BOOK
Williams' Essentials of Nutrition and Diet Therapy - E-Book
Eleanor Schlenker | Joyce Ann Gilbert
(2018)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Learn the latest nutrition and diet therapies for treating common diseases. Williams' Essentials of Nutrition & Diet Therapy, 12th Edition offers a solid foundation in the fundamental knowledge and skills you need to provide effective patient care. It addresses nutrition across the lifespan and includes the 2015 Dietary Goals for Americans as well as MyPlate for Older Adults. This exceptionally reader-friendly text features evidence-based information, real-world case scenarios, colorful illustrations, boxes, and tables to help you learn how to apply essential nutrition concepts and therapies in clinical practice.
- Strong community focus is threaded throughout with robust coverage of health promotion, cultural competence, patient safety, lifespan, and public health issues.
- Focus on Culture boxes introduce you to cultural competence and the special nutritional needs, health problems, and appropriate interventions applicable to different cultural, ethnic, racial and age groups.
- Focus on Food Safety boxes alert you to food safety issues related to a particular nutrient, age group, or medical condition.
- Health Promotion section devoted solely to health promotion and wellness stresses healthy lifestyle choices and prevention as the best "medicine."
- Diet-Medication Interactions boxes provide diet-warnings related to specific prescription drugs.
- Evidence-Based Practice boxes summarize current research findings.
- Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) boxes offer uses, contraindications, and advantages/disadvantages of common types of herbs and supplements and potential interactions with prescription or over-the-counter medications.
- Perspective in Practice boxes supply you with practice elements for nutrition education.
- Key terms identified in the text and defined on the page help reinforce critical concepts.
- NEW! Includes the 2015 Dietary Goals for Americans which covers the latest guidelines and medications.
- NEW! MyPlate for Older Adults developed by the Tufts University Human Research Center on Aging and the AARP Foundation replaces former Food Guide Pyramid.
- NEW! Newly-approved Nutrition Labeling Guidelines incorporated into text along with the latest medications, research findings, and clinical treatment therapies.
- NEW! New and refreshed case studies illustrate key concepts in authentic, "real-life" scenarios that reinforce learning and promote nutritional applications.
- NEW! Expanded coverage of health promotion includes strategies for implementation.
- NEW! New coverage of text messages for nutrition and health information includes what to watch out for when visiting health-related web sites.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | Cover | ||
| Inside front Cover | IFC | ||
| Front matter | iii | ||
| Williams’essentials of nutrition and diet therapy | iii | ||
| Copyright | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Contributors | vi | ||
| Reviewers | vii | ||
| Preface | viii | ||
| New to this edition | viii | ||
| Chapter changes | viii | ||
| Personal approach | ix | ||
| Illustrations and design | ix | ||
| Enhanced readability and student interest | ix | ||
| Learning AIDS within the text | ix | ||
| Chapter openers | ix | ||
| Key terms | ix | ||
| Pedagogy boxes | ix | ||
| Case studies | ix | ||
| Chapter summaries | ix | ||
| Review questions | ix | ||
| Chapter references | ix | ||
| Further readings and resources | ix | ||
| Appendices | ix | ||
| Supplementary materials available on evolve | ix | ||
| Instructor resources | x | ||
| Student resources | x | ||
| Acknowledgments | x | ||
| Table of Content | xi | ||
