BOOK
Achieving sustainable cultivation of cocoa
Prof. Pathmanathan Umaharan | Dr Ranjana Bhattacharjee | Dr Malachy Akoroda | Dr Brigitte Laliberté | Dr Michelle End | Dr Nicholas Cryer | Dr Andrew Daymond | Dr Jan Engels | Dr Albertus Bernardus Eskes | Dr Martin Gilmour | Dr Philippe Lachenaud | Dr Wilbert Phillips-Mora | Dr Chris Turnbull | Prof. Pathmanathan Umaharan | Dr Dapeng Zhang | Dr Stephan Weise | Dr Lambert A. Motilal | Dr Dário Ahnert | Dr Rob Lockwood | Dr Augusto Roberto Sena Gomes | Dr George Andrade Sodré | Dr Mark Guiltinan | Prof. Siela Maximova | Dr Richard Asare | Dr Victor Afari-Sefa | Dr Sander Muilerman | Dr Gilbert J. Anim-Kwapong | Dr Didier Snoeck | Dr Bernard Dubos | Dr Jorge Teodoro De Souza | Dr Fernando Pereira Monteiro | Dr Maria Alves Ferreira | Dr Karina Peres Gramacho | Dr Edna Dora Martins Newman Luz | Dr Ulrike Krauss | Dr David I. Guest | Dr Philip J. Keane | Dr Leila Bagny Beilhe | Dr Régis Babin | Dr Martijn ten Hoopen | Dr Samuel Orisajo | Dr Christian Cilas | Dr Olivier Sounigo | Dr Bruno Efombagn | Dr Salomon Nyassé | Dr Mathias Tahi | Dr Sarah M. Bharath | Dr M. A. Rutherford | Dr J. Crozier | Dr J. Flood | Dr S. Sastroutomo | Dr Mary A. Egbuta | Dr Darin A. Sukha | Naailah A. Ali | Dr Christian Bunn | Dr Fabio Castro | Dr Mark Lundy | Dr Peter Läderach | Dr Eduardo Somarriba | Dr Luis Orozco-Aguilar | Dr Rolando Cerda | Dr Arlene López-Sampson | Dr Amanda Berlan | Dr Verina Ingram | Dr Yuca Waarts | Dr Fedes van Rijn | Dr Paul Macek | Dr Upoma Husain | Dr Krystal Werner
(2018)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
There is a growing demand for cocoa. However, cultivation is dependent on ageing trees with low yields and increasing vulnerability to disease. There is growing concern about the environmental impact of cultivation in areas soil health and biodiversity. There is therefore an urgent need to make cocoa cultivation more efficient and sustainable to ensure a successful future. These challenges are addressed in Achieving sustainable cultivation of cocoa.
Part 1 reviews genetic resources and developments in breeding. Part 2 discusses optimising cultivation techniques to make the most of new varieties. Part 3 summaries the latest research on understanding and combatting the major fungal and viral diseases affecting cocoa. Part 4 covers safety and quality issues whilst the final part of the book looks at ways of improving sustainability, including the role of agro-forestry, organic cultivation and ways of supporting smallholders.
With its distinguished editor and international range of expert authors, this collection will be a standard reference for cocoa scientists, growers and processors.
“This collection is a welcome addition to the rather scarce number of textbooks dealing with sustainable cultivation of cacao. Dealing with the basics of cacao physiology and genetic resources through to cacao breeding, cultivation and sustainability issues, the collection has many highly relevant chapters authored by experts in their field. This should be of great interest to researchers, development agencies, governments, industry specialists, and NGOs, in short anyone who is trying to improve the sustainability of this important crop”.
Martin Gilmour, Global Head Agronomy, Barry Callebaut Group
Sample content
Not sure what you're getting if you buy this book? Click on the cover image below to open a PDF and preview pages from the book. Alternatively, watch our informative video introduction.There is a growing demand for cocoa. However, cultivation is dependent on ageing trees with low yields and increasing vulnerability to disease. There is growing concern about the environmental impact of cultivation in areas soil health and biodiversity. There is therefore an urgent need to make cocoa cultivation more efficient and sustainable to ensure a successful future.
Volume 1 focuses on breeding and cultivation. Part 1 reviews the critical issue of enhancing genetic diversity. Building on this foundation, Part 2 summarises the latest research on breeding improved varieties. The third part of the book assesses improvements in cultivation techniques to make the most of these new varieties. The final part of the book considers safety and quality issues.
