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Abstract
- Offers expert guidance on functional neurosurgery and neuromodulation, lists of requirements, and the instruments needed to perform these procedures.
- Answers practical questions such as "What do I need when performing a thermal procedure?", "What do I need to bear in mind when assembling a device?", and "What do I need to remember with regards to voltages, electrodes, percutaneous leads, RF generators, imaging, and micro instruments?"
- Consolidates today’s available information and guidance in this timely area into one convenient resource.
Functional Neurosurgery and Neuromodulation provides comprehensive coverage of this emerging, minimally invasive area of health care. Recent advances in these areas have proven effective for pain relief, memory loss, addiction, and much more. This practical resource by Drs. Kim J. Burchiel and Ahmed Raslan brings you up to date with what’s new in the field and how it can benefit your patients.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | Cover | ||
| Functional Neurosurgery and Neuromodulation | i | ||
| Functional Neurosurgery and Neuromodulation | iii | ||
| Copyright | iv | ||
| List of Contributors | v | ||
| Introduction | ix | ||
| Contents | xi | ||
| 1 - Facial Pain Classification and Outcome Measurement | 1 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 1 | ||
| FACIAL PAIN CLASSIFICATION | 1 | ||
| CLINICAL OUTCOMES | 2 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 4 | ||
| REFERENCES | 4 | ||
| 2 - Microvascular Decompression | 7 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 7 | ||
| HISTORY | 7 | ||
| PATHOPHYSIOLOGY | 8 | ||
| ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS | 9 | ||
| PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION | 10 | ||
| PROCEDURE | 11 | ||
| OUTCOME | 15 | ||
| REFERENCES | 16 | ||
| FURTHER READING | 16 | ||
| 3 - Trigeminal Ganglion/Rootlets Ablation for Pain | 19 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 19 | ||
| PREOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS | 19 | ||
| SURGICAL CONSIDERATIONS | 19 | ||
| Anesthesia | 19 | ||
| Localization and Targeting of the Foramen Ovale and Gasserian Ganglion | 21 | ||
| Prelesional Electrical Stimulation | 21 | ||
| Postlesioning | 22 | ||
| DISCUSSION | 22 | ||
| Treatment of Trigeminal Neuralgia | 22 | ||
| Outcome of Percutaneous Radiofrequency Trigeminal Gangliolysis | 22 | ||
| Complications of Percutaneous Radiofrequency Trigeminal Gangliolysis | 23 | ||
| Radiofrequency Thermoablation and Pulsed Radiofrequency | 23 | ||
| Localization Adjuncts | 23 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 23 | ||
| REFERENCES | 24 | ||
| FURTHER READING | 26 | ||
| 4 - Management of Peripheral Nerve Neuralgia | 27 | ||
| HISTORICAL BACKGROUND | 27 | ||
| PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHIC PAIN | 27 | ||
| PATIENT ASSESSMENT | 28 | ||
| INVESTIGATIONS | 29 | ||
| TREATMENT | 30 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 32 | ||
| REFERENCES | 32 | ||
| 5 - Peripheral Nerve Stimulation | 35 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 35 | ||
| MECHANISM OF NEUROSTIMULATION | 35 | ||
| INDICATIONS | 35 | ||
| WORKUP AND ASSESSMENT | 35 | ||
| OPEN PLACEMENT OF PERIPHERAL NEUROSTIMULATION | 36 | ||