| Part 1 Introduction to Human Nutrition | 1 | ||
| 1 Nutrition and health | 2 | ||
| Health promotion | 19 | ||
| To sum up | 19 | ||
| Questions for review | 20 | ||
| References | 20 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 20 | ||
| Readings | 20 | ||
| Websites of interest | 20 | ||
| 2 Digestion, absorption, and metabolism | 22 | ||
| Human body: The role of nutrition | 22 | ||
| Food: Change and transformation | 22 | ||
| Importance for health and nutrition | 22 | ||
| Gastrointestinal tract | 22 | ||
| Component parts | 22 | ||
| General functions | 23 | ||
| Sensory stimulation and gastrointestinal function | 23 | ||
| Principles of digestion | 24 | ||
| Gastrointestinal secretions | 24 | ||
| Gastrointestinal motility: Muscles and movement | 24 | ||
| Types of muscles | 24 | ||
| Nervous system control | 24 | ||
| Movement of food through the digestive tract | 26 | ||
| Mouth and esophagus: Preparation and delivery | 26 | ||
| Taste and smell | 26 | ||
| Mastication | 26 | ||
| Chemical digestion | 26 | ||
| Swallowing | 26 | ||
| Esophagus | 26 | ||
| Entry into the stomach | 27 | ||
| Stomach: Storage and initial digestion | 27 | ||
| Motility | 27 | ||
| Chemical digestion | 28 | ||
| Types of secretions | 28 | ||
| Control of secretions | 28 | ||
| Small intestine: Major digestion, absorption, and transport | 29 | ||
| Motility | 29 | ||
| Intestinal muscle layers | 29 | ||
| Types of intestinal muscle action | 29 | ||
| Chemical digestion | 29 | ||
| Major role of the small intestine | 29 | ||
| Types of secretions | 29 | ||
| End products of digestion | 30 | ||
| Absorption | 30 | ||
| Surface structures | 30 | ||
| Mechanisms of absorption | 31 | ||
| Routes of absorption | 32 | ||
| Colon (large intestine): Final absorption and waste elimination | 32 | ||
| Role in absorption | 32 | ||
| Water absorption | 32 | ||
| Mineral absorption | 33 | ||
| Vitamin absorption | 33 | ||
| Role of colon microflora | 33 | ||
| Excessive gas production | 33 | ||
| Waste elimination | 33 | ||
| Gastrointestinal function and clinical applications | 34 | ||
| Chronic gastrointestinal distress | 34 | ||
| Lactose intolerance | 34 | ||
| Prebiotics and probiotics | 35 | ||
| Prebiotics | 35 | ||
| Probiotics | 36 | ||
| Health promotion | 36 | ||
| Metabolism | 37 | ||
| Carbohydrate metabolism | 37 | ||
| Sources of blood glucose | 37 | ||
| Uses of blood glucose | 37 | ||
| Hormonal controls | 37 | ||
| Lipid metabolism | 37 | ||
| Lipid synthesis and breakdown | 37 | ||
| Lipoproteins | 37 | ||
| Protein metabolism | 38 | ||
| Anabolism (tissue building) | 38 | ||
| Catabolism (tissue breakdown) | 38 | ||
| Metabolic interrelationships | 38 | ||
| To sum up | 38 | ||
| Questions for review | 38 | ||
| References | 39 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 39 | ||
| Readings | 39 | ||
| Websites of interest | 39 | ||
| 3 Carbohydrates | 40 | ||
| Health promotion | 50 | ||
| Functional foods: Special carbohydrate foods | 51 | ||
| Digestion-absorption-metabolism review | 52 | ||
| Digestion | 52 | ||
| Absorption and metabolism | 52 | ||
| To sum up | 52 | ||
| Questions for review | 53 | ||
| References | 53 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 54 | ||
| Readings | 54 | ||
| Websites of interest | 54 | ||
| 4 Lipids | 55 | ||
| LIPIDS IN NUTRITION AND HEALTH | 55 | ||
| Health Issues and Lipids | 55 | ||
| Functions of Lipids | 56 | ||
| PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL NATURE OF LIPIDS | 56 | ||
| Physical Characteristics | 56 | ||
| Chemical Characteristics | 56 | ||
| FATTY ACIDS AND TRIGLYCERIDES | 56 | ||
| Characteristics of Fatty Acids: Chain Length | 56 | ||
| Characteristics of Fatty Acids: Saturation | 56 | ||
| Essential Fatty Acids | 57 | ||
| FOOD LIPIDS AND HEALTH | 59 | ||
| Degree of Saturation | 59 | ||
