ebola Virus Disease on Great Apes | 233 | ||
| Ebola Virus Disease in African Apes | 233 | ||
| Ebola Virus Disease in Asian Apes | 234 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 234 | ||
| Transmission | 234 | ||
| Reservoir | 235 | ||
| Diagnostics | 235 | ||
| Differential Diagnosis | 235 | ||
| Control Measures | 235 | ||
| Vaccination | 235 | ||
| Carcass Disposal | 236 | ||
| Future Directions | 236 | ||
| References | 237 | ||
| 35 Chagas Disease | 239 | ||
| Background | 239 | ||
| Epidemiology | 239 | ||
| Hosts | 239 | ||
| Vectors | 241 | ||
| Transmission Routes | 241 | ||
| Implications of Trypanosoma cruzi Genetic Diversity | 241 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 242 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 242 | ||
| Pathology | 242 | ||
| Diagnosis | 243 | ||
| Treatment, Management, Prevention | 243 | ||
| Zoonotic Potential | 244 | ||
| Conclusion | 244 | ||
| References | 244 | ||
| 36 The Effects of Climate Change on Disease Spread in Wildlife | 247 | ||
| Introduction | 247 | ||
| Distribution of Pathogens, Parasites, and Vectors: Geographic and Altitudinal Spread | 247 | ||
| Prevalence or Severity of Disease | 249 | ||
| Emerging Diseases | 250 | ||
| Conclusions and Recommendations | 251 | ||
| References | 252 | ||
| 37 Prion Diseases in Wildlife | 255 | ||
| Transmission and Epidemiology | 255 | ||
| Clinical Signs of Prion Disease in Zoo Animals and Farmed Mink | 256 | ||
| Chronic Wasting Disease | 257 | ||
| Epidemiology | 257 | ||
| Clinical Disease | 257 | ||
| Transmission | 257 | ||
| Diagnostic Tools for Prion Disease | 258 | ||
| Treatment and Control | 259 | ||
| References | 259 | ||
| 38 Avian Influenza | 262 | ||
| Introduction | 262 | ||
| Virology of Avian Influenza | 262 | ||
| Pathogenicity: Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza and Low-Pathogenicity Avian Influenza | 263 | ||
| The Changing Ecology of Avian Influenza Viruses | 264 | ||
| The New Paradigm | 264 | ||
| Biosecurity of Collections and Vaccination of Nondomestic Avian Species | 265 | ||
| Summary | 265 | ||
| References | 266 | ||
| 39 Emerging Reptile Viruses | 267 | ||
| Adenoviridae | 267 | ||
| Herpesviridae | 269 | ||
| Crocodilian Herpesviruses | 270 | ||
| Squamate Herpesviruses | 270 | ||
| Chelonian Herpesviruses | 270 | ||
| Picornaviridae in Tortoises | 270 | ||
| Nidovirales | 271 | ||
| Arenaviridae in Snakes | 271 | ||
| Other Newly Described Viruses of Reptiles | 271 | ||
| References | 272 | ||
| 40 Emerging Diseases in Bats | 274 | ||
| Introduction | 274 | ||
| Emerging Viral Zoonoses Carried by Bats | 275 | ||
| Henipaviruses (Nipah and Hendra Viruses) | 275 | ||
| Filoviruses (Ebola and Marburg Viruses) | 276 | ||
| Coronaviruses (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome) | 276 | ||
| Discussion | 277 | ||
| References | 278 | ||
| 41 Zika Virus | 280 | ||
| Introduction: Arboviruses and Epidemiology | 280 | ||
| Zika Virus: Molecular | 280 | ||
| Epidemiology and Wild Hosts | 280 | ||
| Pathogenesis of Zika Virus | 282 | ||
| Clinical Manifestations | 283 | ||
| Complete Blood Count and Blood Chemistry Panels | 283 | ||
| Zika Virus Targets Various Organs and Causes Pathologic Damage | 283 | ||
| Collecting Biological Materials to Investigate Zika Virus in Wildlife | 283 | ||
| Diagnosis | 284 | ||
| Necropsy | 284 | ||
| Treatment, Prevention, and Control | 284 | ||
| Final Considerations: Wildlife as Sentinels and Public Health—A Conservation Medicine Approach | 284 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 285 | ||
| References | 285 | ||
| 42 An Overview of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome in the Middle East | 287 | ||
| Introduction | 287 | ||