| PERCUTANEOUS PLACEMENT OF PERIPHERAL NEUROSTIMULATION | 36 | ||
| TRIGEMINAL BRANCH STIMULATION | 37 | ||
| STIMULATION FOR OCCIPITAL NEURALGIA | 37 | ||
| POSTAMPUTATION LIMB PAIN | 38 | ||
| PERIPHERAL NERVE/FIELD STIMULATION | 39 | ||
| ULTRASOUND-GUIDED PERIPHERAL NERVE STIMULATION | 39 | ||
| EXTERNAL PULSE GENERATORS | 40 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 40 | ||
| REFERENCES | 41 | ||
| 6 - Spinal Cord Stimulation | 43 | ||
| SPINAL CORD STIMULATION FOR PAIN | 43 | ||
| Mechanism of Neuromodulation | 43 | ||
| Clinical Use | 43 | ||
| Indications | 43 | ||
| Contraindications | 43 | ||
| Complications and Risks | 44 | ||
| Protocol | 44 | ||
| Spinal cord stimulation trial | 44 | ||
| Permanent implantation | 44 | ||
| Follow-up | 45 | ||
| Developments in Spinal Cord Stimulation | 45 | ||
| Waveforms | 46 | ||
| Advanced algorithmic and positional stimulation | 46 | ||
| Targets | 46 | ||
| Future of spinal cord stimulation | 47 | ||
| REFERENCES | 47 | ||
| FURTHER READING | 48 | ||
| 7 - Advances in Spinal Modulation: New Stimulation Waveforms and Dorsal Root Ganglion Stimulation | 49 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 49 | ||
| CONVENTIONAL SPINAL CORD STIMULATION | 49 | ||
| HIGH-FREQUENCY SPINAL CORD STIMULATION | 50 | ||
| BURST SPINAL CORD STIMULATION | 50 | ||
| HIGH-DENSITY SIMULATION | 51 | ||
| DORSAL ROOT GANGLION STIMULATION | 52 | ||
| SUMMARY | 52 | ||
| DISCLOSURE STATEMENT | 53 | ||
| REFERENCES | 53 | ||
| 8 - Occipital Nerve Stimulation | 55 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 55 | ||
| ANATOMICAL AND CLINICAL FEATURES | 55 | ||
| CONSERVATIVE AND SURGICAL TREATMENTS | 56 | ||
| PATIENT SELECTION | 57 | ||
| OCCIPITAL NERVE STIMULATION TECHNIQUE | 57 | ||
| OUTCOMES | 59 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 60 | ||
| REFERENCES | 60 | ||
| 9 - Spinal Ablation for Cancer Pain (Cordotomy and Myelotomy) | 63 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 63 | ||
| CORDOTOMY | 63 | ||
| Indications | 63 | ||
| Intraprocedural Imaging Considerations | 63 | ||
| Surgical Techniques | 64 | ||
| Complications | 65 | ||
| MYELOTOMY | 65 | ||
| Surgical Techniques | 66 | ||
| Open limited myelotomy | 66 | ||
| Percutaneous radiofrequency lesioning | 66 | ||
| Percutaneous mechanical lesioning | 67 | ||
| Complications | 67 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 67 | ||
| REFERENCES | 67 | ||
| FURTHER READING | 68 | ||
| 10 - Intrathecal Drug Delivery Systems for Pain: A Case-Based Approach | 69 | ||
| KEY QUESTIONS | 69 | ||
| PREOPERATIVE | 69 | ||
| PATIENT SELECTION | 69 | ||
| OTHER SCREENING | 71 | ||
| PREOPERATIVE PLANNING | 72 | ||
| SURGICAL PROCEDURE | 73 | ||
| POSTIMPLANTATION MANAGEMENT | 73 | ||
| TREATMENT OF NONCANCER PAIN | 74 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 74 | ||
| REFERENCES | 74 | ||
| 11 - Dorsal Root Entry Zone Lesioning for Brachial Plexus Avulsion Pain | 77 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 77 | ||
| ANATOMY | 78 | ||
| PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION | 78 | ||
| SURGICAL TECHNIQUE | 79 | ||
| POTENTIAL COMPLICATIONS | 80 | ||
| OUTCOMES | 81 | ||
| Efficacy and Durability of DREZotomy for BPA Pain | 81 | ||
| Prognostic Factors | 81 | ||
| Other Treatment Modalities | 83 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 83 | ||
