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Book Details
Abstract
The combination of two leading imaging techniques – magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography – is poised to have a large impact and has recently been a driver of research and clinical applications. The hybrid instrument is capable of acquiring both datasets simultaneously and this affords a number of advantages ranging from the obvious, two datasets acquired in the time required for one, through to novel applications. This book describes the basics of MRI and PET and then the technical issues and advantages involved in bringing together the two techniques. Novel applications in preclinical settings, human imaging and tracers are described.
The book is for students and scientists entering the field of MR–PET with an MRI background but lacking PET or vice versa. It provides practical details from experts working in the area.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Hybrid MR-PET Imaging: Systems, Methods and Applications | i | ||
| Preface | vii | ||
| Contents | xi | ||
| Part A - Basics | 1 | ||
| Section I - Magnetic Resonance | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1 - Introduction to Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 3 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 3 | ||
| 1.2 Physics of the Dynamics of Spin | 4 | ||
| 1.2.1 Spin | 4 | ||
| 1.2.2 Spins in a Magnetic Field | 5 | ||
| 1.2.3 Spin Dynamics | 7 | ||
| 1.2.3.1 Spin Relaxation | 7 | ||
| 1.2.3.2 Bloch Equations: Static Case | 8 | ||
| 1.2.3.3 Bloch Equations | 8 | ||
| 1.2.3.4 The Rotating Frame of Reference | 9 | ||
| 1.2.3.5 Bloch Equations in the Axial Representation | 10 | ||
| 1.2.3.6 Bloch Equations: Resonant RF Pulses | 11 | ||
| 1.2.3.7 Bloch Equations: Off-resonant RF Pulses | 12 | ||
| 1.2.3.8 Bloch Equations: Magnetic Field Gradients | 13 | ||
| 1.2.4 Signal Formation | 14 | ||
| 1.2.4.1 Free Induction Decay | 14 | ||
| 1.2.4.2 Echoes | 15 | ||
| 1.2.4.3 Spin Echo | 16 | ||
| 1.2.4.4 Gradient Echo | 16 | ||
| 1.2.4.5 Stimulated Echo | 16 | ||
| 1.2.4.6 The Signal Equation and Demodulation | 16 | ||
| 1.3 Imaging | 19 | ||
| 1.3.1 Spatial Encoding | 19 | ||
| 1.3.1.1 Slice Selection | 19 | ||
| 1.3.1.2 Phase Encoding | 20 | ||
| 1.3.1.3 Frequency Encoding | 22 | ||
| 1.3.1.4 2D vs. 3D Imaging | 22 | ||
| 1.3.1.5 The Signal Equation of Spatial Encoding | 22 | ||
| 1.3.1.6 Spatial Resolution and Field-of-View | 24 | ||
| 1.3.2 Image Reconstruction and Acceleration | 24 | ||
| 1.3.2.1 k-Space | 24 | ||
| 1.3.2.2 Gibbs Ringing Artefact | 25 | ||
| 1.3.2.3 Reconstruction for Non-Cartesian k-Space Trajectories | 26 | ||
| 1.4 Magnetic Resonance Pulse Sequences | 27 | ||
| 1.4.1 Contrast Generation | 28 | ||
| 1.4.2 Slice Selection | 28 | ||
| 1.4.3 Frequency Encoding | 29 | ||
| 1.4.4 Reconstruction | 29 | ||
| 1.4.5 Gradient Echo Sequences | 30 | ||
| 1.4.6 Spin Echo Sequences | 30 | ||
| 1.4.7 Echo Planar Imaging Sequences | 31 | ||
| 1.5 Acceleration in MRI Acquisition | 31 | ||
| 1.5.1 Partial Fourier | 31 | ||
| 1.5.2 Parallel Imaging | 33 | ||
| 1.5.3 Multi-shot, Readout Segmented EPI and EPIK (EPI with Keyhole) | 34 | ||
| 1.5.4 Multi-band Imaging | 37 | ||
| 1.5.5 Combination of Acceleration Techniques | 37 | ||
| 1.5.6 Other Acceleration and Reconstruction Methods | 41 | ||
| References | 41 | ||
| Chapter 2 - MRI Instrumentation | 45 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 45 | ||
| 2.2 Main Magnet | 45 | ||