| Virology | 287 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 287 | ||
| Epidemiology | 288 | ||
| Transmission | 289 | ||
| Diagnosis | 289 | ||
| Treatment | 289 | ||
| Control and Prevention | 289 | ||
| Conclusions | 290 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 290 | ||
| References | 290 | ||
| 43 Disease Risk to Endemic Animals From Introduced Species on Madagascar | 292 | ||
| Introduction | 292 | ||
| Disease Risks From Introduced Amphibians | 293 | ||
| Disease Risks From Introduced Birds | 293 | ||
| Disease Risks From Humans | 294 | ||
| Disease Risks From Exotic Carnivorans | 294 | ||
| Disease Risks From Introduced Rodents | 295 | ||
| Conclusions | 295 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 295 | ||
| References | 295 | ||
| 9 Infectious Diseases | 298 | ||
| 44 Techniques for Vaccinating Wildlife | 299 | ||
| Motivations for Wildlife Vaccination | 299 | ||
| Methods of Delivery | 301 | ||
| Considerations for Vaccine Delivery | 301 | ||
| Safety | 301 | ||
| Efficacy | 302 | ||
| Cautionary Principles | 302 | ||
| The Future | 302 | ||
| References | 303 | ||
| 45 Brucellosis in North American Wildlife | 306 | ||
| Brucellosis: An Introduction | 306 | ||
| Cooperative State-Federal Brucellosis Eradication Program | 306 | ||
| Brucellosis in Wildlife | 306 | ||
| Brucellosis in Bison and Elk in the Greater Yellowstone Area | 307 | ||
| Brucellosis in Wood Buffalo National Park Bison | 307 | ||
| The Disease in Bison | 307 | ||
| The Disease in Elk | 308 | ||
| Brucellosis in Moose | 308 | ||
| Brucellosis in Bighorn Sheep | 308 | ||
| Brucellosis in Wild Pigs | 308 | ||
| Brucellosis in Caribou | 309 | ||
| Brucellosis in Wild Carnivores | 309 | ||
| Brucellosis in Marine Mammals | 310 | ||
| Future Directions and Conclusions | 312 | ||
| References | 312 | ||
| 46 Update on Melioidosis in Zoo and Wild Animals | 315 | ||
| Etiology and Epidemiology | 315 | ||
| Diagnosis | 316 | ||
| Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Treatment, and Management | 316 | ||
| Cetaceans | 316 | ||
| Pinnipeds | 317 | ||
| Primates | 318 | ||
| Carnivores | 318 | ||
| Herbivores | 318 | ||
| Birds | 318 | ||
| Other Species | 319 | ||
| Conclusion | 319 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 319 | ||
| References | 319 | ||
| 10 Aquatic | 322 | ||
| 47 Techniques for Addressing Parasites in Saltwater Aquariums | 323 | ||
| Diagnostics | 323 | ||
| Treatment | 323 | ||
| Challenges and Novel Treatment Considerations | 325 | ||
| Degradation of Praziquantel and Formalin in a Recirculating System | 325 | ||
| Capsalid Management in a Large Mixed-Species Saltwater Aquarium | 325 | ||
| Leech Infestation in a Large Mixed-Species Saltwater Aquarium | 325 | ||
| Monogeneans in Spotted Eagle Rays (Aetobatus narinari) | 331 | ||
| Eimeria southwelli in Cownose Rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) | 331 | ||
| Copper Immersion in Cownose Rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) | 331 | ||
| Scuticociliatosis in Sygnathid and Elasmobranch Species | 332 | ||
| Summary | 332 | ||
| References | 332 | ||
| 48 Touch-Pools | 334 | ||
| Introduction | 334 | ||
| Setting Goals | 334 | ||
| Species Selection | 334 | ||
| Planning | 335 | ||
| Monitoring of Touch-Pools | 336 | ||
| Staff and Guest Considerations | 337 | ||
| Conclusion | 337 | ||
| References | 337 | ||
| 49 Sharks and Medicine | 338 | ||
| Biology, Anatomy, and Physiology | 338 | ||
| Husbandry and Management | 338 | ||
| Restraint | 338 | ||
| Manual Restraint | 338 | ||
| Chemical Restraint | 339 | ||
| Physical Examination | 339 | ||
| Diagnostics | 339 | ||
| Imaging | 340 | ||
| Diseases | 341 | ||
| Treatment and Therapies | 343 | ||
| References | 343 | ||
