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Abstract
The life and chemical sciences are in the midst of a period of rapid and revolutionary transformation that will undoubtedly bring societal benefits but also have potentially malign applications, notably in the development of chemical weapons. Such concerns are exacerbated by the unstable international security environment and the changing nature of armed conflict, which could fuel a desire by certain States to retain and use existing chemical weapons, as well as increase State interest in creating new weapons; whilst a broader range of actors may seek to employ diverse toxic chemicals as improvised weapons. Stark indications of the multi-faceted dangers we face can be seen in the chemical weapons attacks against civilians and combatants in Iraq and Syria, and also in more targeted chemical assassination operations in Malaysia and the UK.
Using a multi-disciplinary approach, and drawing upon an international group of experts, this book analyses current and likely near-future advances in relevant science and technology, assessing the risks of their misuse. The book examines the current capabilities, limitations and failures of the existing international arms control and disarmament architecture – notably the Chemical Weapons Convention – in preventing the development and use of chemical weapons. Through the employment of a novel Holistic Arms Control methodology, the authors also look beyond the bounds of such treaties, to explore the full range of international law, international agreements and regulatory mechanisms potentially applicable to weapons employing toxic chemical agents, in order to develop recommendations for more effective routes to combat their proliferation and misuse. A particular emphasis is given to the roles that chemical and life scientists, health professionals and wider informed activist civil society can play in protecting the prohibition against poison and chemical weapons; and in working with States to build effective and responsive measures to ensure that the rapid scientific and technological advances are safeguarded from hostile use and are instead employed for the benefit of us all.
Professor Malcolm Dando trained originally as a biologist (BSc and PhD at St. Andrews University, Scotland). After post-doctoral studies in the United States (University of Michigan and University of Oregon) he held UK Ministry of Defence funded fellowships in Operational Research at the University of Sussex during the 1970s. Since then he has worked on arms control and disarmament, particularly on chemical and biological issues (DSc. University of Bradford). In recent years this work has been focused on awareness raising and education of life scientists regarding dual use and biosecurity, for example in the Royal Society Brain Waves module on Neuroscience, conflict and security and Neuroscience and the Future of Chemical-Biological Weapons, Palgrave, Macmillan, 2015.
Dr Michael Crowley is an Honorary Visiting Senior Research Fellow at the Division of Peace Studies and International Development of Bradford University, and is also Research Associate for the Omega Research Foundation. He has worked for 25 years on arms control, security and human rights issues, including with Amnesty International, the Arias Foundation, BASIC, as Coordinator of the Bradford Non-Lethal Weapons Research Project and as Executive Director of VERTIC. He has also previously acted as Chairperson of the Bio-weapons Prevention Project.
Dr Lijun Shang is an international lecturer in Medical Science at School of Chemistry and Biosciences, University of Bradford. He is also a senior academic visitor to Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, and a visiting Professor to Northwest University, China. During the past two decades, his researches primarily focus on structural and functional studies on ion channel in health and diseases and their physical and mathematical interfaces. Recently this interest is developed onto evaluating the potential toxic effects of nanoparticles, including chemical agents, on human health and diseases, with particularly interests in understanding the underlying mechanism of these effects.
Just over a century ago the world witnessed the introduction of gas warfare on the battlefield of World War I in Europe. Thousands of soldiers were killed or injured with chlorine, and later with more toxic chemicals, in the horrible and inhumane trench warfare of WWI. Fortunately, in 1997 the international Chemical Weapons Convention entered into force, banning such weapons. Just over twenty years later, over 96% of declared chemical weapons stockpiles – over 72,000 metric tons in millions of weapons – have been safely and verifiably eliminated in eight countries, and 192 countries have now joined the CWC. Yet we have recently witnessed toxic chemicals, including chlorine again, used against civilian populations in Syria and Iraq, an assassination with VX nerve agent in Malaysia, and an assassination attempt in Britain. This new and timely volume by several well-known experts delves into the future of chemical and biological warfare, the contentious politics of arms control and disarmament, the impacts of converging sciences on the CWC and Biological Weapons Convention, and the role of civil society, including the scientific and industry communities, in strengthening such abolition regimes and building a world free of such inhumane weapons. I highly recommend it to all readers.