With its distinguished editor and international range of expert authors, this volume will be a standard reference for cocoa scientists, growers and processors. It is accompanied by a companion volume which focuses on pest, disease and sustainability issues.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Achieving sustainable cultivation of cocoa | i | ||
| Contents | iv | ||
| Series list | xiii | ||
| Acknowledgements | xviii | ||
| Introduction | xix | ||
| Part 1 Genetic resources and breeding | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1 Taxonomy and classification of cacao | 3 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 3 | ||
| 2 Taxonomy and classification | 4 | ||
| 3 The three groups of cocoa varieties | 11 | ||
| 4 Conclusions | 14 | ||
| 5 Where to look for further information | 14 | ||
| 6 References | 15 | ||
| Chapter 2 Conserving and exploiting cocoa genetic resources: the key challenges | 19 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 20 | ||
| 2 How challenges are being addressed: an overview | 22 | ||
| 3 Addressing challenges: securing existing ex situ cacao genetic resources | 23 | ||
| 4 Addressing challenges: developing a global strategic cacao collection | 26 | ||
| 5 Addressing challenges: collecting and gap filling in ex situ collections to reflect genetic diversity | 27 | ||
| 6 Addressing challenges: ensuring the in situ and on-farm conservation of important diversity | 30 | ||
| 7 Addressing challenges: strengthening the distribution and safe movement of germplasm | 31 | ||
| 8 Addressing challenges: strengthening the use of cacao genetic resources | 33 | ||
| 9 Addressing challenges: improving documentation and sharing of information | 34 | ||
| 10 Strengthening networking and partnerships for global collaboration | 35 | ||
| 11 Research to strengthen the conservation and use of cacao genetic diversity | 36 | ||
| 12 Acknowledgements | 38 | ||
| 13 Where to look for further information | 38 | ||
| 14 References | 41 | ||
| Chapter 3 The role of gene banks in preserving the genetic diversity of cacao | 47 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 47 | ||
| 2 History of cacao collections | 48 | ||
| 3 Gene bank concepts | 48 | ||
| 4 Crux of conservation | 50 | ||
| 5 Gene pool coverage | 51 | ||
| 6 Techniques for conserving cacao germplasm | 54 | ||
| 7 In situ and ex situ gene banks | 55 | ||
| 8 Status of cacao field gene banks | 60 | ||
| 9 Assessing genetic diversity | 65 | ||
| 10 Curating field gene banks | 68 | ||
| 11 Genetic diversity in cacao collections | 70 | ||
| 12 Core and minicore | 74 | ||
| 13 Future trends and conclusion | 77 | ||
| 14 Where to look for further information | 80 | ||
| 15 Acknowledgements | 82 | ||
| 16 References | 82 | ||
| Chapter 4 Safe handling and movement of cocoa germplasm for breeding | 101 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 101 | ||
| 2 Overview of risks associated with plant movement | 102 | ||
| 3 Levels of risk | 102 | ||
| 4 Risk management governance and procedures | 105 | ||
| 5 Case study: International Cocoa Quarantine Centre, Reading | 106 | ||
| 6 Concluding remarks | 108 | ||
| 7 Where to look for further information | 109 | ||
| 8 References | 109 | ||
| Chapter 5 Developments in cacao breeding programmes in Africa and the Americas | 111 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 111 | ||
| 2 Types of commercial cacao cultivars | 114 | ||
| 3 Breeding objectives | 115 | ||
| 4 Heterosis and heterotic groups in cacao | 116 | ||
| 5 ‘Traditional’ and new cacao breeding methods | 117 | ||
| 6 Cacao breeding programmes and outputs | 118 | ||
| 7 Selection of cacao for organoleptic quality | 143 | ||
| 8 Future trends and conclusion | 149 | ||
| 9 References | 150 | ||
| Part 2 Cultivation techniques | 155 | ||
| Chapter 6 Cocoa plant propagation techniques to supply farmers with improved planting materials | 157 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 157 | ||
| 2 Propagation by seeds | 159 | ||
| 3 Conventional vegetative propagation | 161 | ||
| 4 Cross-cutting issues | 165 | ||
| 5 Phytosanitary considerations | 168 | ||
| 6 Predicting demand for planting materials | 168 | ||
| 7 Considerations on estimating costs | 169 | ||
| 8 Future trends and conclusion | 170 | ||
| 9 Acknowledgements | 171 | ||
| 10 References | 171 | ||
| Chapter 7 The potential of somatic embryogenesis for commercial-scale propagation of elite cacao varieties | 173 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 173 | ||
