Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Enhanced learning in the form of animations for functioning of organ systems
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Title page | iii | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Foreword | vii | ||
| Preface | ix | ||
| Acknowledgements | xi | ||
| Reviewers | xiii | ||
| Contents | xv | ||
| Section I - General physiology | 1 | ||
| 1 - General Principles in Physiology | 3 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 3 | ||
| Distribution of body fluids | 3 | ||
| Body compartments | 3 | ||
| Ions in ECF and ICF | 3 | ||
| Measurement of body fluids | 4 | ||
| Nonionic diffusion | 4 | ||
| Homeostasis | 5 | ||
| Feedback regulation in body | 6 | ||
| Negative feedback regulation | 6 | ||
| Positive feedback regulation/vicious cycle | 6 | ||
| 2 - Cellular Physiology | 9 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 9 | ||
| The cell and its organelles | 9 | ||
| Functions of cell | 9 | ||
| Cell membrane | 9 | ||
| Singer and Nicolson Model of Cell Membrane (1972) or Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membrane | 10 | ||
| Cytoplasm | 10 | ||
| Transport across cell membrane | 13 | ||
| Passive transport | 13 | ||
| Diffusion | 13 | ||
| Simple Diffusion | 13 | ||
| Facilitated Diffusion | 13 | ||
| Osmosis | 14 | ||
| Active transport | 15 | ||
| Primary Active Transport | 15 | ||
| Na+-K+ ATPase Pump | 16 | ||
| Calcium Pump | 17 | ||
| Potassium Pump (H+-K+ Pump) | 17 | ||
| Secondary Active Transport | 17 | ||
| Sodium Cotransport of Glucose | 17 | ||
| Endocytosis and exocytosis | 17 | ||
| Endocytosis | 18 | ||
| Forms of Endocytosis | 18 | ||
| Exocytosis (Reverse of Endocytosis) | 18 | ||
| Oxidative phosphorylation | 18 | ||
| Uncouplers | 19 | ||
| Diseases associated with mitochondria | 19 | ||
| Molecular motors | 19 | ||
| Cell adhesion molecules | 19 | ||
| Intercellular connections | 20 | ||
| Cell signalling mechanisms | 21 | ||
| Intercellular communication | 21 | ||
| Chemical messengers | 22 | ||
| Cell signalling pathway | 22 | ||
| G-proteins | 22 | ||
| Types of G-protein | 23 | ||
| Stimulators of Transcription | 25 | ||
| Summary of cell signalling pathways | 26 | ||
| 3 - Genetics | 29 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 29 | ||
| Deoxyribonucleic acid | 29 | ||
| Watson and Crick model of DNA (B-DNA) | 29 | ||
| DNA replication | 30 | ||
| Cell cycle and cell division | 30 | ||
| Mitosis | 30 | ||
| Meiosis | 30 | ||
| Chromosomal anomalies | 30 | ||
| Numerical anomalies | 31 | ||
| Down Syndrome (Mongolism) | 31 | ||
| Structural anomalies | 31 | ||
| Hermaphroditism | 31 | ||
| Causes | 31 | ||
| Karyotype | 33 | ||
| Gene mutations | 33 | ||
| Ribonucleic acid | 33 | ||
| Types of RNA | 33 | ||
| Transcription | 34 | ||
| Translation | 34 | ||
| Ubiquitination | 35 | ||
| Chaperones | 35 | ||
| Cloning | 35 | ||
| Gene therapy | 35 | ||
| Gene expression | 35 | ||
| Central dogma of genetic information | 35 | ||
| Gene amplification | 35 | ||
| Bone marrow transplantation (stem cell transplantation) | 36 | ||
| Gene targeting or replacement strategy | 36 | ||
| Heat shock proteins or stress proteins | 36 | ||
| 4 - Topics of Special Interest | 37 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 37 | ||
| Aquaporins | 37 | ||
| Patch clamp technique | 38 | ||
| Calcium binding proteins | 38 | ||
| Apoptosis | 38 | ||
| Mechanism of apoptosis | 39 | ||
| Free radicals and anti-oxidants | 39 | ||
| Generation of free radicals | 39 | ||
| Eicosanoids | 40 | ||
| Prostaglandins | 40 | ||
| Leukotrienes | 41 | ||
| Introduction | 1 | ||
| Section II - Blood | 43 | ||
| 5 - Red Blood Cells and Haemoglobin | 45 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 45 | ||
| Red blood cells (RBCs) | 45 | ||
| RBC membrane | 45 | ||
| Composition of red cells | 45 | ||
| Normal count | 46 | ||
| Variations in size, shape and number of red cells | 46 | ||