| Cis versus Trans Fatty Acids | 59 | ||
| Visible and Hidden Fat | 60 | ||
| Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range | 61 | ||
| Appropriate Intakes of Fat and Carbohydrate | 61 | ||
| LIPID-RELATED COMPOUNDS | 61 | ||
| Cholesterol | 61 | ||
| Lipoproteins | 62 | ||
| Cholesterol, Lipoproteins, and Cardiovascular Risk | 63 | ||
| HEALTH PROMOTION | 63 | ||
| Lowering Fat Intake | 63 | ||
| Fat Replacers | 63 | ||
| DIGESTION-ABSORPTION-METABOLISM REVIEW | 64 | ||
| Digestion | 64 | ||
| Absorption | 64 | ||
| Metabolism | 65 | ||
| TO SUM UP | 65 | ||
| REFERENCES | 66 | ||
| FURTHER READINGS AND RESOURCES | 67 | ||
| 5 Proteins | 68 | ||
| Health promotion | 78 | ||
| Vegetarian eating patterns | 78 | ||
| Nutritional implications of vegetarian food patterns | 79 | ||
| Planning vegetarian diets | 79 | ||
| Vegetarian diets and chronic disease | 80 | ||
| Digestion-absorption-metabolism review | 80 | ||
| Digestion | 80 | ||
| Mouth | 80 | ||
| Stomach | 80 | ||
| Small intestine | 80 | ||
| Absorption | 81 | ||
| Metabolism | 81 | ||
| To sum up | 81 | ||
| Questions for review | 81 | ||
| References | 82 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 82 | ||
| Readings | 82 | ||
| Websites of interest | 83 | ||
| 6 Vitamins | 84 | ||
| Fat-soluble vitamins | 85 | ||
| Vitamin a | 85 | ||
| Chemical and physical nature | 85 | ||
| Forms | 85 | ||
| Absorption, transport, and storage | 86 | ||
| Substances needed for absorption | 86 | ||
| Conversion of beta carotene | 86 | ||
| Transport and storage | 87 | ||
| Functions of vitamin a | 87 | ||
| Vitamin a deficiency and clinical applications | 87 | ||
| Vision | 87 | ||
| Cell differentiation | 87 | ||
| Growth | 88 | ||
| Reproduction | 88 | ||
| Immunity | 88 | ||
| Vitamin a requirement | 88 | ||
| Influencing factors | 88 | ||
| Causes of vitamin a deficiency | 88 | ||
| Dietary reference intake | 89 | ||
| Vitamin a toxicity | 89 | ||
| Hypervitaminosis a | 89 | ||
| Food sources of vitamin a | 89 | ||
| Vitamin D | 90 | ||
| Chemical and physical nature | 90 | ||
| Forms | 90 | ||
| Absorption, transport, and storage | 91 | ||
| Absorption | 91 | ||
| Active hormone synthesis | 91 | ||
| Functions of vitamin D | 91 | ||
| Control of calcium and phosphorus levels in bone and blood | 91 | ||
| Vitamin D deficiency and clinical applications | 92 | ||
| Bone disease | 92 | ||
| Vitamin D requirement | 92 | ||
| Influencing factors | 92 | ||
| Dietary reference intake | 92 | ||
| Vitamin D toxicity | 92 | ||
| Health promotion | 92 | ||
| Vitamin E | 93 | ||
| Chemical and physical nature | 93 | ||
| Forms | 93 | ||
| Absorption, transport, and storage | 93 | ||
| Functions of vitamin E | 93 | ||
| Antioxidant activity | 93 | ||
| Partnership with selenium | 93 | ||
| Vitamin E deficiency and clinical applications | 94 | ||
| Premature infants | 94 | ||
| Children and adults | 94 | ||
| Vitamin E requirement | 94 | ||
| Dietary reference intake | 94 | ||
| Vitamin E toxicity | 94 | ||
| Food sources of vitamin E | 94 | ||
| Vitamin k | 94 | ||
| Chemical and physical nature | 94 | ||
| Chemical nature | 94 | ||
| Absorption, transport, and storage | 94 | ||
| Functional roles of vitamin k | 94 | ||
| Blood clotting | 94 | ||
| Bone metabolism | 94 | ||
| Vitamin k deficiency and clinical applications | 95 | ||
| Neonatology | 95 | ||
| Malabsorption | 95 | ||
| Drug therapy | 95 | ||
| Vitamin k requirement | 96 | ||
| Dietary reference intake | 96 | ||
| Food sources of vitamin k | 96 | ||
| Water-soluble vitamins | 97 | ||
| Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) | 97 | ||
| Chemical and physical nature | 97 | ||
| Absorption, transport, and storage | 97 | ||
| Functions of vitamin C | 97 | ||
| Antioxidant capacity | 97 | ||
| Formation of intercellular cement | 97 | ||
