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Book Details
Abstract
Fatty alcohols are mainly used in the production of detergents and surfactants. They are also components of cosmetics, foods and as industrial solvents.
The 2008 edition originated from a multi-year review of the occurrence, behaviour and use of fatty alcohols to inform the registration of such chemicals through the REACH process in the EU. This review highlighted areas requiring further research. In this expanded edition, new information regarding products containing fatty alcohol derivatives, the fate of these down-the-drain products in wastewater systems and the use of compound specific stable isotope methods has been published. This work has been amalgamated with a number of aspects relating to the inclusion of these compounds in the EU bio-based economy drive.
Significant advances have been made since the first edition. No other book brings together all the disparate information regarding this group of chemicals that are of great interest to environmental scientist (as biomarkers), industry (as surfactants) and to regulators.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Fatty Alcohols: Anthropogenic and Natural Occurrence in the Environment | i | ||
| Preface | v | ||
| Acknowledgements | ix | ||
| About the Authors | xi | ||
| Contents | xiii | ||
| Chapter 1 - Definitions | 1 | ||
| 1.1 Names and Structures | 1 | ||
| 1.2 Physicochemical Properties | 3 | ||
| 1.2.1 Solubility Versus Chain Length | 3 | ||
| 1.2.2 Partitioning (Kow) and Sediment Associations | 5 | ||
| 1.3 Summary | 8 | ||
| References | 8 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Biological Synthesis | 11 | ||
| 2.1 Type I Fatty Acid Synthesis | 11 | ||
| 2.1.1 Unsaturated Chains | 13 | ||
| 2.2 Type II Fatty Acid Synthesis | 14 | ||
| 2.2.1 Unsaturated Compounds | 14 | ||
| 2.2.2 Branched Chains | 16 | ||
| 2.3 Fatty Acid Degradation | 17 | ||
| 2.4 Fatty Acyl-CoA Reductase (FAR) | 18 | ||
| 2.5 Synthesis from Carbohydrates (Copepods) | 20 | ||
| 2.6 Summary | 21 | ||
| References | 21 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Occurrence in Biota | 24 | ||
| 3.1 Bacteria | 25 | ||
| 3.2 Chlorophyll Side Chain (Phytol) | 26 | ||
| 3.3 Marine Plants | 27 | ||
| 3.4 Terrestrial Plant Waxes | 28 | ||
| 3.5 Mosses and Other Peat Forming Plants | 30 | ||
| 3.6 Marine Animals | 31 | ||
| 3.7 Insects | 33 | ||
| 3.8 Birds | 34 | ||
| 3.9 Summary | 35 | ||
| References | 35 | ||
| Chapter 4 - Consumer and Cosmetic Product Uses and Production | 40 | ||
| 4.1 Detergent Alcohols Manufacture | 40 | ||
| 4.1.1 Oleochemical Based Alcohols | 41 | ||
| 4.1.1.1 Fatty Acids | 41 | ||
| 4.1.1.2 Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAMEs) | 41 | ||
| 4.1.2 Oleochemical Fatty Alcohols | 41 | ||
| 4.2 Petrochemical Based Alcohols | 45 | ||
| 4.2.1 Normal Paraffin | 45 | ||
| 4.2.2 Internal Olefins | 45 | ||
| 4.2.3 Conventional OXO Alcohols Based on Internal Olefins | 45 | ||
| 4.3 Alcohols Based on Ethylene | 46 | ||
| 4.3.1 Ziegler Ethylene Growth Process | 46 | ||
| 4.3.2 Ziegler Alcohols | 47 | ||
| 4.4 Modified OXO Alcohols | 47 | ||
| 4.4.1 SHOP (Shell Higher Olefin Process) α-Olefins | 47 | ||
| 4.4.2 SHOP Internal Olefins and Modified OXO Alcohols | 48 | ||
| 4.4.3 OXO Alcohols Derived from Fischer–Tropsch α-olefins | 49 | ||
| 4.5 Summary of Production Methods | 49 | ||
| 4.6 Detergent Formulations | 50 | ||
| 4.7 Global Production | 56 | ||
| 4.7.1 Asia | 56 | ||
| 4.7.2 China | 58 | ||
| 4.7.3 Japan | 58 | ||
| 4.7.4 Southeast Asia | 60 | ||
| 4.7.5 Western Europe | 60 | ||
| 4.7.6 North America | 62 | ||
| 4.8 Usage of Fatty Alcohol-based Consumer Products | 64 | ||
| 4.8.1 Contributions to the WWTP Influent | 69 | ||
| 4.9 Summary | 72 | ||
| References | 72 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Environmental Transformations | 75 | ||
| 5.1 Metabolism of Fatty Alcohols | 76 | ||
| 5.2 Natural Degradation | 78 | ||
| 5.2.1 Short Chain Moieties | 79 | ||
| 5.2.2 Long Chain Moieties | 81 | ||
| 5.3 Degradation Rate Constants | 83 | ||
| 5.3.1 Phytol Degradation | 84 | ||
| 5.4 Branched Chains | 85 | ||
| 5.5 Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) | 85 | ||