| REFERENCES | 83 | ||
| 12 - Trigeminal Tractotomy-Nucleotomy | 85 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 85 | ||
| RELEVANT ANATOMY | 85 | ||
| HISTORY AND BACKGROUND | 85 | ||
| INDICATIONS | 86 | ||
| TECHNIQUE | 86 | ||
| ADVERSE EFFECTS | 87 | ||
| OUTCOMES | 87 | ||
| FUTURE DIRECTIONS | 88 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 88 | ||
| REFERENCES | 88 | ||
| FURTHER READING | 88 | ||
| 13 - Presurgical Localization of Epilepsy | 89 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 89 | ||
| Presurgical Localization: Scope of Discussion, Prerequisites, and Definitions | 89 | ||
| PRESURGICAL LOCALIZATION OF EPILEPSY: STANDARD EVALUATION | 90 | ||
| History and Physical Examination | 90 | ||
| Video-EEG Monitoring | 90 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 91 | ||
| Neuropsychological Testing | 92 | ||
| Summation and Integration of Findings From the Standard Evaluation | 92 | ||
| PRESURGICAL LOCALIZATION OF EPILEPSY: TAILORED EVALUATION | 94 | ||
| Positron Emission Tomography | 94 | ||
| Single Photon Emission Tomography | 95 | ||
| Magnetoencephalography | 95 | ||
| Semiinvasive evaluation | 95 | ||
| Intracarotid amobarbital procedure (Wada test), functional magnetic resonance imaging, and diffusion tensor imaging | 96 | ||
| Assessment and integration of findings from the expanded noninvasive evaluation | 96 | ||
| Intracranial monitoring | 96 | ||
| CONCLUSION: SYNTHESIS OF FINDINGS, LOCALIZATION, AND SURGICAL DECISION-MAKING | 97 | ||
| REFERENCES | 97 | ||
| 14 - Intraoperative Functional Cortical Localization | 101 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 101 | ||
| INDICATIONS | 102 | ||
| PREOPERATIVE AND EXTRAOPERATIVE METHODS | 102 | ||
| INTRAOPERATIVE METHODS | 103 | ||
| During Sleep/Anesthesia | 103 | ||
| Awake Mapping | 104 | ||
| REFERENCES | 106 | ||
| 15 - Vagus Nerve Stimulation | 109 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 109 | ||
| MECHANISM | 109 | ||
| PROCEDURE | 110 | ||
| OUTCOMES | 110 | ||
| COMPLICATIONS | 111 | ||
| REFERENCES | 112 | ||
| 16 - Stereoelectroencephalography (sEEG) Versus Grids and Strips | 113 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 113 | ||
| INTRACRANIAL MONITORING: SUBDURAL ELECTRODES | 113 | ||
| Hardware Specifications | 113 | ||
| Implantation Procedure | 113 | ||
| Postoperative Course | 114 | ||
| Complications | 115 | ||
| INTRACRANIAL MONITORING: STEREOELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY | 116 | ||
| Hardware Specifications | 116 | ||
| Implantation Procedure | 116 | ||
| Postoperative Course | 117 | ||
| Complications | 117 | ||
| SELECTION OF SUBDURAL ELECTRODES VERSUS STEREOELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY | 118 | ||
| SUMMARY | 118 | ||
| REFERENCES | 119 | ||
| 17 - Transcortical Selective Microsurgical Amygdalohippocampectomy for Medically Intractable Seizures Originating i ... | 121 | ||
| BACKGROUND | 121 | ||
| TRANSCORTICAL APPROACH TO SELECTIVE MICROSURGICAL AMYGDALOHIPPOCAMPECTOMY | 121 | ||
| Indications | 123 | ||
| Contraindications | 123 | ||
| Surgical Considerations | 123 | ||
| Complications | 125 | ||
| OTHER APPROACHES TO SELECTIVE MICROSURGICAL AMYGDALOHIPPOCAMPECTOMY | 125 | ||
| Transsylvian Approach | 125 | ||