Paul F. Walker, Ph.D., Green Cross International and Coordinator of the CWC Coalition
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Preventing Chemical Weapons: Arms Control and Disarmament as the Sciences Converge | i | ||
| Foreword | v | ||
| Contents | vii | ||
| Section I - Introduction | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1 - Introduction: Preventing the Re-emergence of Chemical Weapons | 3 | ||
| 1.1 The Context | 3 | ||
| 1.2 Concept for the Book | 5 | ||
| 1.3 Holistic Arms Control | 6 | ||
| 1.4 The Structure of the Book | 7 | ||
| References | 9 | ||
| Chapter 2 - The Changing Nature of the Chemical and Biological Weapons Threat | 10 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 10 | ||
| 2.2 Mass Casualty and Mass Effect Attacks | 12 | ||
| 2.2.1 LTTE and the Bombing of the Colombo War Trade Centre | 12 | ||
| 2.2.2 The 1994 Attempted Attack on Paris | 13 | ||
| 2.2.3 The Provisional IRA and the London Bombings, 1992–97 | 13 | ||
| 2.2.4 Aum Shinrikyo | 14 | ||
| 2.3 Relevant Elements of the Context of the War of Terror | 14 | ||
| 2.4 Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq | 17 | ||
| 2.5 Implications for Future Security | 18 | ||
| 2.6 Revolts from the Margins | 19 | ||
| 2.7 Responses to the New Security Challenges | 21 | ||
| 2.8 The Risk of CBW Development and Use in the New Security Context | 21 | ||
| 2.9 Conclusions | 22 | ||
| References | 23 | ||
| Section II - The Chemical and Biological Weapons Prevention and Disarmament Regime Today | 25 | ||
| Chapter 3 - The Chemical Weapons Convention – Past Success, Current Challenges | 27 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 27 | ||
| 3.2 Key Concepts and Provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention | 30 | ||
| 3.2.1 Elimination of Chemical Weapons Programmes | 30 | ||
| 3.2.2 Preventing the Re-emergence of Chemical Weapons | 31 | ||
| 3.2.3 Resilience to the Hostile Uses of Toxic Chemicals | 33 | ||
| 3.2.4 Chemicals for Peace | 34 | ||
| 3.2.5 Managing Advances in Science and Technology | 35 | ||
| 3.3 CWC Implementation – Successes Stories and Challenges | 36 | ||
| 3.3.1 Overview | 36 | ||
| 3.3.2 Elimination of Chemical Weapons Stockpiles and Programmes | 37 | ||
| 3.3.3 Preventing the Re-emergence of Chemical Weapons | 40 | ||
| 3.4 The Operation of the CWC and Science and Technology | 54 | ||
| 3.5 The Future – Staying Relevant and Implementing Change | 58 | ||
| 3.5.1 The Changing CWC/OPCW Environment | 58 | ||
| 3.5.2 Political and Cultural Challenges | 60 | ||
| 3.5.3 Operational Capacity, Competence and Knowledge | 62 | ||
| 3.6 Convergence and Disarmament – Conclusions | 62 | ||
| References | 64 | ||
| Chapter 4 - The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention | 69 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 69 | ||
| 4.1.1 Overview | 70 | ||
| 4.2 Normative and Legal Evolution Pre-BTWC | 72 | ||
| 4.3 Use of Biological and Toxin Weapons in History | 74 | ||
| 4.4 Offensive Programmes | 76 | ||
| 4.5 Evolution of the BTWC | 78 | ||
| 4.5.1 From Entry into Force to the End of the Cold War | 79 | ||
| 4.5.1.1 Relevance and Innovation | 80 | ||
| 4.5.1.2 Article X and Peaceful Cooperation | 81 | ||
| 4.5.1.3 Infrastructure of Support | 81 | ||
| 4.5.1.4 Additional Understandings | 82 | ||
| 4.5.1.5 Science and Technology | 82 | ||
| 4.5.2 The Post-cold War Decade | 83 | ||
| 4.5.3 Recovery, Revitalization, and Recalcitrance After 2001 | 84 | ||
| 4.5.4 Evolution in Retrospect | 87 | ||
| 4.6 How Scientific and Technological Developments Have Affected the BTWC | 87 | ||
| 4.6.1 Responding to Scientific and Technological Developments | 90 | ||
| 4.7 Conclusion: the BTWC in Context | 92 | ||
| References | 93 | ||
| Chapter 5 - United Nations Mechanisms to Combat the Development, Acquisition and Use of Chemical Weapons | 101 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction: Role of the United Nations in Maintaining International Peace and Security | 101 | ||
| 5.2 Investigatory Mechanisms | 103 | ||
| 5.2.1 UN Secretary-General’s Mechanism | 103 | ||
| 5.2.1.1 Strengthening the UNSGM | 104 | ||
| 5.2.1.2 Case Study: UNSGM Investigation of Chemical Weapons Attacks in Syria | 105 | ||
| 5.2.1.3 Effectiveness of the UNSGM | 106 | ||
| 5.2.1.4 Scope of Coverage | 107 | ||
| 5.2.2 Ad hoc UN Investigatory Mechanisms | 108 | ||
| 5.2.2.1 OPCW–UN Joint Investigative Mechanism (JIM) in Syria | 108 | ||
| 5.2.2.2 Scope of the Mechanism | 111 | ||
| 5.2.2.3 Effectiveness of the Joint Investigative Mechanism | 112 | ||
| 5.3 UN Mechanisms to Address Confirmed Chemical Weapons Development, Acquisition or Use | 113 | ||
| 5.3.1 Iraq: UN Special Commission (UNSCOM) and UN Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) | 114 | ||