| Support of general body metabolism | 97 | ||
| Clinical applications | 97 | ||
| Vitamin C requirement | 97 | ||
| Dietary reference intake | 97 | ||
| Vitamin C toxicity | 98 | ||
| Food sources of vitamin C | 98 | ||
| B vitamins | 99 | ||
| Deficiency diseases and vitamin discoveries | 99 | ||
| Coenzyme role | 99 | ||
| Thiamin | 99 | ||
| Chemical and physical nature | 99 | ||
| Part 2 Community Nutrition and the Life Cycle | 161 | ||
| 9 Food selection and food safety | 161 | ||
| References | 163 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 182 | ||
| Further readings | 182 | ||
| Websites of interest | 182 | ||
| 10 Community nutrition: Promoting healthy eating | 183 | ||
| Health promotion | 190 | ||
| Community education and program development | 191 | ||
| Community food and nutrition education | 191 | ||
| Implementing a community program | 192 | ||
| Creating a supportive learning environment | 193 | ||
| Theories for behavior change | 194 | ||
| Learning and behavior | 195 | ||
| Food assistance programs: Opportunities for nutrition education | 195 | ||
| US department of agriculture programs | 196 | ||
| Supplemental nutrition assistance program | 196 | ||
| Meal programs for children | 196 | ||
| Special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants, and children | 196 | ||
| Programs for older americans | 196 | ||
| Nutrition education opportunities | 196 | ||
| Expanded food and nutrition education program/supplemental nutrition assistance program-nutrition education program | 196 | ||
| Social marketing | 197 | ||
| To sum up | 197 | ||
| Questions for review | 197 | ||
| References | 198 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 199 | ||
| Readings | 199 | ||
| Websites of interest | 199 | ||
| 11 Nutrition during pregnancy and lactation | 200 | ||
| Health promotion | 202 | ||
| Nutritional demands of pregnancy | 203 | ||
| Basic nutrient allowances and individual variation | 203 | ||
| Energy needs | 203 | ||
| Protein, fat, and carbohydrate needs | 204 | ||
| Mineral needs | 204 | ||
| Calcium | 204 | ||
| Iodine | 204 | ||
| Iron | 204 | ||
| Zinc | 205 | ||
| Vitamin needs | 205 | ||
| Vitamin a | 205 | ||
| B vitamins | 205 | ||
| Vitamin C | 205 | ||
| Vitamin D | 206 | ||
| Dietary patterns: General and alternative | 206 | ||
| General daily food pattern | 206 | ||
| Alternative food patterns | 206 | ||
| Dietary supplements | 206 | ||
| Weight gain during pregnancy | 208 | ||
| General amount of weight gain | 208 | ||
| Quality of weight gain | 208 | ||
| Rate of weight gain | 208 | ||
| Weight gain and sodium intake | 208 | ||
| General dietary problems | 209 | ||
| Functional gastrointestinal problems | 209 | ||
| Nausea and vomiting | 209 | ||
| Hyperemesis | 209 | ||
| Constipation | 209 | ||
| Hemorrhoids | 209 | ||
| Heartburn or gastric pressure | 209 | ||
| Effects of iron supplements | 209 | ||
| High-risk pregnancies | 209 | ||
| Identify risk factors involved | 209 | ||
| Plan personal care | 210 | ||
| Recognize special counseling needs | 210 | ||
| Age and parity | 210 | ||
| Social habits: Alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs | 210 | ||
| Caffeine | 211 | ||
| Pica | 211 | ||
| Socioeconomic challenges | 212 | ||
| Complications of pregnancy | 212 | ||
| Anemia | 212 | ||
| Iron deficiency anemia | 212 | ||
| Folate deficiency anemia | 212 | ||
| Hemorrhagic anemia | 212 | ||
| Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy | 212 | ||
| Relation to nutrition | 212 | ||
| Clinical symptoms | 212 | ||
| Treatment | 212 | ||
| Multiple fetuses | 212 | ||
| Maternal disease conditions | 212 | ||
| Hypertension | 213 | ||
| Diabetes mellitus and gestational diabetes mellitus | 213 | ||
| Maternal phenylketonuria | 213 | ||
| Human immunodeficiency virus | 213 | ||