| Subtemporal Approach | 126 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 127 | ||
| REFERENCES | 127 | ||
| 18 - Cortical Dysplasia and Extratemporal Resections in Epilepsy | 129 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 129 | ||
| FOCAL CORTICAL DYSPLASIA CLASSIFICATION | 129 | ||
| Focal Cortical Dysplasia Type 1 | 130 | ||
| Focal Cortical Dysplasia Type 2 | 130 | ||
| Focal Cortical Dysplasia Type 3 | 130 | ||
| CLINICAL PRESENTATION | 132 | ||
| PRESURGICAL EVALUATION | 132 | ||
| Electroencephalogram | 132 | ||
| Imaging | 132 | ||
| Intracranial Electrode Placement | 133 | ||
| Surgical Technique | 133 | ||
| Surgical Outcomes | 134 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 134 | ||
| REFERENCES | 134 | ||
| 19 - Responsive Neurostimulation | 137 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 137 | ||
| RNS SYSTEM FUNCTIONALITY | 137 | ||
| EVIDENCE FOR SAFETY AND EFFICACY | 138 | ||
| EFFECTS OF RNS SYSTEM ON MOOD AND COGNITION | 140 | ||
| SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS | 140 | ||
| PATIENT SELECTION | 140 | ||
| CONTRAINDICATIONS | 141 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 141 | ||
| REFERENCES | 141 | ||
| 20 - Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) | 143 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 143 | ||
| BACKGROUND | 143 | ||
| ASSISTIVE BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACE | 145 | ||
| Noninvasive: Beta and Mu Waves, Beta-Band Desynchronization, Slow Cortical Potentials, and Evoked Response Potentials | 145 | ||
| Invasive—Electrocorticography and Gamma Band Activity | 146 | ||
| Invasive—Single-Unit Recording | 147 | ||
| REHABILITATIVE BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACE | 147 | ||
| Closed-Loop Systems: Brain-Computer-Brain Interfaces | 147 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 151 | ||
| REFERENCES | 151 | ||
| 21 - Laser Interstitial Thermal Therapy | 153 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 153 | ||
| HISTORY | 153 | ||
| Laser Development and Early Uses | 153 | ||
| Animal Models in Neurosurgery | 153 | ||
| Introduction of the CO2 Laser | 153 | ||
| Transition to Human Use | 154 | ||
| Evolution to Laser-Induced Thermal Therapy and Further Advances | 154 | ||
| Introduction of Imaging and Real-Time Monitoring | 155 | ||
| PHYSICS AND HARDWARE OF LASER-INDUCED THERMAL THERAPY | 155 | ||
| INDICATIONS AND DECISION-MAKING | 158 | ||
| SURGICAL PROCEDURE | 160 | ||
| CURRENT USES | 162 | ||
| Malignant Gliomas | 162 | ||
| Cerebral Metastases and Radiation Necrosis | 164 | ||
| Epilepsy | 166 | ||
| Chronic Pain | 167 | ||
| Pediatric Neurooncology and Epilepsy | 168 | ||
| REPORTED COMPLICATIONS | 168 | ||
| Neurologic Deficits | 169 | ||
| Hemorrhage | 169 | ||
| Infection | 169 | ||
| Refractory Edema | 170 | ||
| Inaccurate Laser Placement | 170 | ||
| Complication Avoidance | 170 | ||
| FUTURE DIRECTIONS | 171 | ||
| REFERENCES | 172 | ||
| 22 - Microelectrode Recording in Functional Neurosurgery | 177 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 177 | ||
| MICROELECTRODE TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNIQUE | 177 | ||
| GLOBUS PALLIDUS | 178 | ||
| Microelectrode Mapping of Globus Pallidus Interna | 178 | ||
| VENTRAL THALAMUS | 179 | ||
| Microelectrode Mapping of Vc, Vim, and Voa/Vop | 179 | ||