| 50 Decompression Medicine in Aquatic Species (Fish and Sea Turtle Focus) | 345 | ||
| Introduction | 345 | ||
| Decompression Medicine in Sea Turtles | 345 | ||
| General | 345 | ||
| Diagnosis | 346 | ||
| Clinical History and Symptoms | 346 | ||
| Diagnostic Imaging | 346 | ||
| Laboratory Profile | 346 | ||
| Postmortem Studies | 347 | ||
| Treatment | 348 | ||
| Decompression Medicine in Fish | 351 | ||
| General | 351 | ||
| Diagnosis | 352 | ||
| Treatment | 352 | ||
| Supportive Medical Treatment | 354 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 354 | ||
| References | 355 | ||
| 11 Amphibians and Reptiles | 356 | ||
| 51 Euthanasia of Ectotherms | 357 | ||
| Introduction | 357 | ||
| Invertebrates | 357 | ||
| Fishes | 357 | ||
| Amphibians | 357 | ||
| Reptiles | 359 | ||
| References | 362 | ||
| 52 Ranaviral Disease in Reptiles and Amphibians | 364 | ||
| Geographic and Host Distribution | 364 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 365 | ||
| Clinical Signs and Pathology | 365 | ||
| Diagnosis | 366 | ||
| Treatment and Prevention | 367 | ||
| Mortality Events | 368 | ||
| Conservation | 368 | ||
| References | 368 | ||
| 53 Anuran Reproduction | 371 | ||
| Anuran Reproductive Physiology | 371 | ||
| Health Factors Affecting Reproduction | 372 | ||
| Hormonal Regulation of Reproduction | 372 | ||
| Exogenous Hormone Use in Anurans | 372 | ||
| Exogenous Hormone Induction of Spermiation in Male Frogs | 372 | ||
| Monitoring of Female Reproductive Status via Ultrasound | 374 | ||
| Exogenous Hormone Induction of Spawning in Female Frogs | 374 | ||
| Artificial Fertilization | 376 | ||
| Role of Zoo Veterinarians in Anuran Reproduction | 377 | ||
| References | 377 | ||
| 54 Minimally Invasive Surgery of Amphibians | 380 | ||
| General Considerations | 380 | ||
| Clinical Applications of Minimally Invasive Surgery in Amphibians | 381 | ||
| Laparoscopic Examination and Endoscopic Biopsy | 381 | ||
| Endoscopic Orchiectomy | 382 | ||
| Application of Minimally Invasive Surgery in Fundamental Research in Amphibians | 384 | ||
| Recovery and Postoperative Management | 386 | ||
| References | 386 | ||
| 55 Medical Aspects of the Hungarian Meadow Viper Reintroduction | 388 | ||
| Introduction and History of the Project | 388 | ||
| Conservation Actions and Results | 388 | ||
| Medical Considerations and Management | 389 | ||
| Diagnostics and Special Medical Conditions | 390 | ||
| References | 393 | ||
| 56 Ophidiomycosis | 394 | ||
| Background | 394 | ||
| Etiology | 394 | ||
| Distribution and Host Range | 394 | ||
| Epidemiology | 395 | ||
| Pathogenesis, Clinical Signs, and Disease Outcome | 395 | ||
| Diagnosis | 396 | ||
| Treatment | 397 | ||
| Conclusion | 397 | ||
| References | 397 | ||
| 57 Fibropapillomatosis in Marine Turtles | 398 | ||
| Etiology | 398 | ||
| Epidemiology | 398 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 399 | ||
| Diagnosis | 400 | ||
| Treatment | 400 | ||
| Prognostic Indicators and Release Considerations | 401 | ||
| References | 401 | ||
| 58 Rehabilitation Medicine of Confiscated Turtles | 404 | ||
| Introduction | 404 | ||
| Be Prepared | 404 | ||
| Triage and Initial Care | 405 | ||
| Syndromes | 409 | ||
| Dehydration | 409 | ||
| Septicemia, Bacterial Enteritis | 409 | ||
| Endoparasitism | 409 | ||
| Starvation | 409 | ||
| Syndromes Affecting Eyes | 409 | ||
| Syndromes Affecting Skin or Shell | 410 | ||
| Laboratory Support | 411 | ||
| Conclusion | 411 | ||
| References | 411 | ||
| 59 Medical Evaluation of Crocodilians | 412 | ||
| Introduction | 412 | ||
| Medical Evaluation | 412 | ||
| History | 412 | ||
| Physical Examination of the Patient | 413 | ||
| General Considerations | 413 | ||
| Sex | 413 | ||
| Age | 413 | ||
| Body Score | 413 | ||