| 5.3.1.1 Effectiveness of UNSCOM and UNMOVIC | 116 | ||
| 5.3.2 Syria: OPCW–UN Joint Mission | 117 | ||
| 5.3.2.1 Effectiveness of the OPCW–UN Mission | 119 | ||
| 5.4 UN Embargoes to Halt the Development, Acquisition or Use of Chemical Weapons | 120 | ||
| 5.4.1 Range of Items Controlled | 121 | ||
| 5.4.2 Monitoring and Facilitating Implementation of Embargoes | 122 | ||
| 5.4.3 Effectiveness of UN Arms Embargoes | 123 | ||
| 5.5 UNSCR 1540: Combating the Development, Acquisition or Use of Chemical Weapons by Non-State Actors | 124 | ||
| 5.5.1 Obligations Under UNSCR 1540 | 124 | ||
| 5.5.2 Scope of Actors, Agents and Delivery Mechanisms Covered | 125 | ||
| 5.5.3 Significance of UNSCR 1540 Obligations | 125 | ||
| 5.5.4 Mechanisms to Facilitate and Monitor Implementation | 127 | ||
| 5.5.5 Current Implementation and Effectiveness | 128 | ||
| 5.5.6 Effectiveness and Challenges Faced | 129 | ||
| 5.6 Conclusions | 131 | ||
| 5.6.1 UN Mandated Investigatory Procedures | 132 | ||
| 5.6.2 UN Sanctions | 132 | ||
| 5.6.3 UN Enforced CW Destruction and Demilitarisation | 133 | ||
| 5.6.4 UN Measures to Combat CW Proliferation and Use by Non-State Actors | 133 | ||
| AppendixUN Arms Embargoes Introduced During The Period 1 January 1990–31 December 2016 | 134 | ||
| References | 136 | ||
| Chapter 6 - International Legal Constraints upon the Weaponization of Toxic Chemicals | 146 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 146 | ||
| 6.2 Geneva Protocol | 147 | ||
| 6.3 Chemical Weapons Convention | 148 | ||
| 6.3.1 General Obligations | 148 | ||
| 6.3.2 Definitions | 148 | ||
| 6.3.2.1 Toxic Chemicals and Precursors | 148 | ||
| 6.3.2.2 Riot Control Agents | 149 | ||
| 6.3.2.3 Chemical Weapons | 149 | ||
| 6.3.3 Use of Weapons Employing Toxic Chemicals in Armed Conflict | 151 | ||
| 6.3.4 Use of Weapons Employing Toxic Chemicals in Law Enforcement | 152 | ||
| 6.3.4.1 Riot Control Agents | 152 | ||
| 6.3.4.1.1\rRCA Means of Delivery.Since the use of “riot control agents as a method of warfare” is expressly prohibited under the Convention... | 153 | ||
| 6.3.4.2 Incapacitating Chemical Agent (ICA) Weapons | 153 | ||
| 6.4 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) | 155 | ||
| 6.5 International Humanitarian Law | 156 | ||
| 6.5.1 Introduction | 156 | ||
| 6.5.2 Over-arching IHL Obligations Constraining the Weaponization of Toxic Chemicals | 156 | ||
| 6.5.2.1 The Prohibition of Deliberate Attacks on Civilians, the Prohibition of Indiscriminate Weapons and of Attacks that do not ... | 157 | ||
| 6.5.2.2 The Prohibition of the Employment of Means and Methods of Warfare of a Nature to Cause Superfluous Injury or Unnecessary ... | 158 | ||
| 6.5.2.3 The Protection of Persons Considered Hors de Combat | 158 | ||
| 6.5.2.4 Requirement to Respect and Ensure Respect of International Humanitarian Law | 159 | ||
| 6.5.2.5 Prohibition of Methods or Means of Warfare Intended to Cause Widespread, Long-term and Severe Damage to the Natural Envir... | 160 | ||
| 6.5.3 Obligations to Review “New” Weapons Under International Humanitarian Law | 161 | ||
| 6.6 International Human Rights Law | 161 | ||
| 6.6.1 Introduction | 161 | ||
| 6.6.2 Protection of the Right to Life and Restrictions on the Use of Force | 162 | ||
| 6.6.2.1 Application to Riot Control Agents | 163 | ||
| 6.6.2.2 Considerations Regarding Means of Delivery and Dispersal of RCAs | 164 | ||
| 6.6.2.3 Application to Incapacitating Chemical Agent Weapons | 164 | ||
| 6.6.2.3.1\rEuropean Court of Human Rights: Finogenov and Others vs. Russia.Case law in this area is limited. To date, there has been only o... | 165 | ||
| 6.6.2.4 Employment of Toxic Chemicals in Judicial Executions | 167 | ||
| 6.6.3 Prohibition Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment | 167 | ||
| 6.6.3.1 Application to Psychoactive Incapacitating Chemical Agents | 168 | ||
| 6.6.3.1.1 Use of Truth Serums in Interrogation.Certain States have emp1396983920loyed psychoactive incapacitating chemical agents... | 169 | ||
| 6.6.3.2 Application to Riot Control Agents | 169 | ||
| 6.6.4 Obligations to Review and Monitor the Use of ‘Less Lethal’ Weapons | 170 | ||
| 6.7 International Criminal Law | 171 | ||
| 6.7.1 Introduction | 171 | ||
| 6.7.2 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court | 172 | ||
| 6.7.2.1 Case Study: Attempts to Ensure Accountability for International Crimes in Syria | 174 | ||
| 6.7.3 International and Internationalised Courts and Tribunals | 175 | ||
| 6.7.3.1 Case Study: The Anfal Trial of Iraqi Officials | 176 | ||
| 6.7.4 National Courts | 177 | ||
| 6.7.4.1 Case Study: Van Anraat Trial – Complicity in War Crimes | 177 | ||
| 6.7.5 Conclusions | 178 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 180 | ||
| References | 180 | ||