| SUBTHALAMIC NUCLEUS | 180 | ||
| Microelectrode Mapping of Subthalamic Nucleus | 180 | ||
| THE CASE FOR (AND AGAINST) MAPPING | 180 | ||
| Potential Advantages | 180 | ||
| Potential Disadvantages | 181 | ||
| SUMMARY | 184 | ||
| REFERENCES | 184 | ||
| 23 - CT-Guided Asleep DBS | 189 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 189 | ||
| ASLEEP DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION PROCEDURE | 190 | ||
| Imaging | 190 | ||
| Surgical Technique | 190 | ||
| OUTCOMES OF ASLEEP DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION | 191 | ||
| Electrode Accuracy | 191 | ||
| Intracranial Air | 193 | ||
| Clinical Outcomes | 194 | ||
| Costs of Deep Brain Stimulation | 195 | ||
| DISCUSSION | 195 | ||
| Electrode Accuracy | 196 | ||
| Intracranial Air | 197 | ||
| Outcomes of Asleep Deep Brain Stimulation | 197 | ||
| Cost | 197 | ||
| CONCLUSIONS | 197 | ||
| REFERENCES | 197 | ||
| 24 - Interventional MRI–Guided Deep Brain Stimulation | 199 | ||
| REFERENCES | 207 | ||
| 25 - Surgical Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders | 209 | ||
| HISTORY | 209 | ||
| NEUROPHYSIOLOGY AND CONNECTIVITY | 211 | ||
| INDICATIONS | 212 | ||
| Obsessive Compulsive Disorder | 212 | ||
| Major Depressive Disorder | 214 | ||
| TOURETTE'S SYNDROME | 216 | ||
| OTHER PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS | 217 | ||
| ETHICS | 217 | ||
| OTHER TREATMENTS | 219 | ||
| FUTURE DIRECTIONS | 220 | ||
| REFERENCES | 220 | ||
| 26 - Closed-Loop and Responsive Neurostimulation | 223 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 223 | ||
| CONTROL SYSTEMS | 223 | ||
| Open-Loop Systems | 223 | ||
| Closed-Loop Systems | 224 | ||
| Adaptive Systems | 225 | ||
| Responsive Systems | 226 | ||
| BIOMARKERS | 227 | ||
| The Ideal Biomarker | 227 | ||
| Physical Biomarkers | 227 | ||
| Subjective/Experiential Biomarkers | 227 | ||
| Electric Biomarkers | 228 | ||
| Chemical Biomarkers | 228 | ||
| Physiologic Biomarkers | 228 | ||
| Functional Biomarkers | 228 | ||
| Anatomic network state | 229 | ||
| Functional network state | 229 | ||
| CURRENT AND FUTURE APPLICATIONS TO NEUROSURGERY | 229 | ||
| Cranial Procedures | 229 | ||
| Movement disorders | 229 | ||
| Epilepsy | 231 | ||
| Psychiatric disorders | 231 | ||
| Central pain disorders | 231 | ||
| Extracranial Procedures | 232 | ||
| Epidural spinal cord stimulation | 232 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 233 | ||
| REFERENCES | 233 | ||
| 27 - Robotics in Stereotactic Neurosurgery | 235 | ||
| INTRODUCTION | 235 | ||
| ROBOTIC SURGERY | 235 | ||
| ROBOTICS IN NEUROSURGERY | 236 | ||
| NEUROSURGICAL ROBOTIC SYSTEMS | 237 | ||
| Mazor Robotics Renaissance Guidance System | 237 | ||
| Neurosurgical Robotic Systems | 238 | ||
| ROSA® technology | 238 | ||
| Neuromate Robot | 238 | ||
| ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTICS | 239 | ||
| Reproducibility and Efficiency | 239 | ||
| Flexibility in Trajectory Planning | 239 | ||
| Marketability | 239 | ||
| DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTICS | 240 | ||
| Verification of Accuracy | 240 | ||
| Long-Term Reliability | 240 | ||
| Operating Room Space | 240 | ||
| Cost | 240 | ||
| FUTURE DIRECTIONS | 241 | ||
| SUMMARY | 241 | ||
| REFERENCES | 241 | ||
| 28 - Central and Peripheral Neurosurgical Ablative Techniques for Hypertonia | 243 | ||