| 2 The somatic embryogenesis method for cacao | 174 | ||
| 3 Field evaluation of somatic embryo trees | 176 | ||
| 4 Applying cacao somatic embryogenesis for long-term storage of germplasm | 180 | ||
| 5 Using somatic embryo plants for propagation by orthotropic rooted cuttings | 181 | ||
| 6 Field evaluation of orthotropic rooted cuttings | 182 | ||
| 7 Integrated system for vegetative propagation of cacao | 185 | ||
| 8 Technology transfer | 185 | ||
| 9 Advantages and constraints of tissue culture | 190 | ||
| 10 Future trends and conclusion | 191 | ||
| 11 Acknowledgements | 192 | ||
| 12 References | 192 | ||
| Chapter 8 Good agronomic practices in cocoa cultivation: rehabilitating cocoa farms | 197 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 197 | ||
| 2 Good pre-planting practices in cocoa cultivation | 199 | ||
| 3 Good post-planting practices in cocoa cultivation | 203 | ||
| 4 Cocoa farm rehabilitation | 210 | ||
| 5 Methods for cocoa farm rehabilitation | 211 | ||
| 6 Case study: farmers’ preferred rehabilitation methods in Ghana | 214 | ||
| 7 Conclusion and future trends | 219 | ||
| 8 Where to look for further information | 220 | ||
| 9 References | 220 | ||
| Chapter 9 Improving soil and nutrient management for cacao cultivation | 225 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 225 | ||
| 2 Case study: the need for one formula per plot | 226 | ||
| 3 Case study: homogeneity in diversity | 230 | ||
| 4 Soil diagnosis in practice | 231 | ||
| 5 Future trends and conclusion | 231 | ||
| 6 Where to look for further information | 233 | ||
| 7 References | 234 | ||
| Part 3 Diseases and pests | 237 | ||
| Chapter 10 Cocoa diseases: witches’ broom | 239 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 239 | ||
| 2 Geographical distribution and historical perspective | 240 | ||
| 3 Pathogen taxonomy, biology and disease cycle | 242 | ||
| 4 Diversity, host range and symptomatology | 244 | ||
| 5 Omics of M. perniciosa | 249 | ||
| 6 Fungal pathogenicity and disease physiology | 250 | ||
| 7 Plant development and disease epidemiology | 251 | ||
| 8 Disease control: phytosanitation, and chemical and biological control | 253 | ||
| 9 Disease control: genetic resistance and integrated management | 256 | ||
| 10 Concluding remarks and outlook | 258 | ||
| 11 Where to look for further information | 259 | ||
| 12 Acknowledgements | 260 | ||
| 13 References | 260 | ||
| Chapter 11 Frosty pod rot, caused by Moniliophthora roreri | 271 | ||
| 1 Introduction: the pathogen | 271 | ||
| 2 Spread, invasion risk and impact of Moniliophthora roreri | 272 | ||
| 3 Management options: management cascade for invasive alien species | 274 | ||
| 4 Management options: impact mitigation | 279 | ||
| 5 Conclusions | 282 | ||
| 6 Where to look for further information | 283 | ||
| 7 References | 283 | ||
| Chapter 12 Cacao diseases: vascular-streak dieback | 287 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 287 | ||
| 2 VSD symptoms and pathogen biology | 289 | ||
| 3 VSD epidemiology | 293 | ||
| 4 VSD management | 294 | ||
| 5 Case study: the importance of field studies | 296 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 298 | ||
| 7 Future trends | 298 | ||
| 8 Where to look for further information | 299 | ||
| 9 References | 300 | ||
| Chapter 13 Insect pests affecting cacao | 303 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 303 | ||
| 2 Cacao pests in the Americas and the Caribbean | 304 | ||
| 3 Cacao pests in West Africa | 308 | ||
| 4 Cacao pests in Asia | 312 | ||
| 5 Advances in control of cacao pests: breeding for pest resistance | 315 | ||
| 6 Advances in control of cacao pests: agro-ecological control of pests in cacao-based agroforestry systems | 316 | ||
| 7 Conclusion | 319 | ||
| 8 Future trends | 320 | ||
| 9 Where to look for further information | 320 | ||
| 10 References | 320 | ||
| Chapter 14 Nematode pests of cocoa | 327 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 327 | ||
| 2 Hidden nature of plant-parasitic nematodes | 328 | ||
| 3 Plant-parasitic nematodes associated with cacao | 328 | ||
| 4 Disease complexes | 332 | ||
| 5 Management of plant-parasitic nematodes of cacao | 333 | ||
| 6 Future trends and conclusion | 337 | ||
| 7 Where to look for further information | 338 | ||
| 8 References | 339 | ||
| Chapter 15 Advances in pest- and disease-resistant cocoa varieties | 345 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 345 | ||