| Section III - Advances in Chemistry and Biology | 191 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Convergence of Chemistry and Biology, and Nanotechnology | 193 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 193 | ||
| 7.2 Convergence in the Life Sciences | 194 | ||
| 7.2.1 Advances at the Intersection of Chemistry and Biology | 194 | ||
| 7.2.2 Biological Production Technologies for Chemical Products | 196 | ||
| 7.2.3 Chemical Production of Complex Biomolecules and Highly Potent Chemical Ingredients | 200 | ||
| 7.2.4 Potential Novel Agents | 201 | ||
| 7.2.5 Advances in Medical and Other Countermeasures | 204 | ||
| 7.3 Nanotechnology | 206 | ||
| 7.3.1 Overview | 206 | ||
| 7.3.2 Nanomaterials and Toxicity | 207 | ||
| 7.3.3 Nanomaterials as Delivery Vehicles | 208 | ||
| 7.3.4 Nanomaterials and Protection Against Chemical Weapons | 211 | ||
| 7.4 The Impact of Convergence and Nanotechnology on the Convention | 211 | ||
| 7.4.1 The Benefits | 212 | ||
| 7.4.2 The Risk of the Emergence of Novel Concepts of Chemical Warfare | 214 | ||
| 7.4.3 Stronger Protections Against Toxic Chemicals | 216 | ||
| 7.4.4 Challenges for National Implementation | 217 | ||
| 7.4.5 Impact on the CWC Verification System | 219 | ||
| 7.5 Conclusions | 222 | ||
| References | 223 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Advances in Understanding Targets in the Central Nervous System (CNS) | 228 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction: Implications of a Mechanistic Neuroscience | 228 | ||
| 8.2 Selective Malfunctioning of the Human Machine | 234 | ||
| 8.2.1 Parkinson’s Disease | 234 | ||
| 8.2.2 Manipulation of Mammalian Memory | 236 | ||
| 8.3 Mechanisms of Incapacitation | 237 | ||
| 8.3.1 Old Agents | 238 | ||
| 8.3.1.1 Psychedelics | 238 | ||
| 8.3.1.2 Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) | 240 | ||
| 8.3.2 Current Agents | 241 | ||
| 8.3.2.1 Dexmedetomidine | 242 | ||
| 8.3.2.2 Future Manipulation of the Locus Coeruleus System | 244 | ||
| 8.3.3 Novel Agents | 246 | ||
| 8.3.3.1 Orexin | 246 | ||
| 8.3.3.2 Oxytocin | 248 | ||
| 8.4 Conclusions | 251 | ||
| References | 253 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Advances in the Targeted Delivery of Biochemical Agents† | 259 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 259 | ||
| 9.2 Areas of Convergence of the CWC and the BTWC of Relevance for Targeted Delivery Systems | 260 | ||
| 9.2.1 Technologies of Relevance for the Targeted Delivery of Biochemicals | 261 | ||
| 9.2.2 Agents of Relevance for the Targeted Delivery of Biochemicals | 261 | ||
| 9.3 Aerosol Delivery | 265 | ||
| 9.3.1 Aerosol Delivery of Microorganisms | 266 | ||
| 9.3.2 Aerosol Delivery of Vaccines | 267 | ||
| 9.3.3 Advances in the Aerosol Delivery of Therapeutics and Biochemical Agents to Specific Sites in the Body | 268 | ||
| 9.3.4 Advances in Aerosol Delivery Devices and Techniques | 271 | ||
| 9.3.5 Feasibility of the Aerosol Delivery of Biochemical Agents as Weapons | 272 | ||
| 9.4 Viral Vector Delivery | 274 | ||
| 9.4.1 Viral Vectors Most Suitable for the Delivery of Biochemical Agents | 275 | ||
| 9.4.1.1 Adenoviruses | 275 | ||
| 9.4.1.2 Adeno-associated Viruses | 277 | ||
| 9.4.1.3 Lentiviruses | 278 | ||
| 9.4.2 Feasibility of Using Viral Vectors for the Delivery of Biochemical Agents as Weapons | 279 | ||
| 9.5 Artificial Viruses as Vectors for the Delivery of Biochemical Agents | 280 | ||
| 9.5.1 Types of Artificial Vectors: Nanoparticles and Nanorobots | 281 | ||
| 9.5.2 Feasibility of Using Artificial Viruses as Vectors for the Delivery of Biochemical Agents as Weapons | 282 | ||
| 9.6 Conclusions | 284 | ||
| References | 286 | ||
| Chapter 10 - The Future of Chemical Weapons: Advances in the Development of Anti-plant Agents | 293 | ||
| 10.1 Introduction | 293 | ||
| 10.2 Anti-plant Weapons | 295 | ||
| 10.2.1 UK Developments | 297 | ||
| 10.2.2 US Developments | 298 | ||
| 10.2.3 Aspects of Transatlantic Collaboration | 298 | ||
| 10.2.4 Vietnam | 303 | ||
| 10.3 Prohibition | 304 | ||
| 10.4 Advances in Science and Technology | 306 | ||
| 10.5 Conclusions | 307 | ||
| References | 308 | ||
| Chapter 11 - The Future of Chemical Weapons: Advances in Anti-animal Agents | 312 | ||
| 11.1 Weapons Targeting Animals | 312 | ||
| 11.2 Past Offensive Anti-animal Activities | 313 | ||
| 11.2.1 German Anti-animal Weapons During World War I | 313 | ||
| 11.2.2 UK Anti-animal Weapons During World War II | 314 | ||
| 11.2.3 US Anti-animal Weapons During the Cold War | 315 | ||
| 11.2.4 USSR Anti-animal Weapons During the Cold War | 316 | ||
| 11.2.5 Non-State Actors and Anti-animal Weapons | 317 | ||
| 11.3 New Hazards – The Impact of Scientific and Technical Developments on Anti-animal Weapons | 317 | ||