| 2.2.1 Superconducting Magnets | 46 | ||
| 2.2.2 Resistive Magnets | 49 | ||
| 2.2.3 Permanent Magnets | 50 | ||
| 2.2.4 Non-conventional Magnets | 50 | ||
| 2.3 Gradient System | 51 | ||
| 2.3.1 Gradient Coils | 51 | ||
| 2.3.2 Gradient Amplifiers | 53 | ||
| 2.3.3 Limiting Effects of Fast Gradients | 54 | ||
| 2.4 Shim System | 54 | ||
| 2.5 RF System | 55 | ||
| 2.5.1 RF Coils | 56 | ||
| 2.5.1.1 RX Arrays | 56 | ||
| 2.5.1.2 Multi-tuned RF Coils | 58 | ||
| 2.5.2 RF Electronics | 58 | ||
| 2.5.2.1 Transmit Chain | 58 | ||
| 2.5.2.2 Receive Chain | 59 | ||
| 2.6 Console/Spectrometer | 60 | ||
| 2.7 MRI Suite | 60 | ||
| References | 61 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Selective Applications of MRI for the Brain | 64 | ||
| 3.1 Functional MRI (fMRI) | 64 | ||
| 3.1.1 Introduction | 64 | ||
| 3.1.2 Blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) | 66 | ||
| 3.1.3 Haemodynamic Response Function (HRF) and fMRI Paradigm | 67 | ||
| 3.1.4 Generalised Linear Model (GLM) and Data Analysis | 69 | ||
| 3.1.5 An Example Visual fMRI Study | 71 | ||
| 3.2 Angiography and Perfusion | 72 | ||
| 3.2.1 MR Angiography | 72 | ||
| 3.2.1.1 Time-of-Flight (TOF) Method | 72 | ||
| 3.2.1.2 Phase-contrast (PC) Method | 74 | ||
| 3.2.1.3 CE-MRA | 75 | ||
| 3.2.2 MR Perfusion | 76 | ||
| 3.2.2.1 DSC-MRI | 76 | ||
| 3.2.2.2 DCE-MRI | 78 | ||
| 3.2.2.3 Arterial Spin Labelling (ASL) | 78 | ||
| 3.3 Diffusion MRI in Brain Tissue | 80 | ||
| 3.3.1 Introduction | 80 | ||
| 3.3.2 Diffusion Basics and Methods | 80 | ||
| 3.3.3 Water Diffusion in Brain Tissue and Diffusion Tensor Imaging | 81 | ||
| 3.3.4 Non-Gaussian Diffusion Methods | 85 | ||
| 3.3.5 Conclusions | 87 | ||
| 3.4 Quantitative Imaging | 87 | ||
| 3.4.1 T2 and T2* Mapping | 88 | ||
| 3.4.2 T1 Mapping | 89 | ||
| 3.4.3 Water Content | 90 | ||
| References | 92 | ||
| Chapter 4 - Ultra-high Field Imaging | 101 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 101 | ||
| 4.2 High-resolution Spectroscopy | 102 | ||
| 4.2.1 Properties of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) | 102 | ||
| 4.2.2 Physical Basis of MRS: Chemical Shift and Scalar Coupling | 102 | ||
| 4.2.3 Basic Excitation–Acquisition Experiment and Data Processing | 103 | ||
| 4.2.4 In vivo Measurements with Spatial Localisation and Water Suppression | 106 | ||
| 4.3 X-nuclei | 109 | ||
| 4.3.1 Overview | 109 | ||
| 4.3.2 X-nuclei Hardware | 110 | ||
| 4.3.3 Fast Image Acquisition | 110 | ||
| 4.3.4 Multiple Quantum Filtering | 111 | ||
| 4.3.5 Expose of Important X-nuclei | 112 | ||
| 4.3.5.1 Phosphorus | 112 | ||
| 4.3.5.2 Carbon | 112 | ||
| 4.3.5.3 Fluorine | 112 | ||
| 4.3.5.4 Sodium | 113 | ||
| 4.3.5.5 Lithium | 114 | ||
| 4.3.5.6 Potassium and Chlorine | 114 | ||
| 4.3.5.7 Oxygen | 114 | ||
| 4.3.5.8 Deuterium | 115 | ||
| 4.4 Anatomical and Functional Imaging | 115 | ||
| 4.5 Emerging Applications | 117 | ||
| 4.5.1 Phase and Susceptibility Weighted Imaging | 117 | ||
| 4.5.2 Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping | 118 | ||
| 4.5.3 Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer (CEST) | 119 | ||
| References | 122 | ||
| Section II - Positron Emission Tomography | 129 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Introduction to PET | 131 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 131 | ||
| 5.2 The Physics of Positron Emitters | 132 | ||
| 5.3 The Detector System | 134 | ||
| 5.4 Time-of-Flight PET | 137 | ||
| 5.5 Depth of Interaction | 138 | ||
| 5.6 True, False and Lost Coincidences | 138 | ||