| 2 History of diseases and pests of cocoa | 346 | ||
| 3 Assessment of resistance | 348 | ||
| 4 Breeding for Phytophthora disease resistance | 348 | ||
| 5 Conclusion | 361 | ||
| 6 References | 362 | ||
| Part 4 Safety and sensory quality | 365 | ||
| Chapter 16 Improving best practice with regard to pesticide use in cocoa | 367 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 367 | ||
| 2 Pesticide use in cocoa-producing countries | 368 | ||
| 3 Improving pesticide regulation | 369 | ||
| 4 Developing best practice for pesticide use | 370 | ||
| 5 Case studies: establishing baselines, raising awareness and promoting best practice | 372 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 374 | ||
| 7 Future trends | 375 | ||
| 8 Where to look for further information | 376 | ||
| 9 References | 378 | ||
| Chapter 17 Mycotoxins in cocoa: causes, detection and control | 381 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 381 | ||
| 2 Mycotoxins contaminating cocoa | 382 | ||
| 3 Detection of mycotoxins in cocoa | 386 | ||
| 4 Controlling mycotoxins in cocoa production | 388 | ||
| 5 Conclusion | 390 | ||
| 6 Where to look for further information | 390 | ||
| 7 References | 390 | ||
| Chapter 18 Analysing sensory and processing quality of cocoa | 395 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 395 | ||
| 2 The evolution of sensory evaluation as a science | 401 | ||
| 3 Cocoa quality and the link to flavour | 402 | ||
| 4 Analysing sensory and processing quality of cocoa | 409 | ||
| 5 Flavour assessment of cocoa | 420 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 431 | ||
| 7 Future trends | 432 | ||
| 8 Where to look for further information | 435 | ||
| 9 References | 436 | ||
| Part 5 Sustainability | 443 | ||
| Chapter 19 Climate change and cocoa cultivation | 445 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 445 | ||
| 2 Case study on global climate projections at cocoa- producing regions: overview, methods and data | 448 | ||
| 3 Case study on global climate projections at cocoa- producing regions: results and discussion | 450 | ||
| 4 Case study on regionally differentiated climate change impacts in Ivory Coast: overview and methodology | 456 | ||
| 5 Case study on regionally differentiated climate change impacts in Ivory Coast: results and discussion | 457 | ||
| 6 Conclusions | 463 | ||
| 7 Acknowledgements | 465 | ||
| 8 References | 465 | ||
| Chapter 20 Analysis and design of the shade canopy of cocoa-based agroforestry systems | 469 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 469 | ||
| 2 Cocoa shade typologies | 470 | ||
| 3 A four-step guide for analysis of the shade canopy | 477 | ||
| 4 Designing improved shade canopies | 483 | ||
| 5 Future needs: a call for action | 489 | ||
| 6 Where to look for further information | 491 | ||
| 7 Acknowledgements | 491 | ||
| 8 References | 494 | ||
| Chapter 21 Organic cocoa cultivation | 501 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 501 | ||
| 2 Production trends in organic cocoa | 502 | ||
| 3 Organic certification | 503 | ||
| 4 Pricing issues in organic cocoa production | 505 | ||
| 5 Organic yields and cultivation methods | 507 | ||
| 6 Pest and disease management | 509 | ||
| 7 Conclusions and future trends | 509 | ||
| 8 Where to look for further information | 511 | ||
| 9 References | 511 | ||
| Chapter 22 Cocoa sustainability initiatives: the impacts of cocoa sustainability initiatives in West Africa | 515 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 515 | ||
| 2 Historical context for the rise of voluntary sustainability standards | 516 | ||
| 3 Sustainability initiatives | 517 | ||
| 4 Case study: the impacts of cocoa sustainability initiatives in West Africa | 523 | ||
| 5 Future trends | 532 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 534 | ||
| 7 Where to look for further information | 536 | ||
| 8 References | 537 | ||
| Chapter 23 Supporting smallholders in achieving more sustainable cocoa cultivation: the case of West Africa | 541 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 541 | ||
| 2 Changes in cocoa production | 543 | ||
| 3 Agronomic and environmental challenges | 543 | ||
| 4 Social and economic challenges | 545 | ||
| 5 Initiatives to support smallholders | 547 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 551 | ||
| 7 Future trends | 553 | ||
| 8 Where to look for further information | 554 | ||
| 9 References | 555 | ||
| Index | 559 |