| 11.3.1 Developments in Science and Technology Decreasing the Hazards | 318 | ||
| 11.3.1.1 Understanding Disease and Intoxination | 319 | ||
| 11.3.1.2 Detecting Disease and Intoxination | 320 | ||
| 11.3.1.3 Diagnosing and Disease Surveillance and Intoxination | 322 | ||
| 11.3.1.4 Preventing, Treating and Mitigating Disease and Intoxination | 323 | ||
| 11.3.2 Developments in Science and Technology Increasing the Hazards | 325 | ||
| 11.3.2.1 Acquiring Weapons Agents | 325 | ||
| 11.3.2.2 Improving the Efficacy of Weapons Agents | 325 | ||
| 11.3.2.3 Producing and Stockpiling Weapons Agents | 326 | ||
| 11.3.2.4 Targeting, Delivery and Dispersal of Weapons Agents | 327 | ||
| 11.4 Future Risks for Biochemical Anti-animal Weapons | 328 | ||
| 11.5 Conclusions | 330 | ||
| References | 331 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Development and Hostile Use of Toxic Chemical Means of Delivery and Dispersal | 332 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 332 | ||
| 12.2 Improvised Chemical Delivery Mechanisms | 333 | ||
| 12.2.1 Introduction | 333 | ||
| 12.2.2 Chemical Improvised Explosive Devices | 334 | ||
| 12.2.2.1 Ground-based Chemical IEDs | 335 | ||
| 12.2.2.1.1\rDevelopment and Use of Ground-based Chemical IEDs: Al-Qaeda, Islamic State and Related Organisations.Since the late 1990s, Al-Qa... | 335 | ||
| 12.2.2.2 Chemical Improvised Rocket-assisted Munitions | 337 | ||
| 12.2.2.2.1\rUse of Chemical IRAMs by Syrian Armed Forces.In its report covering July 2016–February 2017, the UN Commission of Inquiry (COI) ... | 337 | ||
| 12.2.2.3 Aerial Chemical Improvised Explosive Devices | 338 | ||
| 12.2.2.3.1\rThe Development and Use of Aerial Chemical IEDs by Syrian Armed Forces.The OPCW Fact-Finding Mission (FFM) mandated to “establis... | 338 | ||
| 12.2.3 Commercial Aerosol/Smoke/Fog Generators and Dispersal Devices | 340 | ||
| 12.2.3.1 Afterburner Multipurpose Aerosol Smoke System | 340 | ||
| 12.2.3.2 Air-borne Sarin Attack Employing Ad hoc Evaporation – Aum Shrinynko | 341 | ||
| 12.2.4 Wide Area Spray Aircraft | 341 | ||
| 12.2.4.1 Paraguay: Weaponised Use of a Commercial Agricultural Spray Aircraft | 343 | ||
| 12.2.5 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles | 344 | ||
| 12.3 Wide Area Riot Control Agent Means of Delivery | 346 | ||
| 12.3.1 Definition and Concerns | 346 | ||
| 12.3.2 The Development and Marketing of “Wide Area” RCA Means of Delivery | 346 | ||
| 12.3.2.1 Multi-barrel and Automatic Launchers | 347 | ||
| 12.3.2.1.1 Iron Fist [United States].The US manufacturer, NonLethal Technologies Inc., has developed and as of November 2017 has ... | 347 | ||
| 12.3.2.1.2 Vehicle Mounted 38 mm and 64 mm Automatic Grenade Launchers [China].In 2012, the China Ordnance Equipment Research Ins... | 347 | ||
| 12.3.2.1.3\r30 mm Grenade Round and Automatic Launcher [Russian Federation].According to the 2009 English language version of the 2006 “Ordn... | 348 | ||
| 12.3.2.2 Mortar Munitions and Other Large Calibre Projectiles | 348 | ||
| 12.3.2.2.1\r120 mm Mortar Shell [Turkey].In November 2003, Jane's Defence Weekly reported that the Turkish (State-owned) arms manufacturer, ... | 349 | ||
| 12.3.2.2.2 Mortar Shells, Heliborne-dispensed RCA Munitions and 500 kg Cluster Munitions [Russian Federation].A Russian company r... | 349 | ||
| XM1063 155 mm Malodorant Projectile [United States].General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems worked under the direction of... | 349 | ||
| 12.3.2.3 Unmanned Aerial and Ground Vehicles | 350 | ||
| 12.3.2.3.1\rModular Advanced Armed Robotic System (MAARS) [United States].QinetiQ North America, Inc. (QNA) developed the Modular Advanced A... | 350 | ||
| 12.3.2.3.2\rSkunk Riot Control Copter [South Africa].The South African company, Desert Wolf, has developed the Skunk riot control copter to ... | 350 | ||
| 12.3.2.3.3 AVS 100/150 Drones with Multiple Purpose Payload Launcher [France].In November 2015, at the Milipol (Military & Police... | 351 | ||
| 12.3.2.3.4 Eagle Eye Drone [Turkey].The Turkish company Yavascalar (YAVEX) developed the Eagle Eye Anti Riot Drone (Figure 12.5),... | 352 | ||
| 12.4 Military Toxic Chemical Means of Delivery | 352 | ||
| 12.4.1 Introduction | 352 | ||
| 12.4.2 Syrian Chemical Weapons Munitions | 353 | ||
| 12.4.2.1 Introduction | 353 | ||
| 12.4.2.2 Indigenously Factory Manufactured Sarin Rocket | 353 | ||
| 12.4.2.3 Foreign Factory Manufactured Sarin Rocket | 354 | ||
| 12.4.2.4 Factory Manufactured Sarin Bomb | 356 | ||
| 12.4.3 North Korea – a State Chemical Weapons Programme Outside the OPCW | 357 | ||
| 12.4.3.1 Chemical Weapons Programme Overview | 357 | ||
| 12.4.3.2 Conventional Munitions | 357 | ||
| 12.4.3.3 Ballistic Missile Programme | 357 | ||