| 5.7 Performance Characteristics | 140 | ||
| 5.7.1 Spatial Resolution | 140 | ||
| 5.7.2 Count Rate Behaviour | 141 | ||
| 5.7.3 Sensitivity | 142 | ||
| 5.7.4 Accuracy | 143 | ||
| 5.7.5 Image Quality | 143 | ||
| 5.8 Partial Volume Effect and its Correction | 144 | ||
| 5.9 Acquisition Modes | 145 | ||
| References | 145 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Positron Emission Tomography Instrumentation | 147 | ||
| 6.1 Basics of Signal Detection in PET | 147 | ||
| 6.2 Components | 148 | ||
| 6.2.1 Scintillators | 148 | ||
| 6.2.2 Photodetectors | 149 | ||
| 6.3 PET System Architecture | 153 | ||
| 6.3.1 Scintillation Detector | 153 | ||
| 6.3.2 PET System Design | 157 | ||
| 6.3.3 PET Systems | 159 | ||
| References | 161 | ||
| Chapter 7 - PET Quantification | 162 | ||
| 7.1 Tomographic Image Reconstruction | 162 | ||
| 7.1.1 Analytical Methods | 162 | ||
| 7.1.2 Iterative Methods | 165 | ||
| 7.1.2.1 General Recipe | 165 | ||
| 7.1.2.2 System Response Matrix | 166 | ||
| 7.1.2.3 Example—MLEM | 168 | ||
| 7.1.2.4 Maximum A Posteriori (MAP) Reconstruction | 170 | ||
| 7.2 Data Corrections | 171 | ||
| 7.2.1 Attenuation of Radiation | 171 | ||
| 7.2.2 Compton Scattering | 173 | ||
| 7.2.3 Detector Normalisation | 175 | ||
| 7.2.4 Random Coincidences | 176 | ||
| 7.2.5 Detector Deadtime | 177 | ||
| 7.2.6 Radioactive Decay | 178 | ||
| 7.2.7 Detector Calibration | 179 | ||
| 7.3 Patient Motion | 179 | ||
| References | 181 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Kinetic Modelling and Extraction of Metabolic Parameters | 183 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 183 | ||
| 8.2 The Three Components Required for Kinetic Modelling | 185 | ||
| 8.3 Kinetic Analysis of a One-tissue Compartment Model | 189 | ||
| 8.4 The Kinetic Analysis of a Two- or Three-tissue Compartment Model | 192 | ||
| 8.5 Model-based Analysis of Neuroreceptor Metabolism | 194 | ||
| 8.6 Parameter Extraction by Linearisation | 196 | ||
| 8.7 MR-PET Protocol for Neuroreceptor Studies | 199 | ||
| 8.8 Summary | 200 | ||
| References | 201 | ||
| Part B - Hybrid MR-PET Imaging: technical overview | 203 | ||
| Section I - Hardware | 203 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Introduction and Historical Overview | 205 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 205 | ||
| 9.2 Historical Overview | 206 | ||
| References | 211 | ||
| Chapter 10 - MR-PET Instrumentation | 214 | ||
| 10.1 Mutual Interferences Between MR and PET | 214 | ||
| 10.2 MR Compatible PET Detector Technology | 217 | ||
| 10.3 MR-PET System Architecture | 219 | ||
| 10.4 Hybrid MR-PET Coils | 221 | ||
| 10.5 Mutual Interferences with Other Modalities and Equipment | 225 | ||
| References | 227 | ||
| Section II - Special aspects of Data Corrections in MR-PET | 229 | ||
| Chapter 11 - MR-based Corrections for Quantitative PET Image | 231 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 231 | ||
| 11.2 MR-Based AC | 231 | ||
| 11.2.1 The Attenuation Process | 232 | ||
| 11.2.2 The Attenuation Correction Process | 234 | ||
| 11.2.2.1 Standalone PET Scanners | 234 | ||
| 11.2.2.2 PET-CT Scanners | 235 | ||
| 11.2.2.3 MR-PET Scanners | 236 | ||
| 11.2.2.4 Emission-based Methods | 239 | ||
| 11.2.2.5 Final Considerations | 239 | ||
| 11.3 Partial Volume Correction | 240 | ||
| 11.3.1 Partial Volume Effect (PVE) | 240 | ||
| 11.3.2 Partial Volume Correction (PVC) | 242 | ||
| 11.3.2.1 Empirical Methods | 242 | ||
| 11.3.2.2 Deconvolution Methods | 244 | ||