| Eating disorders | 213 | ||
| Nutrition during lactation | 214 | ||
| Current breast-feeding trends | 214 | ||
| Nutritional needs | 214 | ||
| Energy | 214 | ||
| Protein | 215 | ||
| Minerals | 215 | ||
| Vitamins | 215 | ||
| Fluids | 215 | ||
| Food intake | 215 | ||
| Dietary supplements | 215 | ||
| Rest and relaxation | 215 | ||
| Maternal medical conditions | 216 | ||
| Advantages and barriers to breast-feeding | 216 | ||
| To sum up | 218 | ||
| Questions for review | 219 | ||
| References | 219 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 220 | ||
| Readings | 220 | ||
| Websites of interest | 220 | ||
| 12 Nutrition for normal growth and development | 221 | ||
| Health promotion | 240 | ||
| Children and adolescents: Seeking fitness | 240 | ||
| Weight management | 240 | ||
| Physical activity | 240 | ||
| Helping children develop an active lifestyle | 241 | ||
| To sum up | 241 | ||
| Questions for review | 242 | ||
| References | 243 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 244 | ||
| Websites of interest | 244 | ||
| 13 Nutrition for adults: Early, middle, and later years | 245 | ||
| Health promotion | 257 | ||
| To sum up | 259 | ||
| Questions for review | 259 | ||
| References | 259 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 260 | ||
| Readings | 260 | ||
| Websites of interest | 260 | ||
| 14 Nutrition and physical fitness | 261 | ||
| Health promotion | 271 | ||
| Building a personal exercise program | 271 | ||
| Exercise and disease prevention | 271 | ||
| Coronary heart disease. | 271 | ||
| Hypertension. | 271 | ||
| Diabetes. | 271 | ||
| Weight management. | 272 | ||
| Stress management. | 272 | ||
| Bone disease. | 272 | ||
| Mental health. | 272 | ||
| Assessment of personal health and exercise needs | 272 | ||
| Assessing health and personal needs. | 272 | ||
| Beginning a program. | 272 | ||
| Frequency, intensity, and duration. | 272 | ||
| Types of exercise | 272 | ||
| Aerobic exercise. | 272 | ||
| Resistance exercise. | 273 | ||
| Flexibility exercises and stretching. | 273 | ||
| To sum up | 273 | ||
| Questions for review | 274 | ||
| References | 274 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 275 | ||
| Readings | 275 | ||
| Websites of interest | 275 | ||
| 15 The complexity of obesity: Beyond energy balance | 276 | ||
| Health promotion | 285 | ||
| To sum up | 285 | ||
| Questions for review | 285 | ||
| References | 285 | ||
| Part 3 Introduction to Clinical Nutrition | 287 | ||
| 16 Nutrition assessment and nutrition therapy in patient care | 287 | ||
| References | 289 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 289 | ||
| Readings | 289 | ||
| Websites of interest | 303 | ||
| 17 Metabolic stress | 304 | ||
| Health promotion | 320 | ||
| Immunonutrition | 320 | ||
| Immune-enhancing formulations | 320 | ||
| Clinical outcomes with immune-enhancing formulas | 321 | ||
| Trauma outcomes | 321 | ||
| Intensive care unit and sepsis outcomes | 321 | ||
| Surgery outcomes | 321 | ||
| Other populations (burns, head injury, HIV, and AIDS) | 321 | ||
| To sum up | 321 | ||
| Questions for review | 322 | ||
| References | 322 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 322 | ||
| Readings | 322 | ||
| Websites of interest | 323 | ||
| 18 Drug-nutrient interactions | 324 | ||
| Health promotion | 336 | ||
| The pain reliever doctors recommend most | 336 | ||
| To sum up | 337 | ||
| Questions for review | 337 | ||
| References | 337 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 338 | ||
| Websites of interest | 338 | ||
| 19 Nutrition support: Enteral and parenteral nutrition | 339 | ||
| Health promotion | 357 | ||
| Troubleshooting diarrhea in tube-fed patients | 357 | ||
| Problem of definition | 357 | ||
| Factors contributing to diarrhea | 357 | ||
