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Book Details
Abstract
Plastic has become a ubiquitous part of modern life. A cheap, lightweight material, it is used in everything from food packaging to consumer electronics and microbeads in cosmetic products. However, we are becoming increasingly aware of the problems our reliance on plastic is causing in the environment. For example, recent campaigns have highlighted the build-up of microbeads in the marine environment and the damage this is doing to wildlife, and the problem of marine litter, often in very remote locations. There are also concerns over exposure to plasticisers and their possible consequences for health.
The plastics industry is under increasing pressure, not only from the government and environmental groups, but also from consumers, to improve the environmental impact of their products.
This book presents an introduction to the uses of plastics and an overview of how they interact with the environment. It is a valuable resource for students studying environmental science as well as researchers working in the plastics industry, and policy makers and regulators concerned with waste disposal and environmental planning and conservation.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Preface | vii | ||
| Contents | ix | ||
| Editors | xiii | ||
| List of Contributors | xv | ||
| The Nature of Plastics and Their Societal Usage | 1 | ||
| 1 Plastics in a Nutshell | 1 | ||
| 1.1 The History of Plastics | 2 | ||
| 1.1.1 19th Century: The First Polymers | 2 | ||
| 1.1.2 20th Century: The Revolution of Plastics Starts | 3 | ||
| 1.1.3 Beginning of the 20th Century: The Discovery of Bakelite | 3 | ||
| 1.1.4 1920s: Staudinger and Polymers | 3 | ||
| 1.1.5 1930s: PlexiglasTM and NylonTM First Appear | 3 | ||
| 1.1.6 1940s: Large Use of Plastics in World War II | 4 | ||
| 1.1.7 1950s: The Spread of Plastics for Domestic Usages | 4 | ||
| 1.1.8 1960s: Plastics in the Fashion Industry | 4 | ||
| 1.1.9 1970s: Plastics Become the Most Used Materials Worldwide | 4 | ||
| 1.1.10 1980s: Plastics and the Development of Communication and Transport | 5 | ||
| 1.1.11 1990s and 2000s: Plastics' Key Role in Society | 5 | ||
| 2 How Is Plastic Made? | 5 | ||
| 2.1 The Different Kinds of Plastics | 6 | ||
| 2.1.1 Thermoplastics | 6 | ||
| 2.1.1.1 Standard Plastics | 6 | ||
| 2.1.1.2 Engineering Plastics | 8 | ||
| 2.1.1.3 High Performance Plastics | 9 | ||
| 2.1.2 Thermosets | 9 | ||
| 2.1.3 Biodegradable Plastics | 10 | ||
| 3 Usage of Plastics in Our Daily Lives | 10 | ||
| 3.1 Packaging | 10 | ||
| 3.1.1 Light as a Feather | 10 | ||
| 3.1.2 Food Conservation and Preservation | 12 | ||
| 3.1.3 Provision of Convenience | 12 | ||
| 3.1.4 Safety and Hygiene | 12 | ||
| 3.1.5 Environmental Benefits of Plastic Packaging | 12 | ||
| 3.2 Building and Construction | 13 | ||
| 3.2.1 Windows: Saving Energy for Decades | 13 | ||
| 3.2.2 Plastic Pipes | 13 | ||
| 3.2.3 Insulation | 13 | ||
| 3.3 Transportation | 14 | ||
| 3.3.1 Saving Energy and Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions | 14 | ||
| 3.3.2 Crucial for Passenger Safety | 14 | ||
| 3.3.3 Comfort and Cost-effective Design | 14 | ||
| 3.4 Electrical and Electronic | 15 | ||
| 3.4.1 Resource Efficiency | 15 | ||
| 3.4.2 Light Weight | 15 | ||
| 3.4.3 Resistance | 15 | ||
| 3.4.4 Fire Safety | 15 | ||
| 3.5 Agriculture | 15 | ||
| 3.6 Medical and Health | 16 | ||
| 3.6.1 Unblocking Blood Vessels | 16 | ||
| 3.6.2 Prosthesis | 16 | ||
| 3.6.3 Artificial Corneas | 17 | ||
| 3.6.4 Hearing Aids | 17 | ||
| 3.6.5 Future of Plastics in Healthcare | 17 | ||
| 3.7 Sport, Leisure and Design | 17 | ||
| 3.7.1 Plastics in Ballgames | 18 | ||
| 3.7.2 Plastics in Sports Footwear | 18 | ||
| 3.7.3 Plastics in Tennis | 18 | ||
| 3.7.4 Plastics on Water | 18 | ||
| 3.7.5 Plastics and Children | 18 | ||
| 3.8 Renewable Energies | 19 | ||
| References | 19 | ||
| Plastic in Marine Litter | 21 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 22 | ||