| Integumentary System | 414 | ||
| Immune System | 414 | ||
| Circulatory System | 415 | ||
| Respiratory System | 415 | ||
| Digestive System | 416 | ||
| Urinary System | 416 | ||
| Reproductive System | 416 | ||
| Nervous System | 417 | ||
| Laboratory Examination | 417 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 418 | ||
| References | 418 | ||
| 60 Reptile and Amphibian Analgesia | 421 | ||
| Introduction | 421 | ||
| Amphibian and Reptile Nociception of Pain: Neuroanatomic and Neurophysiologic Evidence | 421 | ||
| Nociceptive Pathways | 421 | ||
| Opioid Receptors and Endogenous Opioids | 422 | ||
| Measurement and Quantification of Pain and Analgesia in Amphibians and Reptiles | 422 | ||
| Analgesic Drugs | 423 | ||
| Opioids and Opioid-Like Analgesics | 423 | ||
| Parenteral Anesthetics | 428 | ||
| Local Anesthetics as Analgesics | 428 | ||
| Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs | 428 | ||
| Multimodal Analgesic Approaches | 429 | ||
| References | 429 | ||
| 61 Medical Aspects of Giant Tortoise Relocation in the Galápagos Islands | 432 | ||
| History | 432 | ||
| Restoration of Giant Tortoise Populations | 435 | ||
| Head-Starting | 435 | ||
| Ecosystem Restoration | 436 | ||
| Surrogate Species Use as Ecologic Engineers | 437 | ||
| Summary | 439 | ||
| References | 439 | ||
| 12 Avian | 440 | ||
| 62 Antifungals in Birds | 441 | ||
| Aspergillosis Treatment (Table 62.1) | 441 | ||
| Polyenes | 441 | ||
| Amphotericin B | 441 | ||
| Azoles | 441 | ||
| Itraconazole | 441 | ||
| Fluconazole | 443 | ||
| Voriconazole | 443 | ||
| Allylamines | 444 | ||
| Terbinafine | 444 | ||
| Flucytosine | 444 | ||
| Non-Aspergillus Fungi Treatment | 444 | ||
| Mucosal and Dermal Fungal Infections | 444 | ||
| Macrorhabdus Ornithogaster | 444 | ||
| References | 444 | ||
| 63 Medical Management of Walk-Through Aviaries | 446 | ||
| Species Choice | 446 | ||
| Exhibit Design | 446 | ||
| Flock Nutrition and Husbandry | 448 | ||
| Animal Sourcing and Quarantine | 449 | ||
| Screening for Zoonotic Agents | 449 | ||
| Additional Disease Surveillance and Medical Intervention | 449 | ||
| Public Health | 451 | ||
| References | 451 | ||
| 64 Systemic Isosporosis in Passerine Birds | 454 | ||
| Clinical Signs and Lesions | 454 | ||
| Diagnosis | 456 | ||
| Treatment and Management | 456 | ||
| Conclusion | 457 | ||
| References | 457 | ||
| 65 Bornaviruses in Birds | 459 | ||
| Antemortem Clinical Diagnosis | 460 | ||
| Necropsy Diagnosis | 461 | ||
| Epidemiology and Pathogenesis | 462 | ||
| Treatment | 463 | ||
| Control | 463 | ||
| References | 463 | ||
| 66 The Use of Prosthetic and Orthotic Limbs in Avian Medicine | 465 | ||
| Introduction to Prosthetics and Orthotics | 465 | ||
| Choosing the Ideal Avian Candidate and Device | 465 | ||
| Fabrication and Care of a Prosthetic/Orthotic Device | 467 | ||
| Conclusion | 469 | ||
| References | 470 | ||
| 67 Avian Spirurids | 471 | ||
| Introduction | 471 | ||
| Main Diseases Caused by Spirurids in Free-Ranging and Captive Birds | 471 | ||
| References | 478 | ||
| 68 Selected Medical Aspects of Bird Reproduction in Ex Situ Conservation | 481 | ||
| Reproduction | 481 | ||
| Artificial Incubation | 481 | ||
| Neonatology | 486 | ||
| References | 487 | ||
| 13 Marsupials | 489 | ||
| 69 Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumor Disease | 490 | ||
| Signs and Symptoms | 490 | ||
| Cause | 490 | ||
| Devil Populations | 491 | ||
| Moving Forward | 492 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 492 | ||
| References | 492 | ||
| 70 Medical Aspects of Potoroid Marsupial Conservation Translocations | 494 | ||
| Introduction | 494 | ||
| Conservation Management | 494 | ||
| Welfare Considerations | 494 | ||