| Formula | 357 | ||
| Bacterial contamination | 357 | ||
| Infusion method | 358 | ||
| Patient’s condition | 358 | ||
| Medications | 358 | ||
| To sum up | 358 | ||
| Questions for review | 359 | ||
| References | 359 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 361 | ||
| Websites of interest | 361 | ||
| 20 Gastrointestinal diseases | 362 | ||
| Health promotion | 388 | ||
| To sum up | 388 | ||
| Questions for review | 389 | ||
| References | 389 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 390 | ||
| Websites of interest | 390 | ||
| 21 Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs | 391 | ||
| Health promotion | 408 | ||
| Added food factors in coronary heart disease therapy | 408 | ||
| Dietary fiber | 408 | ||
| Omega-3 fatty acids | 408 | ||
| To sum up | 408 | ||
| Questions for review | 409 | ||
| References | 409 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 409 | ||
| Websites of interest | 409 | ||
| 22 Diabetes mellitus | 410 | ||
| Health promotion | 426 | ||
| To sum up | 427 | ||
| Questions for review | 427 | ||
| References | 427 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 428 | ||
| Websites of interest | 428 | ||
| 23 Renal disease | 429 | ||
| Chronic kidney disease | 430 | ||
| Pathophysiology of glomerular disease | 431 | ||
| Treatment of chronic kidney disease | 433 | ||
| Nutrition assessment of patients with chronic kidney disease | 433 | ||
| History and physical examination | 434 | ||
| Medical history. | 434 | ||
| Psychosocial history. | 436 | ||
| Demographics. | 436 | ||
| Physical activity. | 436 | ||
| Current medical and surgical issues. | 436 | ||
| Diet and food intake | 436 | ||
| Diet history. | 436 | ||
| Food record. | 436 | ||
| 24-hour food recall. | 436 | ||
| Food frequency questionnaires. | 436 | ||
| Biochemical values | 436 | ||
| Visceral protein stores | 437 | ||
| Serum albumin. | 437 | ||
| Prealbumin (thyroxine-binding prealbumin, transthyretin). | 437 | ||
| Transferrin (siderophilin). | 437 | ||
| C-reactive protein. | 437 | ||
| Body weight | 437 | ||
| Altered nutrient requirements with chronic kidney disease | 437 | ||
| Sodium and potassium | 439 | ||
| Phosphorus, calcium, and vitamin D | 439 | ||
| Iron | 439 | ||
| Calories and protein | 439 | ||
| Medical nutrition therapy | 439 | ||
| Chronic kidney disease stages 1–4 | 439 | ||
| Chronic kidney disease stage 5 | 440 | ||
| Stage 5: Peritoneal dialysis. | 440 | ||
| Kidney transplantation | 442 | ||
| Acute renal failure | 443 | ||
| Urolithiasis (calculi or kidney stones) | 443 | ||
| Urinary tract infection | 446 | ||
| Resources | 446 | ||
| Health promotion | 446 | ||
| Omega-3 fatty acids and renal disease | 446 | ||
| To sum up | 446 | ||
| Questions for review | 447 | ||
| References | 447 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 447 | ||
| Websites of interest | 447 | ||
| 24 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome | 448 | ||
| References | 463 | ||
| Further reading and resource | 465 | ||
| 25 Cancer | 466 | ||
| References | 466 | ||
| Further readings and resources | 478 | ||
| Websites of interest | 478 | ||
| APPENDICES | 479 | ||
| APPENDIX A Body mass index: (second of two BMI tables) | 479 | ||
| APPENDIX B Food sources of oxalates | 481 | ||
| APPENDIX C Calculation AIDS and conversion tables | 482 | ||
| APPENDIX D Federal food assistance programs | 483 | ||
| Index | 487 | ||
| A | 487 | ||
| B | 488 | ||
| C | 488 | ||
| D | 490 | ||
| E | 491 | ||
| F | 492 | ||
| G | 493 | ||
| H | 494 | ||
| I | 495 | ||
| J | 495 | ||
| K | 495 | ||
| L | 495 | ||
| M | 496 | ||
| N | 497 | ||
| O | 498 | ||
| P | 498 | ||
| R | 500 | ||
| S | 500 | ||
| T | 501 | ||
| U | 501 | ||
| V | 502 | ||
| W | 502 | ||
| X | 502 | ||
| Y | 503 | ||
| Z | 503 |