| 2 Plastic in Marine Litter | 22 | ||
| 3 Sources of Plastic | 24 | ||
| 3.1 Sources of Macroplastics | 24 | ||
| 3.2 Sources of Microplastics | 25 | ||
| 4 Occurrence of Plastics in the Marine Environment | 26 | ||
| 4.1 Water Bodies | 26 | ||
| 4.2 Beaches, Sediments and Shorelines | 29 | ||
| 5 Fate of Plastic Debris in the Marine Environment | 31 | ||
| 6 Physical Effects on Organisms | 33 | ||
| 6.1 Plastic Ingestion | 33 | ||
| 6.2 Plastic Entanglement | 36 | ||
| 7 Chemical Effects on Organisms | 39 | ||
| 8 Recommendations | 40 | ||
| 9 Conclusion | 42 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 42 | ||
| References | 43 | ||
| Microplastics in the Environment | 60 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 61 | ||
| 2 Size Classifications of Plastic | 62 | ||
| 3 Sources of Microplastics | 62 | ||
| 4 Distribution and Abundance | 65 | ||
| 5 Impacts | 68 | ||
| 6 Solutions | 73 | ||
| 7 Conclusions | 75 | ||
| References | 75 | ||
| Nanoplastics in the Environment | 82 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 83 | ||
| 2 Defining Nanoplastics and Ascertaining Their Sources | 85 | ||
| 3 Fate of Nanoplastics | 86 | ||
| 4 Effects of Nanoplastics | 94 | ||
| 5 Challenges | 98 | ||
| 6 Conclusions | 99 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 100 | ||
| References | 100 | ||
| Plasticisers and Their Impact on Wildlife | 106 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 107 | ||
| 1.1 Plasticisers | 107 | ||
| 1.1.1 Phthalates | 107 | ||
| 1.1.2 Bisphenol A and PBDEs | 110 | ||
| 2 Environmental Exposures | 111 | ||
| 2.1 Phthalates | 111 | ||
| 2.2 Bisphenol A and PBDEs | 114 | ||
| 3 Effects in Wildlife | 115 | ||
| 3.1 Phthalates | 115 | ||
| 3.1.1 Terrestrial Organisms | 115 | ||
| 3.1.1.1 Terrestrial Organisms: Mammals | 115 | ||
| 3.1.1.2 Terrestrial Organisms: Invertebrates | 115 | ||
| 3.1.2 Aquatic Organisms | 116 | ||
| 3.1.2.1 Aquatic Organisms: Amphibians | 116 | ||
| 3.1.2.2 Aquatic Organisms: Fish | 116 | ||
| 3.1.2.3 Aquatic Organisms: Invertebrates | 118 | ||
| 3.2 Bisphenol A and PBDEs | 120 | ||
| 4 Conclusions | 121 | ||
| References | 122 | ||
| Plastics Additives and Human Health: A Case Study of Bisphenol A (BPA) | 131 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 132 | ||
| 1.1 Plastics and Their Additives | 133 | ||
| 1.2 Migration of Chemical Substances Out of Plastics | 133 | ||
| 1.3 Hazard Versus Risk | 135 | ||
| 1.4 Human Biomonitoring | 136 | ||
| 2 A Case Study of BPA | 137 | ||
| 2.1 BPA: an Endocrine Disrupting Chemical | 137 | ||
| 2.2 Routes of Exposure and Potential Interventions | 138 | ||
| 2.3 Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms of Effect | 139 | ||
| 2.4 ESRRA and BPA | 140 | ||
| 2.5 Expression of ESRRA In Vitro Following Exposure to BPA | 141 | ||
| 2.6 Expression of ESRRA In Vivo Following Dietary Intervention to Reduce BPA Exposure | 142 | ||
| 2.7 Are There Physiological Implications for Changes in the Expression of ESSRA Isoforms? | 145 | ||
| 3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives | 148 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 149 | ||
| References | 149 | ||
| Plastics Recycling | 156 | ||
| 1 Plastic Production, Recycling and Other Methods of Disposal | 157 | ||
| 2 Challenges in the Recycling of Plastics | 163 | ||
| 3 Recycling Post-consumer High Density Polyethylene to Meet Food Grade Applications | 166 | ||
| 4 Recycling Post-consumer PP to Meet Food Grade Applications | 166 | ||
| 5 Black Plastics | 171 | ||
| 6 Fluorescent Markers for Sorting Packaging | 172 | ||
| References | 175 | ||
| Plastics, the Environment and Society: Current Consensus and Future Directions | 177 | ||
| 1 Plastics as Materials | 178 | ||
| 2 Plastics as Waste and Litter | 178 | ||
| 3 Environmental Impacts of Plastics | 179 | ||
| 4 Socio-economic Impacts of Plastics | 180 | ||
| 5 Solutions and Remaining Challenges | 181 | ||
| References | 185 | ||
| Subject Index | 188 |