| Packed cell volume and erythrocyte sedimentation rate | 46 | ||
| Red cell indices | 47 | ||
| Osmotic fragility | 48 | ||
| Haemopoiesis or haematopoiesis | 48 | ||
| Erythropoiesis | 48 | ||
| Sites of erythropoiesis | 48 | ||
| Red and yellow bone marrow | 49 | ||
| Stages of erythropoiesis | 50 | ||
| Erythropoietin (EPO) | 52 | ||
| Source of EPO | 52 | ||
| Stimulus for EPO synthesis | 52 | ||
| Release of EPO | 53 | ||
| Factors affecting EPO secretion | 53 | ||
| Role of EPO in body | 53 | ||
| Reticulocytes | 53 | ||
| Haemoglobin | 54 | ||
| Normal values of Hb | 54 | ||
| Structure of haemoglobin | 54 | ||
| Synthesis of haemoglobin | 54 | ||
| Fate of haemoglobin | 55 | ||
| Functions of haemoglobin | 55 | ||
| Types of haemoglobin | 56 | ||
| Variants of haemoglobin | 56 | ||
| Haemoglobinopathies | 57 | ||
| Sickle cell anaemia | 57 | ||
| Forms | 57 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 57 | ||
| Clinical Features | 57 | ||
| Diagnosis | 58 | ||
| Treatment | 58 | ||
| Thalassemia | 58 | ||
| Jaundice | 59 | ||
| Bilirubin Metabolism | 59 | ||
| Clinical Features | 60 | ||
| Types of Jaundice | 60 | ||
| Complications | 60 | ||
| Management | 60 | ||
| 6 - Anaemias | 63 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 63 | ||
| Classification of anaemia | 63 | ||
| Whitby’s classification | 63 | ||
| Wintrobe’s classification | 63 | ||
| Iron deficiency anaemia | 63 | ||
| Aetiology | 63 | ||
| Clinical features | 63 | ||
| Diagnosis | 64 | ||
| Treatment | 64 | ||
| Response to treatment | 65 | ||
| Megaloblastic anaemia | 65 | ||
| Causes | 65 | ||
| Clinical features | 65 | ||
| Diagnosis | 65 | ||
| Treatment | 66 | ||
| Folic acid deficiency anaemia | 67 | ||
| Features | 67 | ||
| Section III - Cardiovascular system | 117 | ||
| 13 - Cardiac Muscle and Properties | 121 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 121 | ||
| Cardiac muscle | 121 | ||
| Properties of cardiac muscle | 121 | ||
| Innervation of heart | 122 | ||
| Length tension relationship in cardiac muscle | 122 | ||
| Force-velocity relationship in cardiac muscle | 122 | ||
| Conduction of impulse in cardiac tissue | 123 | ||
| Pacemaker potential and cardiac muscle action potential | 124 | ||
| Pacemaker potential | 124 | ||
| Effect of autonomic nervous system on PMP | 125 | ||
| Cardiac muscle action potential | 126 | ||
| 14 - Cardiac Cycle | 129 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 129 | ||
| Cardiac cycle | 129 | ||
| Jugular venous pressure, carotid arterial pulse, heart sounds | 132 | ||
| Jugular venous pressure (JVP) | 132 | ||
| Heart sounds | 132 | ||
| Carotid artery pulse | 133 | ||
| Correlation between ECG, carotid pulse and heart sounds | 133 | ||
| Arterial pulse | 134 | ||
| 15 - Cardiac Output | 137 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 137 | ||
| Cardiac output | 137 | ||
| Factors affecting cardiac output | 137 | ||
| Stroke Volume | 137 | ||
| Intrinsic Regulation (Heterometric Regulation) of cardiac output | 138 | ||
| Preload and Afterload in Cardiac Tissue | 138 | ||
| Venous Return | 138 | ||
| Extrinsic Regulation (Homometric Regulation) of cardiac output—Regulated by ANS | 139 | ||
| Role of Myocardial Contractility | 139 | ||
| Factors Affecting Heart Rate | 140 | ||
| Methods of measurement of cardiac output | 140 | ||
| 16 - Electrocardiogram (ECG) | 143 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 143 | ||
| Abnormalities and significance of ECG waves, segments and intervals | 143 | ||
| Uses of ECG | 144 | ||
| Leads for ECG recording | 144 | ||
| Physiological basis of ECG | 146 | ||
| Cardiac vector concept | 149 | ||
| Vector cardiography | 150 | ||
| ECG changes in myocardial infarction | 151 | ||
| Physiological basis of ECG in MI | 151 | ||
| Ecg changes in hyperkalaemia and hypokalaemia | 152 | ||
| ECG changes in HYPERCALCAEMIA and hypocalcaemia | 152 | ||
| Long QT syndrome (LQTS) | 154 | ||
| His bundle electrogram (HBE) | 154 | ||