| 11.3.2.3 Anatomically-Guided Methods | 245 | ||
| 11.3.2.4 Reconstruction Methods | 247 | ||
| 11.3.3 Applications | 248 | ||
| 11.4 Image-derived Input Function | 248 | ||
| 11.4.1 IDIF in Non-simultaneous MR-PET | 249 | ||
| 11.4.2 IDIF in Simultaneous MR-PET | 250 | ||
| 11.4.3 Alternative Method | 252 | ||
| 11.4.4 Evaluation Methods | 252 | ||
| 11.4.4.1 Metrics | 252 | ||
| 11.4.4.2 Uncertainties | 253 | ||
| References | 253 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Motion Correction in Brain MR-PET | 259 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 259 | ||
| 12.2 Motion Detection and Tracking | 261 | ||
| 12.2.1 External Device-based | 261 | ||
| 12.2.2 MR-based | 262 | ||
| 12.2.2.1 Navigator-based Motion Information | 262 | ||
| 12.2.2.2 Image-based Motion Information | 263 | ||
| 12.2.3 PET-based | 264 | ||
| 12.2.3.1 Image-based Motion Information | 264 | ||
| 12.2.3.2 Raw Data-based Motion Information | 265 | ||
| 12.3 Motion Correction Techniques | 266 | ||
| 12.3.1 MRI | 266 | ||
| 12.3.1.1 Retrospective Motion Correction | 266 | ||
| 12.3.1.2 Prospective Motion Correction | 268 | ||
| 12.3.2 PET | 268 | ||
| References | 270 | ||
| Section III - Special considerations in MR-PET | 273 | ||
| Chapter 13 - MR-PET Measurement | 275 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction | 275 | ||
| 13.2 Patient Handling and Measurement Workflows | 276 | ||
| 13.2.1 Patient Preparation | 276 | ||
| 13.2.2 Image Acquisition and Protocols | 277 | ||
| 13.3 Ethical Issues | 277 | ||
| 13.3.1 Introduction | 277 | ||
| 13.3.2 Risks of Magnetic Fields | 278 | ||
| 13.3.3 Radiation Issues | 278 | ||
| 13.3.4 Data Protection | 279 | ||
| 13.3.5 Incidental Findings | 279 | ||
| 13.4 Radiation Protection and Dose Considerations | 280 | ||
| 13.5 MR Safety | 282 | ||
| 13.5.1 Static Magnetic Field | 282 | ||
| 13.5.1.1 Projectile Effect and Magnetic Objects | 282 | ||
| 13.5.1.2 Cryogens and Quenching | 283 | ||
| 13.5.1.3 Physiological Effects | 283 | ||
| 13.5.2 Radiofrequency Fields | 284 | ||
| 13.5.2.1 RF Heating and Specific Absorption Rate | 284 | ||
| 13.5.3 Gradient Fields | 284 | ||
| 13.5.3.1 Peripheral Nerve Stimulation | 284 | ||
| 13.5.3.2 Acoustic Noise | 285 | ||
| 13.5.3.3 Contraindications and Implanted Medical Devices | 285 | ||
| Acknowledgement | 285 | ||
| References | 285 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Parametric Imaging | 288 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 288 | ||
| 14.2 Parametric Imaging in PET | 289 | ||
| 14.2.1 Dynamic PET | 289 | ||
| 14.2.2 PET Parameters | 290 | ||
| 14.2.3 Challenges | 290 | ||
| 14.2.3.1 Reconstruction | 290 | ||
| 14.2.3.2 Input Function | 291 | ||
| 14.3 Parametric Imaging in MRI | 291 | ||
| 14.3.1 Static Parameters | 291 | ||
| 14.3.2 Dynamic Parameters | 292 | ||
| 14.4 Similarities and Differences in MR-PET Parametric Imaging | 294 | ||
| 14.4.1 Spatial Resolution | 294 | ||
| 14.4.2 Temporal Resolution | 295 | ||
| 14.5 Analysis of Parametric Imaging | 295 | ||
| 14.5.1 Region-of-interest and Voxel Comparison | 295 | ||
| 14.5.2 Statistical Mapping | 296 | ||
| 14.5.3 Connectivity | 296 | ||
| References | 297 | ||
| Chapter 15 - Technical and Methodological Aspects of Whole-body MR-PET | 300 | ||
| 15.1 Introduction | 300 | ||
| 15.2 MR-PET System Design | 301 | ||
| 15.2.1 Dedicated RF Coils | 302 | ||
| 15.2.2 PET Bore Design | 302 | ||
| 15.3 Software Considerations | 303 | ||
| 15.3.1 Attenuation Correction | 303 | ||