| BACKGROUND AND DEFINITIONS | 243 | ||
| PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF HYPERTONIA | 243 | ||
| Abnormal Descending Control | 243 | ||
| Changes at the Spinal Level | 243 | ||
| Changes in the Skeletal Muscles | 244 | ||
| EVALUATION OF HYPERTONIA AND MUSCULOSKELETAL CONSEQUENCES | 244 | ||
| PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT | 244 | ||
| ELECTROPHYSIOLOGIC ASSESSMENT | 244 | ||
| PREOPERATIVE DIAGNOSIS OF THE TYPE OF HYPERTONIA AND IMPACT ON OUTCOME MEASURES | 246 | ||
| HISTORY OF NEUROSURGICAL ABLATIVE TECHNIQUES | 246 | ||
| TREATMENT SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT ALGORITHMS | 246 | ||
| CENTRAL ABLATIVE TECHNIQUES | 246 | ||
| In Spinal Cord | 246 | ||
| Dorsal root entry zone ablation | 246 | ||
| Indications | 248 | ||
| Surgical technique | 248 | ||
| Outcome | 248 | ||
| Complications | 248 | ||
| Myelotomy | 248 | ||
| Outcome | 249 | ||
| Brain Ablative Procedures | 249 | ||
| Stereotactic brain lesioning | 249 | ||
| Surgical technique | 249 | ||
| Thalamotomy | 249 | ||
| Pallidotomy | 249 | ||
| Outcome | 250 | ||
| PERIPHERAL ABLATIVE TECHNIQUES | 250 | ||
| Selective Dorsal Rhizotomy | 250 | ||
| Indications | 251 | ||
| Contraindications | 251 | ||
| Surgical Techniques | 251 | ||
| Outcome | 251 | ||
| Complications | 252 | ||
| Combined anterior and posterior rhizotomy | 252 | ||
| Complications | 253 | ||
| Selective Peripheral Denervation (Bertrand procedure) | 253 | ||
| SELECTIVE PERIPHERAL NEUROTOMY | 254 | ||
| THE PRINCIPLE OF ACTION | 254 | ||
| Partial Denervation and Differential Regeneration | 254 | ||
| Indication | 256 | ||
| Preoperative motor block | 256 | ||
| Surgical Techniques | 256 | ||
| Selective Neurotomies in Lower Limbs | 256 | ||
| Obturator neurotomy | 256 | ||
| Sciatic neurotomy | 257 | ||
| Tibial neurotomy | 257 | ||
| Femoral neurotomy | 257 | ||
| Common peroneal neurotomy | 257 | ||
| Selective Peripheral Neurotomies in Upper Limbs | 258 | ||
| Brachial plexus neurotomy | 258 | ||
| Musculocutaneous neurotomy | 258 | ||
| Median neurotomy | 259 | ||
| Ulnar neurotomy | 259 | ||
| Complications | 259 | ||
| REFERENCES | 259 | ||
| 29 - IDDS for Spasticity, Dystonia, and Rigidity | 263 | ||
| ORIGINS AND TREATMENT | 263 | ||
| BACLOFEN FOR SPASTICITY | 264 | ||
| ALTERNATIVE ORAL MEDICATIONS | 264 | ||
| WORKUP BEFORE SURGERY | 264 | ||
| HARDWARE OPTIONS | 265 | ||
| SURGICAL TECHNIQUE | 265 | ||
| POSITIONING | 266 | ||
| SURGERY | 266 | ||
| INFECTION CONTROL | 268 | ||
| POSTOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS | 268 | ||
| WHERE IS THE DRUG? | 269 | ||
| BACLOFEN WITHDRAWAL | 269 | ||
| BACLOFEN OVERDOSE | 270 | ||
| MANAGING COMPLICATIONS | 271 | ||
| ORTHOPEDIC CONSIDERATIONS | 272 | ||
| BACLOFEN INTRATHECAL DRUG DELIVERY IN MAJOR DEFORMITY SURGERY FOR SCOLIOSIS | 273 | ||
| CONCLUSION | 273 | ||
| REFERENCES | 273 | ||
| Index | 277 | ||
| A | 277 | ||
| B | 277 | ||
| C | 278 | ||
| D | 279 | ||
| E | 279 | ||
| F | 280 | ||
| G | 280 | ||
| H | 280 | ||
| I | 281 | ||
| J | 282 | ||
| K | 282 | ||
| L | 282 | ||
| M | 282 | ||
| N | 283 | ||
| O | 284 | ||
| P | 284 | ||
| Q | 285 | ||
| R | 285 | ||
| S | 286 | ||
| T | 287 | ||
| U | 288 | ||
| V | 288 | ||
| W | 289 | ||
| X | 289 | ||
| Y | 289 | ||
| Z | 289 |