| 5.6 Effect of Chemical Associations on Transformation Rates | 87 | ||
| 5.6.1 “Natural” Fatty Alcohols in WWTPs | 87 | ||
| 5.6.2 Anthropogenic Fatty Alcohols in Synthetic WWTPs | 88 | ||
| 5.6.3 Faecal Fatty Alcohols | 90 | ||
| 5.7 What We Still Don't Know | 90 | ||
| 5.8 Summary | 91 | ||
| References | 91 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Analytical Methods | 94 | ||
| 6.1 Overview of Methods | 94 | ||
| 6.2 Methods for Analysis of Free Fatty Alcohols (and Ethoxylates) | 94 | ||
| 6.3 Environmental Samples | 96 | ||
| 6.4 Inter-laboratory Comparisons | 98 | ||
| 6.5 Stable Isotope Analysis | 99 | ||
| 6.6 Summary | 102 | ||
| References | 102 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Environmental Concentrations | 104 | ||
| 7.1 The Marine Environment | 107 | ||
| A. Victoria Harbour, BC – Estuarine Surface Sediments | 107 | ||
| B1. Concepcíon Bay, Chile and B2. San Vicente Bay, Chile | 109 | ||
| C. Rio De Janeiro – Surface Sediments in a Contaminated Bay | 111 | ||
| D1. Ria Formosa Lagoon – Surface Sediments | 112 | ||
| D2. Ria Formosa Lagoon – Suspended and Settled Sediments | 114 | ||
| D3. Ria Formosa Lagoon – Shallow Core from Intertidal Sediments | 116 | ||
| E. Eastern North Atlantic | 118 | ||
| F. San Miguel Gap, California – Long Marine Core | 118 | ||
| G. Rio Grande Rise (516F of Leg 72 ODP), Brazil | 120 | ||
| H. Falkland Plateau (511 of Leg 71 ODP), S. Atlantic | 121 | ||
| I. Guatemalan Basin (Legs 66 & 67 ODP), Central America | 121 | ||
| J1. Continental Slope, SW of Taiwan | 122 | ||
| J2. East China Sea, N of Taiwan | 122 | ||
| 7.2 The Terrestrial Environment | 124 | ||
| K. Pasture Land, Southern Australia | 124 | ||
| L. Prairie Zone Soils, Alberta, Canada | 125 | ||
| M. Luray River Catchment, Virginia | 125 | ||
| N. Ohio, Oklahoma and Oregon, USA | 131 | ||
| 7.3 UK Studies | 136 | ||
| 1. Conwy Estuary – Estuarine Core (50 cm) | 137 | ||
| 2. Mawddach Estuary – Surface Sediments | 139 | ||
| 3. The Menai Strait – Surface Sediments | 141 | ||
| 4. Loch Riddon, Scotland – Mid-length Marine Core | 143 | ||
| 5. Clyde Sea, Scotland – Surface Sediments | 143 | ||
| 6. Loe Pool, Cornwall – Coastal Lake | 145 | ||
| 7. Bolton Fell Moss, Cumbria–Mire | 146 | ||
| 8. Lochnagar, Scotland – Mountain Lake | 146 | ||
| 9a. Loch Eil, Scotland – a Marine Core and 9b. Loch Lochy, Scotland – a Freshwater Core | 147 | ||
| 7.4 Summary of Concentrations | 149 | ||
| 7.5 Summary | 149 | ||
| References | 150 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Using Fatty Alcohols as Biomarkers | 154 | ||
| 8.1 Profiles | 154 | ||
| 8.2 Stable Isotopes | 155 | ||
| 8.2.1 13C Composition | 155 | ||
| 8.2.2 2H Composition | 155 | ||
| 8.3 Bacterial Biomass | 156 | ||
| 8.4 Marine Fauna and Unicellular Algae | 157 | ||
| 8.5 Terrestrial Plants | 158 | ||
| 8.6 Photosynthetic Activity | 159 | ||
| 8.7 Summary | 160 | ||
| References | 160 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Multivariate Statistics | 162 | ||
| 9.1 Chemometric Methods of Use with Fatty Alcohols | 162 | ||
| 9.1.1 Principal Components Analysis (PCA) | 163 | ||
| 9.1.2 Partial Least Squares (PLS) | 169 | ||
| 9.1.3 Polytopic Vector Analysis (PVA) | 173 | ||
| 9.2 Summary | 176 | ||
| References | 176 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Environmental and Human Safety Aspects of Fatty Alcohols | 178 | ||
| 10.1 Physical Chemistry Relevant to Safety Assessments | 178 | ||
| 10.1.1 OECD SIAR Summary | 178 | ||
| 10.1.2 Physicochemical Overview from the OECD SIAR | 180 | ||
| 10.1.3 Conclusions for Characterising the OECD Long Chain Alcohols Category | 180 | ||
| 10.2 Human Health and Risk | 180 | ||
| 10.2.1 Uses and Products | 180 | ||
| 10.2.2 Hazards for Human Health | 183 | ||
| 10.2.3 Exposure Characterisation for Human Health | 184 | ||
| 10.2.4 Risk Characterisation for Human Health | 185 | ||
| 10.3 Environmental Risk | 186 | ||
| 10.3.1 Pathways of Environmental Exposure | 186 | ||
| 10.3.2 Environmental Effects | 188 | ||
| 10.4 Measurements of Exposure for the Purpose of Environmental Risk Assessment | 192 | ||
| 10.5 Risk Characterisation in the Environment | 192 | ||
| 10.6 Summary | 194 | ||
| References | 194 | ||
| Subject Index | 197 |