| 15.3.1.1 Subject Attenuation Correction | 303 | ||
| 15.3.1.2 Attenuation Correction of RF Coils | 306 | ||
| 15.3.2 Scatter Correction | 307 | ||
| 15.3.3 Motion Correction | 308 | ||
| 15.3.4 Kinetic Modelling | 310 | ||
| 15.4 Discussion | 311 | ||
| 15.5 Conclusions | 312 | ||
| Acknowledgement | 313 | ||
| References | 313 | ||
| Part C - Human MR-PET Applications | 317 | ||
| Chapter 16 - Brain | 319 | ||
| 16.1 Receptor Binding | 319 | ||
| 16.2 Neurodegeneration | 324 | ||
| 16.3 Neuro-oncology | 326 | ||
| References | 329 | ||
| Chapter 17 - Clinical Applications of Whole-body MR-PET | 333 | ||
| 17.1 General Considerations | 333 | ||
| 17.2 Applications in Oncology | 335 | ||
| 17.2.1 Prostate Cancer | 335 | ||
| 17.2.2 Liver Malignancies | 337 | ||
| 17.2.3 Neuroendocrine Tumours | 341 | ||
| 17.2.4 Malignancies in Children and Adolescents | 342 | ||
| 17.2.5 Other Malignant Tumours | 343 | ||
| 17.3 Applications for Benign Diseases | 345 | ||
| 17.3.1 Parathyroid Adenoma | 345 | ||
| 17.3.2 Imaging of Inflammation | 346 | ||
| 17.4 Clinical Applications of Motion Correction | 347 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 348 | ||
| References | 348 | ||
| Part D - Preclinical Applications | 351 | ||
| Chapter 18 - Preclinical Hybrid MR-PET Scanner Hardware | 353 | ||
| 18.1 Introduction | 353 | ||
| 18.2 Challenges | 354 | ||
| 18.2.1 Ultra-high B0 Field Strength | 355 | ||
| 18.2.2 Ultra-high Gradient Field Strength | 355 | ||
| 18.2.3 RF Interference | 356 | ||
| 18.3 Hybrid Preclinical MR-PET Systems | 357 | ||
| 18.3.1 Achieved by Modification of PET | 357 | ||
| 18.3.1.1 Small Animal Systems Based on Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs) | 357 | ||
| 18.3.1.2 Small Animal Systems Based on Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) | 358 | ||
| 18.3.1.3 Small Animal Systems Based on Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs) | 359 | ||
| 18.3.2 Achieved by Modification of MRI | 362 | ||
| 18.3.2.1 Split Magnet System | 362 | ||
| 18.3.2.2 Fast-field Cycling System | 363 | ||
| 18.3.3 Achieved Without Modifying Both Systems | 363 | ||
| 18.4 Commercially Available Preclinical MR-PET Systems | 364 | ||
| References | 365 | ||
| Chapter 19 - Preclinical Applications of MR-PET | 368 | ||
| 19.1 Introduction | 368 | ||
| 19.2 Imaging of Tumours | 369 | ||
| 19.3 Imaging the Cardiovascular System | 371 | ||
| 19.4 Imaging the Central Nervous System (CNS) | 372 | ||
| 19.5 Dual-probes in Preclinical MR-PET | 373 | ||
| 19.5.1 Sentinel Lymph Node Imaging | 374 | ||
| 19.5.2 Conclusions | 375 | ||
| 19.5.3 Determination of the Tissue pH | 375 | ||
| 19.6 Conclusions | 376 | ||
| References | 376 | ||
| Part E - Tracers | 379 | ||
| Chapter 20 - Radiotracers for PET and MR-PET Imaging | 381 | ||
| 20.1 Basic Principle of PET-radiotracer Production | 381 | ||
| 20.2 Common PET-radiotracers and Their Applicability Medical Applications | 383 | ||
| 20.2.1 [15O]Water | 384 | ||
| 20.2.2 [13N]Ammonia | 384 | ||
| 20.2.3 l-[S-methyl-11C]methionine | 385 | ||
| 20.2.4 2-[18F]Fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose | 385 | ||
| 20.2.5 O-[18F]Fluoroethyl-l-tyrosine | 386 | ||
| 20.2.6 6-[18F]Fluoro-3,4-dihydroxy-l-phenylalanine | 387 | ||
| 20.2.7 68Ga-labelled Prostate Specific Membrane Antigen Inhibitors | 388 | ||
| 20.3 Bimodal MR-PET Probes | 389 | ||
| 20.3.1 Unimodal Approach | 390 | ||
| 20.3.2 Bimodal Approach | 391 | ||
| References | 394 | ||
| Subject Index | 400 |