| 12.4.3.4 Concerns Grow but Potential Chemical Weapons Holdings Remain Unverified | 358 | ||
| 12.4.4 Islamic State Military Chemical Weapon Munitions | 359 | ||
| 12.4.4.1 Introduction | 359 | ||
| 12.4.4.2 Indigenous Industrial Manufacture of Conventional Munitions | 359 | ||
| 12.4.4.3 Acquisition of Conventional Munitions | 360 | ||
| 12.4.4.4 Islamic State Attacks Employing Conventional Munitions Filled with Toxic Chemicals | 360 | ||
| 12.4.4.4.1\rIS Chemical Attack Employing Mortars.According to information gathered by Human Rights Watch,150 the Syrian Government, the Russ... | 361 | ||
| 12.4.4.4.2 IS Chemical Attack Employing Rockets and Mortars.According to international media reports, IS forces carried out a che... | 361 | ||
| 12.4.4.4.3\rIS Chemical Attack Employing Artillery Shells.On the morning of 21 August 2015, the Syrian town of Marea was the target of a che... | 362 | ||
| 12.5 Conclusions | 362 | ||
| References | 366 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Advances in Poisoning Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Drugs for the Prevention and Treatment of Traditional Chemical Weapons | 380 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction | 380 | ||
| 13.2 Research Progress on the Mechanism of Mustard Gas and Nerve Agent (NA) Poisoning | 381 | ||
| 13.2.1 Research Progress on the Mechanism of Mustard Gas Poisoning | 381 | ||
| 13.2.2 Inflammatory Response to Tissue Injury Induced by SM | 382 | ||
| 13.2.2.1 Inflammatory Response to SM-induced Lung Injury | 382 | ||
| 13.2.2.2 Inflammatory Responses to SM-induced Skin Injury | 383 | ||
| 13.2.3 SM-induced Apoptosis of Tissues | 384 | ||
| 13.2.3.1 Apoptosis of the Lung Due to SM Exposure | 384 | ||
| 13.2.3.2 Apoptosis of Skin Cells Due to SM Exposure | 385 | ||
| 13.2.4 DNA Cross-linking in SM-induced Tissue Injury | 386 | ||
| 13.2.5 Oxidative Stress in SM-induced Tissue Injury | 387 | ||
| 13.2.6 Conclusions | 388 | ||
| 13.2.7 Research Progress on the Mechanism of NA Poisoning | 389 | ||
| 13.3 Research Progress on SM Biomarkers and NA Poisoning | 390 | ||
| 13.3.1 Research Progress on Related Biomarkers in SM-exposed Human Populations | 390 | ||
| 13.3.1.1 In vivo Adducts | 390 | ||
| 13.3.1.2 Inflammatory Response-related Biomarkers Interleukins (ILs) | 391 | ||
| 13.3.1.3 Conclusions | 392 | ||
| 13.3.2 Advances in Adduct Markers of NA Poisoning and Their Analytical Methods | 393 | ||
| 13.3.2.1 Analytical Detection of in vivo Diagnostic Biomarkers for NA Poisoning | 393 | ||
| 13.3.2.2 Conclusions and Prospects | 395 | ||
| 13.4 Research Progress on Drugs Used in the Prevention and Treatment of SM and NA Poisoning | 395 | ||
| 13.4.1 Advances in SM Scavenger (SM Disinfection Technology) | 395 | ||
| 13.4.2 Oxidation Disinfection Technology | 395 | ||
| 13.4.3 Photocatalytic Disinfection Technology | 396 | ||
| 13.4.4 Drug Research on SM-induced Injury | 397 | ||
| 13.4.4.1 Scavengers and Anti-oxidative Stress Drugs | 397 | ||
| 13.4.4.2 Metal Porphyrin Compounds | 398 | ||
| 13.4.4.3 Polyphenolic Compounds | 399 | ||
| 13.4.4.4 Inflammation-based Drugs | 399 | ||
| 13.4.4.5 SM Corneal Injury Treatment | 399 | ||
| 13.4.4.6 Conclusions | 400 | ||
| 13.4.5 Advances in Prophylactic Drugs and Treatment of NA Damage | 400 | ||
| 13.4.5.1 Prophylactic Drugs | 400 | ||
| 13.4.5.1.1\rAChE Inhibitors.Carbamate compounds can cause carbamylation of AChE active sites within a short period of time, thereby protecti... | 401 | ||
| 13.4.5.1.2\rBiological Macromolecules.Biological macromolecules, such as most enzymes and proteins, have a certain role to play against orga... | 401 | ||
| 13.4.5.1.3\rBuChE.Animal experiments have shown that high doses of human BuChE can antagonize up to 5.5 times that of the LD50 of soman or 8... | 402 | ||
| 13.4.5.1.4\rParaoxonase-1 (PON-1).Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) are the substrates for catalytic biological scavengers; therefore, the pr... | 403 | ||
| 13.4.5.1.5\rAChE-induced/Stabilized Peptide.AChE, which disrupts cholinergic signaling, is a target of organophosphate neurotoxic agents, an... | 404 | ||
| 13.4.5.2 Drug Treatment | 404 | ||
| 13.4.5.2.1\rAnticholinergic Drugs.Anticholinergic drugs are highly diverse and can be selected based on the type of poisoning and its progre... | 404 | ||
| 13.4.5.2.2\rCholinesterase Re-activator.Oxime cholinesterase re- | 405 | ||
| 13.4.5.2.3\rRe-activators that Penetrate the BBB.Oxime compounds (such as HI-6) can effectively re-activate AChE, but these have a very low ... | 406 | ||
| 13.4.5.2.4\rOther Re-activator Drugs.Pyridine-based re-activators have been shown to re-activate phosphorylated AChE, but cannot effectively... | 406 | ||
| 13.4.5.2.5\rAnticonvulsants and Neuroprotective Agents.Previous studies have confirmed that although benzodiazepine drugs have a clear antic... | 407 | ||