| Restraint, Anesthesia, and Analgesia | 495 | ||
| Transportation | 496 | ||
| Telemetry | 496 | ||
| Disease Risk Assessment | 496 | ||
| Health Evaluation and Disease Surveillance | 496 | ||
| Diseases of Captive and Free-Ranging Potoroids | 498 | ||
| Diseases of Captive Potoroids | 498 | ||
| Diseases of Free-Ranging Potoroids | 498 | ||
| Postrelease Monitoring | 498 | ||
| References | 498 | ||
| 71 Macropod Pediatric Medicine | 500 | ||
| Introduction | 500 | ||
| Normal Postnatal Development | 500 | ||
| Approach to the Pediatric Macropod Consultation | 501 | ||
| History | 501 | ||
| Physical Examination and Assessment | 501 | ||
| Clinical Pathology | 502 | ||
| Pharmacology/Toxicology | 502 | ||
| Anesthesia | 502 | ||
| Common Presentations | 502 | ||
| Infectious Diseases | 504 | ||
| Preventative Medicine | 504 | ||
| Cross-Fostering | 505 | ||
| Euthanasia | 505 | ||
| References | 505 | ||
| 14 Small Mammals | 507 | ||
| 72 White-Nose Syndrome | 508 | ||
| Background | 508 | ||
| North American Perspective | 508 | ||
| Global Perspective | 508 | ||
| Interdependence Among Pathogen, Host, and Environment | 508 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 509 | ||
| Diagnosis | 510 | ||
| Surveillance | 511 | ||
| Disease Mitigation | 511 | ||
| References | 511 | ||
| 73 Naked Mole Rat Management and Medicine | 514 | ||
| Biology | 514 | ||
| Husbandry | 514 | ||
| Nutrition | 514 | ||
| Reproduction | 514 | ||
| Restraint and Anesthesia | 517 | ||
| Therapeutics | 517 | ||
| Diseases (Infectious and Noninfectious) | 517 | ||
| Use in Research | 517 | ||
| References | 517 | ||
| 74 Immobilization, Health, and Current Status of Knowledge of Free-Living Capybaras | 519 | ||
| Introduction | 519 | ||
| The Capybara | 519 | ||
| Geographic Distribution | 519 | ||
| Habitat | 519 | ||
| Biology and State of Conservation | 520 | ||
| Capybara as Microorganism Amplifier | 520 | ||
| Immobilization | 521 | ||
| Physical Immobilization | 521 | ||
| Capture Corrals | 521 | ||
| Roping | 522 | ||
| Chemical Immobilization | 522 | ||
| Diseases Reported in Wild Capybaras | 522 | ||
| Conclusions | 522 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 522 | ||
| References | 524 | ||
| 75 Xenarthra Immobilization and Restraint | 527 | ||
| Introduction | 527 | ||
| Physical Restraint | 527 | ||
| Anteaters | 527 | ||
| Armadillos | 527 | ||
| Sloths | 527 | ||
| Chemical Immobilization and Anesthesia | 528 | ||
| Chemical Immobilization and Anesthesia in Anteaters | 528 | ||
| Anesthetic Monitoring in Anteaters | 528 | ||
| Anesthetic Recovery in Anteaters | 531 | ||
| Chemical Immobilization and Anesthesia in Armadillos | 531 | ||
| Anesthetic Monitoring in Armadillos | 532 | ||
| Anesthetic Recovery in Armadillos | 532 | ||
| Chemical Immobilization and Anesthesia in Sloths | 532 | ||
| Anesthetic Monitoring in Sloths | 533 | ||
| Anesthetic Recovery in Sloth | 533 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 533 | ||
| References | 533 | ||
| 15 Carnivores | 535 | ||
| 76 Update on Field Anesthesia Protocols for Free-Ranging African Lions | 536 | ||
| Introduction | 536 | ||
| Capture Technique | 536 | ||
| Immobilizing Agents and Antagonists | 536 | ||
| Tiletamine Plus Zolazepam (Zoletil, Telazol) | 536 | ||
| Cyclohexylamine Plus Alpha2-Agonist | 537 | ||
| Butorphanol, Medetomidine, and Midazolam | 537 | ||
| Darting From a Helicopter | 538 | ||
| References | 538 | ||
| 77 Overview of African Wild Dog Medicine | 539 | ||
| Introduction | 539 | ||
| Biology and Anatomy | 539 | ||
| Management, Husbandry, and Behavior | 539 | ||
| Nutrition | 540 | ||
| Reproduction and Contraception | 541 | ||
| Handling, Restraint, and Anesthesia | 541 | ||
| Clinical Pathology | 541 | ||
| Diseases | 542 | ||