| 13.4.5.3 Prospects | 407 | ||
| 13.5 Conclusions | 408 | ||
| References | 408 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Current Challenges to Export Controls Related to Chemical Warfare Interdiction | 418 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 418 | ||
| 14.2 Current Export Control Measures for CW Interdiction | 419 | ||
| 14.3 State and Non-State Illicit Procurement Attempts | 426 | ||
| 14.3.1 State Events | 426 | ||
| 14.3.2 Non-State Events | 430 | ||
| 14.4 A Typology of Malicious Export Violators | 433 | ||
| 14.5 Proliferation-sensitive Equipment | 436 | ||
| 14.5.1 Production Equipment | 436 | ||
| 14.5.2 Protective Equipment | 438 | ||
| 14.5.3 Munitions and Delivery Systems | 439 | ||
| 14.6 Proliferation-sensitive Production Software | 442 | ||
| 14.6.1 Equipment-specific Control Software | 442 | ||
| 14.6.2 Facility-wide Control Software | 443 | ||
| 14.7 Proliferation-sensitive Chemical Agents | 446 | ||
| 14.8 Proliferation-sensitive Information | 448 | ||
| 14.8.1 Information on the Manufacture of CW-relevant Chemical Compounds | 450 | ||
| 14.8.2 Dissemination Information: Models and Munitions | 453 | ||
| 14.9 Concluding Remarks and Recommendations | 454 | ||
| References | 456 | ||
| Section IV - Implications for Arms Control and Disarmament | 475 | ||
| Chapter 15 - The Future Chemical Weapons Convention – Out-dated Model or CWC 2.0 | 477 | ||
| 15.1 Key Challenges | 477 | ||
| 15.2 Preserving the Integrity of the Prohibitions and Preventing the Re-emergence of CW | 480 | ||
| 15.2.1 Challenges to Maintaining the Comprehensive Nature of the CW Prohibition | 480 | ||
| 15.2.2 Challenges to and Opportunities for National Implementation and Verification | 482 | ||
| 15.2.3 Challenges to Preventing and Responding to Hostile Uses of Toxic Chemicals | 485 | ||
| 15.3 Challenges and Opportunities in International Cooperation for Peaceful Uses of Chemistry | 488 | ||
| 15.4 Maintaining Organisational Strength, Leadership, Competence | 489 | ||
| 15.4.1 Leadership | 489 | ||
| 15.4.2 The OPCW as a Learning Organisation and Fit for Purpose | 490 | ||
| 15.5 Conclusions – the Way Forward and Opportunities for Action by the Review Conference | 491 | ||
| References | 493 | ||
| Chapter 16 - Implications for the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention | 495 | ||
| 16.1 Introduction | 495 | ||
| 16.2 The Existing Context | 496 | ||
| 16.3 Status Quo | 499 | ||
| 16.4 Absorption | 502 | ||
| 16.5 Mimicry | 504 | ||
| 16.6 Innovation | 506 | ||
| 16.7 Conclusion: Practical Responses to Convergence | 508 | ||
| References | 510 | ||
| Section V - The Role of Civil Society | 515 | ||
| Chapter 17 - Role of the Non-governmental Chemical Science Community in Combatting the Development, Proliferation, and Use of Chemical Weapons | 517 | ||
| 17.1 Introduction | 517 | ||
| 17.2 Developments in Science and Technology (S&T) | 519 | ||
| 17.3 Education and Outreach: Part One12 | 523 | ||
| 17.3.1 Background: the General Challenge | 523 | ||
| 17.3.2 The Relationship Between IUPAC and the OPCW in E&O | 525 | ||
| 17.3.2.1 The Multiple Uses Project | 526 | ||
| 17.3.2.2 Codes of Conduct | 527 | ||
| 17.4 Education and Outreach: Part Two | 528 | ||
| 17.4.1 E&O and the Future of the CWC | 528 | ||
| 17.4.2 IUPAC and the Hague Ethical Guidelines Project | 530 | ||
| 17.4.3 Condemning the Use of Chlorine as a Weapon | 532 | ||
| 17.5 Conclusions | 532 | ||
| References | 533 | ||
| Chapter 18 - Role of the Non-governmental Life Science Community in Combatting the Development, Proliferation and Use of Chemical Weapons | 536 | ||
| 18.1 Introduction | 536 | ||
| 18.2 Fostering a Norm of Biosecurity | 541 | ||
| 18.2.1 Biosecurity Education: Development of Content and Building Capacity | 541 | ||
| 18.2.2 Implementation of Biosecurity Education and Outreach | 545 | ||
| 18.2.3Promoting Competence: International Professional Certification in Biosecurity | 548 | ||
| 18.2.4 Codes of Conduct | 550 | ||
| 18.2.5 Review of Scientific and Technological Developments | 550 | ||
| 18.3 Implications for the Chemical Weapons Convention | 551 | ||
| 18.3.1 Promoting Awareness-raising and Education | 551 | ||
| 18.3.2 Promulgation of Codes of Conduct | 553 | ||
| 18.3.3 Science Policy Advising | 554 | ||
| 18.4 Conclusions | 556 | ||
| References | 557 | ||
| Chapter 19 - The Role of the Non-governmental Medical Community in Combatting the Development, Proliferation and Use of Chemical Weapons | 560 | ||
| 19.1 Overarching Ethical Responsibilities of Health Professionals | 560 | ||
| 19.1.1 Medical Ethics and Scientific Research on Human Subjects | 561 | ||
| 19.1.1.1 UK Chemical Weapons Research, Human Experimentation and Medical Ethics in the 1960s | 562 | ||
| 19.1.2 Violations of Human Rights Law and Breaches of International Humanitarian Law | 564 | ||
| 19.1.3 The SIrUS Project and the Review of New Non-kinetic Weapons | 565 | ||
| 19.2 Medical Involvement in Chemical and Biological Weapons Development | 566 | ||
| 19.2.1 Investigating Medical Involvement in Apartheid South Africa's CBW Research Programme | 568 | ||
| 19.3 Law Enforcement Weapons Employing Toxic Chemicals | 570 | ||
| 19.3.1 Incapacitating Chemical Agent Weapons | 570 | ||
| 19.3.2 Riot Control Agents | 572 | ||
| 19.3.2.1 Turkey: Gezi Park Protests and the Misuse of Riot Control Agents | 572 | ||
| 19.4 Conclusions | 575 | ||
| References | 575 | ||
| Chapter 20 - The Role of Civil Society in Combating the Development, Proliferation and Use of Chemical Weapons | 580 | ||
| 20.1 Introduction | 580 | ||
| 20.1.1 Scope and Nature of Civil Society Engagement | 581 | ||
| 20.2 Societal Monitoring and Verification | 582 | ||
| 20.2.1 Open Source Monitoring and Analysis | 583 | ||
| 20.2.1.1 Introduction | 583 | ||
| 20.2.1.2 The ‘Yellow Rain’ Case | 583 | ||
| 20.2.1.3 Civil Society Reporting and Analysis of Alleged Use in Syria‡ | 584 | ||
| 20.2.1.3.1 Civil Society Reporting of Alleged CW Attacks.Allegations of CW use began appearing as early as April 2012 | 585 | ||
| 20.2.1.3.2\rCivil Society Analysis of Alleged CW Use.Using social media platforms to broadcast news from within Syria permitted commentary a... | 586 | ||
| 20.2.2 Evidence Derived from Field Missions | 587 | ||
| 20.2.2.1 Independent Investigations of the Use of Chemical Weapons Against the Kurdish Population | 588 | ||
| 20.2.2.2 Identification of a New Riot Control Agent Used in the West Bank | 589 | ||
| 20.2.2.3 Field Mission Documents the Widespread Misuse of Riot Control Agents in Bahrain | 590 | ||
| 20.2.3 Employment of National and International Reporting/Transparency Mechanisms | 591 | ||
| 20.2.3.1 The Sunshine Project | 591 | ||
| 20.2.3.2 The Bioweapons Prevention Project (BWPP) | 592 | ||
| 20.2.4 Targeted Science and Technology Tracking | 593 | ||
| 20.2.4.1 Open Source Investigation of Dual Use Research Potentially Applicable to Incapacitating Chemical Agent Weapons Developme... | 594 | ||
| 20.3 Promotion and Protection of Whistle-blowing | 596 | ||
| 20.4 Track Two Scientist-to-scientist Relations | 597 | ||
| 20.4.1 Introduction | 597 | ||
| 20.4.2 The Chemical Warfare Study Group | 598 | ||
| 20.4.3 Pugwash and the CWC | 599 | ||
| 20.5 Engagement with the OPCW and CWC States Parties | 599 | ||
| 20.5.1 Advances in Civil Society Access and Engagement During the Third Review Conference | 600 | ||
| 20.5.1.1 Chemical Weapons Convention Coalition | 601 | ||
| 20.5.2 Raising Compliance Concerns | 602 | ||
| 20.5.2.1 Civil Society Investigations Led to the Destruction of Turkeyʼs Stockpile of 120 mm Mortar Munitions Containing Riot Con... | 602 | ||
| 20.6 Facilitating More Effective Civil Society Engagement with the OPCW | 604 | ||
| 20.6.1 Overcoming the State Security Paradigm | 604 | ||
| 20.6.2 Ensuring Greater Access and Establishing Forums for Substantive Dialogue | 606 | ||
| 20.6.3 Securing Funding and Resources | 607 | ||
| 20.7 Conclusions | 608 | ||
| References | 609 | ||
| Section VI - Conclusion | 619 | ||
| Chapter 21 - Conclusions and Recommendations | 621 | ||
| 21.1 Introduction | 621 | ||
| 21.2 Stage One: Review of Scientific and Technological Developments and Their Potential Applications | 622 | ||
| 21.3 Stage Two: Review of Relevant Control Mechanisms | 624 | ||
| 21.3.1 Chemical Weapons Convention | 624 | ||
| 21.3.2 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention | 625 | ||
| 21.3.3 United Nations Mechanisms | 625 | ||
| 21.3.4 Relevant International Law | 626 | ||
| 21.3.5 Civil Society | 627 | ||
| 21.4 Stage Three: A Proposed Strategy for Effective Regulation | 628 | ||
| 21.4.1 Chemical Weapons Convention: Recommendations for the Fourth CWC Review Conference and Beyond | 629 | ||
| 21.4.1.1 Ensuring CWC Universalisation and Complete Destruction of all Existing Chemical Weapons | 629 | ||
| 21.4.1.2 Maintaining the Comprehensive Nature of the CW Prohibition | 631 | ||
| 21.4.1.3 Strengthing National Implementation and Verification | 634 | ||
| 21.4.1.4 Preventing and Responding to Hostile Uses of Toxic Chemicals | 635 | ||
| 21.4.2 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention | 636 | ||
| 21.4.3 UN Mechanisms | 637 | ||
| 21.4.4 International Law Constraining the Weaponisation of Toxic Chemicals | 639 | ||
| 21.4.4.1 International Humanitarian Law | 639 | ||
| 21.4.4.2 Human Rights Law | 639 | ||
| 21.4.4.3 International Criminal Law | 640 | ||
| 21.4.5 Civil Society | 640 | ||
| Reference | 641 | ||
| Subject Index | 642 |