| Preventative Medicine | 544 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 545 | ||
| References | 545 | ||
| 78 Medicine of Captive Andean Bears | 548 | ||
| Biology | 548 | ||
| Special Anatomic Features | 548 | ||
| Feeding Ecology and Nutrition in Captivity | 548 | ||
| Behavior and Related Issues | 549 | ||
| Reproduction and Related Medical Issues | 549 | ||
| Handling, Restraint, and Chemical Immobilization | 549 | ||
| Clinical Techniques and Clinical Pathology | 550 | ||
| Diseases of Captive Andean Bears | 550 | ||
| Conclusions | 553 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 553 | ||
| References | 553 | ||
| 79 Canine Distemper Vaccination in Nondomestic Carnivores | 555 | ||
| Recombinant Viral Vector Vaccines | 555 | ||
| Modified-Live Virus Vaccines | 561 | ||
| Other Vaccines | 561 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 561 | ||
| References | 561 | ||
| 16 Great Apes | 564 | ||
| 80 Infectious Diseases of Orangutans in their Home Ranges and in Zoos | 565 | ||
| Introduction | 565 | ||
| Air Sacculitis | 570 | ||
| Vector-Borne Diseases | 571 | ||
| Hepatitis B | 571 | ||
| Tuberculosis | 571 | ||
| Conclusion | 571 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 572 | ||
| References | 572 | ||
| 81 Medical Aspects of Chimpanzee Rehabilitation and Sanctuary Medicine | 574 | ||
| Status of Chimpanzees at Sanctuaries | 574 | ||
| Housing and Introductions | 575 | ||
| Physical Examinations and Anesthesia in Sanctuaries | 576 | ||
| Sanctuary Preventative Healthcare | 577 | ||
| Reproductive Management | 577 | ||
| Sanctuary Case Reports | 577 | ||
| Ocular Herpes | 577 | ||
| Demyelinating Disease | 577 | ||
| Behavioral Issues | 578 | ||
| End of Life and Euthanasia | 578 | ||
| References | 579 | ||
| 82 Update on the Great Ape Heart Project | 581 | ||
| Introduction | 581 | ||
| What We Do | 581 | ||
| Great Ape Cardiovascular Disease | 581 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 581 | ||
| Cardiovascular Changes | 581 | ||
| Blood Pressure and Hypertension | 582 | ||
| Diet | 583 | ||
| Metabolic Syndrome | 584 | ||
| Cardiac Health Monitoring | 584 | ||
| Performing Cardiac Examinations | 584 | ||
| Echocardiograms | 584 | ||
| Echocardiograms on Nonanesthetized Great Apes | 584 | ||
| Electrocardiogram | 585 | ||
| Anesthesia Considerations | 585 | ||
| Biomarkers | 585 | ||
| B-type Natriuretic Peptide | 585 | ||
| C-Reactive Protein | 585 | ||
| Troponins | 585 | ||
| Treating Cardiovascular Disease in Great Apes | 586 | ||
| Postmortem Cardiac Evaluations | 586 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 586 | ||
| References | 586 | ||
| 83 Great Ape Nutrition | 588 | ||
| Wild Diets and Digestive Physiology | 588 | ||
| Body Weights | 588 | ||
| Recommended Diet Plan | 588 | ||
| Water | 588 | ||
| Kibble/Pellets | 589 | ||
| Browse | 590 | ||
| Vegetables | 590 | ||
| Seeds, Nuts, Whole Grains, Pulses/Legumes | 590 | ||
| Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation | 590 | ||
| Animal Products | 590 | ||
| Fruit | 590 | ||
| Diet Proportions | 591 | ||
| Feeding Guidelines—Diet Extrapolations | 591 | ||
| Feed Presentation | 592 | ||
| Group Feeding | 592 | ||
| Enrichment | 592 | ||
| Health | 593 | ||
| Orangutan Air Sacculitis | 593 | ||
| Obesity | 593 | ||
| Obesity—Weight Loss Diet | 593 | ||
| Obesity—Expending Energy | 593 | ||
| Cardiovascular Disease | 594 | ||
| References | 594 | ||
| 17 Marine Mammals | 596 | ||
| 84 Marine Mammal Viruses | 597 | ||
| Clinical Implications of Viral Biology | 597 | ||
| RNA Viruses | 597 | ||
| Astroviridae | 597 | ||
| Caliciviridae | 598 | ||
| Coronaviridae | 598 | ||
| Orthomyxoviridae (Influenza Virus) | 598 | ||
| Paramyxoviridae | 598 | ||
| Morbillivirus | 598 | ||
| Respirovirus | 599 | ||
| DNA Viruses | 599 | ||
| Adenoviridae | 599 | ||
| Herpesviridae | 599 | ||
| Papillomaviridae | 600 | ||
| Poxviridae | 600 | ||
| Overview of Viral Diagnostics | 600 | ||
| References | 601 | ||
| 85 Mycobacterium pinnipedii | 603 | ||
| Etiology and Hosts | 603 | ||
| Hosts | 604 | ||
| Epidemiology | 604 | ||
| Postmortem Diagnosis | 604 | ||
| Antemortem Diagnosis | 605 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 605 | ||
| Imaging | 605 | ||
| Direct Examination | 605 | ||
| Immunology | 605 | ||
| Cellular Immunity Exploration | 606 | ||
| Humoral Immunity Exploration | 606 | ||
| Interferences Between Cellular and Humoral Tests | 606 | ||
| Treatment | 606 | ||
| Prevention | 607 | ||
| Animals | 607 | ||
| Husbandry: Water | 607 | ||
| Husbandry: Good Staff Practices | 607 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 608 | ||
| References | 608 | ||
| 86 Lens Diseases and Anesthetic Considerations for Ophthalmologic Procedures in Pinnipeds | 610 | ||
| Introduction | 610 | ||
| Incidence of Lens Diseases in Pinnipeds | 610 | ||
| Risk Factors/Protective Factors | 610 | ||
| Concurrent Eye Problems | 611 | ||
| Surgical Considerations | 611 | ||
| Anesthesia of Pinniped for Ophthalmologic Procedures— an Overview | 612 | ||
| Surgical Candidates: Poor, Good, Great | 615 | ||
| Outcomes and Sequelae | 615 | ||
| References | 616 | ||
| 18 Ruminants | 618 | ||
| 87 Giraffe Husbandry and Welfare | 619 | ||
| Introduction | 619 | ||
| Cold Stress | 619 | ||
| Nutritional Disorders | 619 | ||
| Hoof and Limb Disease | 619 | ||
| Complications of Anesthesia | 620 | ||
| Social Structure | 620 | ||
| Enrichment | 620 | ||
| Trauma | 620 | ||
| Exhibit Design | 621 | ||
| Keeper Experience | 621 | ||
| Training | 621 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 621 | ||
| References | 621 | ||
| 88 Lameness Diagnosis and Management in Zoo Giraffe | 623 | ||
| Etiology | 623 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 626 | ||
| Diagnosis | 626 | ||
| Treatment | 626 | ||
| Operant Training | 628 | ||
| Prevention | 628 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 629 | ||
| References | 629 | ||
| 89 Mass Mortality Events Affecting Saiga Antelope of Central Asia | 630 | ||
| Discussion | 632 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 633 | ||
| References | 633 | ||
| 90 Musk Ox Sedation and Anesthesia | 636 | ||
| Biology | 636 | ||
| Distribution, Habitat, Size, and Weight | 636 | ||
| Environmental Considerations | 636 | ||
| Restraint/Sedation/Immobilization | 636 | ||
| Physical and Chemical Restraint | 636 | ||
| Immobilization | 637 | ||
| Gas Anesthesia | 637 | ||
| Use of Long-Acting Tranquilizers | 638 | ||
| Perianesthesia | 638 | ||
| Monitoring During Anesthesia | 639 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 640 | ||
| References | 640 | ||
| 91 Capripoxviruses in Nondomestic Hoofstock | 641 | ||
| Etiology | 641 | ||
| Epidemiology | 641 | ||
| Range and Host-Specificity | 641 | ||
| Transmission | 642 | ||
| Clinical Signs and Pathology | 642 | ||
| Diagnosis | 644 | ||
| Treatment, Prevention, and Control | 645 | ||
| References | 645 | ||
| 92 Babesiosis in Cervidae | 647 | ||
| Introduction | 647 | ||
| Life Cycle and Epidemiology | 647 | ||
| North America | 647 | ||
| Europe | 647 | ||
| Factors Involved in Disease Emergence | 651 | ||
| Zoonotic Potential | 651 | ||
| Clinical Signs | 651 | ||
| Pathology | 651 | ||
| Clinical Pathology | 651 | ||
| Gross Pathology | 651 | ||
| Histopathology | 652 | ||
| Diagnosis | 652 | ||
| Treatment | 653 | ||
| Prevention and Control | 653 | ||
| References | 653 | ||
| 19 Elephants and Rhinoceroses | 656 | ||
| 93 Management of Dental Disease in Elephants | 657 | ||
| Introduction | 657 | ||
| Diet | 657 | ||
| Management | 657 | ||
| Dental Anatomy | 657 | ||
| African Elephant Compared With Asian Elephant | 658 | ||
| Dental Morphology | 658 | ||
| Tusk | 658 | ||
| Molar | 659 | ||
| Eruption Sequence | 659 | ||
| Diagnosing Dental Disease in Elephants | 659 | ||
| Diseases/Anomalies Affecting the Molars | 660 | ||
| Delayed Shedding | 660 | ||
| Supernumerary Molars | 661 | ||
| Rotation | 661 | ||
| Perforations/Cavities | 661 | ||
| Tumors | 661 | ||
| Diseases/Anomalies Affecting the Tusks | 661 | ||
| Absent Tusks | 661 | ||
| Supernumerary Tusks | 661 | ||
| Abnormal Structure | 661 | ||
| Tusklets | 662 | ||
| Dilaceration | 662 | ||
| Ivory Pearls | 662 | ||
| Abrasion | 662 | ||
| Fractures | 662 | ||
| Pericoronitis | 662 | ||
| Treatment | 662 | ||
| Tusks | 662 | ||
| Molars | 662 | ||
| References | 664 | ||
| 94 Elephant Mycobacteriosis | 665 | ||
| Transmission | 665 | ||
| Diagnosis | 665 | ||
| Treatment | 666 | ||
| Occupational and Public Health Considerations | 670 | ||
| Conclusions | 670 | ||
| References | 670 | ||
| 95 Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus | 672 | ||
| Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Impact and Epidemiology | 672 | ||
| Asian Elephants | 672 | ||
| African Elephants | 673 | ||
| Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Preparedness | 673 | ||
| Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Vigilance | 673 | ||
| Early, Aggressive Treatment for Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus | 674 | ||
| Future Directions | 675 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 678 | ||
| References | 678 | ||
| 96 Elephant Pregnancy and Parturition | 680 | ||
| The Normal Pregnancy | 680 | ||
| Normal Parturition Process | 681 | ||
| Prediction of Parturition | 682 | ||
| Abnormal Pregnancy | 683 | ||
| Complications During Parturition | 684 | ||
| Reasons for Dystocia | 684 | ||
| Oversized Fetus | 684 | ||
| Malposition/Malformation of Fetus | 684 | ||
| Weak Labor/Uterine Inertia | 684 | ||
| Difficulties in Passage Through the Birth Canal | 685 | ||
| Obstetrics | 685 | ||
| Conservative Approaches for Fetal Delivery | 685 | ||
| Triggering the Ferguson Reflex | 685 | ||
| Calcium | 685 | ||
| Oxytocin | 685 | ||
| Denaverine | 686 | ||
| Estradiol and Prostaglandin E | 686 | ||
| Surgical Approaches for Fetal Delivery | 686 | ||
| Episiotomy/Vaginal Vestibulotomy and Fetotomy | 686 | ||
| Fetal Retention | 687 | ||
| Postpartum Complications | 687 | ||
| Conclusion | 687 | ||
| References | 687 | ||
| 97 Elephant Care in Southeast Asia | 689 | ||
| History | 689 | ||
| Captivity and Handling | 689 | ||
| Target Training Project | 689 | ||
| References | 691 | ||
| 98 Updates in African Rhinoceros Field Immobilization and Translocation | 692 | ||
| Drugs for Field Immobilization | 692 | ||
| White Rhinoceros | 692 | ||
| Black Rhinoceros | 692 | ||
| Managing an Immobilized Rhinoceros | 693 | ||
| Time Use and Priorities | 693 | ||
| Body Position and Blood Circulation to the Limbs | 694 | ||
| Monitoring Breathing and Response to Hypoxemia and Apnea | 694 | ||
| White Rhinoceros | 694 | ||
| Black Rhinoceros | 694 | ||
| Muscle Tremors | 695 | ||
| Monitoring Heart Rate and Blood Pressure | 695 | ||
| Hyperthermia | 695 | ||
| “Walking” a Rhinoceros | 695 | ||
| Index | 716 | ||
| A | 716 | ||
| B | 717 | ||
| C | 719 | ||
| D | 720 | ||
| E | 721 | ||
| F | 722 | ||
| G | 723 | ||
| H | 723 | ||
| I | 724 | ||
| J | 725 | ||
| K | 725 | ||
| L | 725 | ||
| M | 726 | ||
| N | 727 | ||
| O | 727 | ||
| P | 728 | ||
| Q | 729 | ||
| R | 729 | ||
| S | 730 | ||
| T | 732 | ||
| U | 732 | ||
| V | 733 | ||
| W | 733 | ||
| X | 734 | ||
| Z | 734 |