| Cardiac arrhythmias | 155 | ||
| Atrial arrythmias | 156 | ||
| Ventricular arrhythmias | 157 | ||
| Sinus arrhythmia | 157 | ||
| Heart block | 158 | ||
| Bundle branch block | 158 | ||
| Wolff–Parkinson–White (WPW) syndrome or accelerated AV conduction | 159 | ||
| 17 - Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow | 161 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 161 | ||
| Blood pressure (BP) | 161 | ||
| Classification of baroreceptors | 162 | ||
| Atrial baroreceptors | 165 | ||
| Bainbridge reflex | 165 | ||
| Ventricular baroreceptors | 166 | ||
| Bezold–Jarisch reflex | 166 | ||
| Pulmonary baroreceptors | 166 | ||
| Functions of angiotensin II | 168 | ||
| Functions of angiotensin III | 168 | ||
| Mayer waves and Traube—Hering waves | 168 | ||
| Regulation of blood flow | 169 | ||
| Neural regulation | 169 | ||
| Humoral regulation | 170 | ||
| Autoregulation of blood flow | 172 | ||
| 18 - Circulatory Shock and Heart Failure | 173 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 173 | ||
| Circulatory shock | 173 | ||
| Stages of shock | 173 | ||
| Compensatory Mechanisms in Shock | 174 | ||
| Heart failure | 176 | ||
| Types of heart failure | 176 | ||
| Acute and Chronic Heart Failure | 176 | ||
| Left-Sided Heart Failure and Right Sided Heart Failure | 176 | ||
| Forward Failure and Backward Failure | 176 | ||
| High and Low Output Failure | 177 | ||
| Systolic and Diastolic Failure | 178 | ||
| Compensatory and Decompensatory Heart Failure | 178 | ||
| 19 - Haemodynamics | 181 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 181 | ||
| Measurement of blood flow | 181 | ||
| Blood vessels | 181 | ||
| Microcirculation | 182 | ||
| Functions of microcirculation | 182 | ||
| Concept of laminar and turbulent blood flow | 182 | ||
| Shear stress | 183 | ||
| Poiseuille–Hagen formula | 183 | ||
| Factors on which resistance depends | 184 | ||
| Factors affecting viscosity | 184 | ||
| Critical closing pressure | 184 | ||
| Law of laplace | 185 | ||
| Physiological significance | 185 | ||
| Concept of average velocity | 186 | ||
| Windkessel effect | 186 | ||
| Starling forces at capillary level | 186 | ||
| 20 - Regional Circulation | 189 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 189 | ||
| Peculiarities of coronary circulation | 189 | ||
| Factors affecting coronary blood flow | 189 | ||
| Methods of measurement of coronary blood flow | 191 | ||
| Applied aspect: diseases of coronary circulation (coronary artery diseases) | 191 | ||
| Foetal circulation | 192 | ||
| Cerebral circulation | 192 | ||
| Anatomy | 192 | ||
| Regulation of cerebral blood flow | 192 | ||
| Measurement of cerebral blood flow | 193 | ||
| Cutaneous circulation | 193 | ||
| 21 - Topics of Special Interest | 195 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 195 | ||
| Goldblatt hypertension | 195 | ||
| Murmurs | 195 | ||
| Types of murmurs | 195 | ||
| Hypertension | 195 | ||
| Atherosclerosis | 196 | ||
| Introduction | 117 | ||
| Section IV - Pulmonary physiology | 199 | ||
| 22 - Functional Organisation of Pulmonary System | 201 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 201 | ||
| Branching of pulmonary tree | 201 | ||
| Cells present in alveolus | 201 | ||
| Respiratory membrane | 202 | ||
| Factors affecting diffusion of gases across respiratory membrane | 202 | ||
| Non respiratory functions of lungs | 203 | ||
| 23 - The Mechanics of Respiration | 207 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 207 | ||
| Mechanics of respiration | 207 | ||
| Pressure and volume changes during respiration | 209 | ||
| Factors affecting intrapleural pressure along with applied aspect | 209 | ||
| Intrapleural pressure can be measured by | 209 | ||
| Various lung volumes and capacities | 210 | ||
| Spirometry | 210 | ||
| Lung volumes and capacities | 210 | ||
| Static Lung Volumes and Capacities | 210 | ||
| Dynamic Lung Volume and Capacities | 211 | ||
| Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) | 211 | ||
| Vital Capacity (VC) | 212 | ||
| Factors Affecting VC | 213 | ||
| Importance of VC | 213 | ||
| Alveolar surface tension and surfactants | 214 | ||
| Functions of surfactant | 215 | ||
| Compliance | 216 | ||
| Curves are not straight— they are curved | 217 | ||
| Shift of compliance curve | 217 | ||
| Factors affecting compliance | 219 | ||
| Ventilation perfusion ratio (V/P Ratio) | 220 | ||
| 24 - Alveolar Ventilation | 223 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 223 | ||
| Composition and partial pressure of air | 223 | ||
| Dead space | 223 | ||
| Calculation of anatomical dead space (Fowler’s method or single breath nitrogen method) | 223 | ||
| Single Breath Nitrogen Curve | 225 | ||
| Calculation of physiological dead space (Bohr’s equation method) | 225 | ||
| Alveolar ventilation | 226 | ||
| How does gravity affect alveolar ventilation? | 226 | ||
| 25 - Regulation of Respiration | 227 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 227 | ||
| Regulation of respiration | 227 | ||
| Neural regulation of respiration | 227 | ||
| Automatic control | 227 | ||
| How the Effect of Respiratory Centres is Shown Experimentally | 229 | ||
| Voluntary control | 230 | ||
| Chemical regulation of respiration | 230 | ||
| Peripheral chemoreceptors—Carotid body and aortic body | 231 | ||
| Medullary chemoreceptors or central chemoreceptors | 232 | ||
| Chemical changes affecting ventilator responses | 234 | ||
| Effect of prolonged hyperventilation | 235 | ||
| Complications | 236 | ||
| Non chemical regulation of respiration | 236 | ||
| Genesis of respiration | 238 | ||
| 26 - Gas Transport | 241 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 241 | ||
| Oxygen transport | 241 | ||
| O2–Hb dissociation curve | 241 | ||
| T–R configuration of Hb | 242 | ||
| Factors affecting O2–Hb dissociation curve | 242 | ||
| Bohr effect | 243 | ||
| Double Bohr effect | 243 | ||
| Oxygen–myoglobin curve | 244 | ||
| CO2 transport in blood | 245 | ||
| Dissolved in plasma | 245 | ||
| As bicarbonate ion in RBCs | 245 | ||
| As carbaminohaemoglobin | 246 | ||
| Haldane effect | 246 | ||
| CO2 dissociation curve | 246 | ||
| 27 - Respiratory Adjustments at High Atmospheric Pressure | 249 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 249 | ||
| Dysbarism | 249 | ||
| Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) | 249 | ||
| 28 - High Altitude Physiology | 251 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 251 | ||
| Physiological changes taking place in body at high altitude | 251 | ||
| Hypoxia | 253 | ||
| Types of hypoxia | 253 | ||
| Signs of hypoxia | 253 | ||
| Oxygen therapy | 254 | ||
| Effective In | 255 | ||
| Uses of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy | 255 | ||
| Oxygen Toxicity | 255 | ||
| Side Effects of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy | 255 | ||
| 29 - Exercise Physiology | 257 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 257 | ||
| Grading of exercise | 257 | ||
| Adjustments in exercise | 257 | ||
| Blood pressure changes during exercises | 257 | ||
| Reasons | 258 | ||
| Respiratory changes during exercise | 258 | ||
| At tissue level | 259 | ||
| Other changes during exercise | 259 | ||
| VO2 max, oxygen deficit and oxygen debt | 259 | ||
| VO2 max | 259 | ||
| Oxygen deficit and oxygen debt | 259 | ||
| 30 - Pulmonary Circulation | 261 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 261 | ||
| Pulmonary circulation | 261 | ||
| Features of pulmonary circulation | 261 | ||
| Factors affecting pulmonary blood flow | 261 | ||
| Zones of lungs | 261 | ||
| Regulation of pulmonary blood flow | 262 | ||
| Clinical aspect | 262 | ||
| 31 - Abnormalities Associated with Respiration | 265 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 265 | ||
| Asphyxia | 265 | ||
| Causes | 265 | ||
| Effects and sequelae | 265 | ||
| Drowning | 265 | ||
| Freshwater drowning | 265 | ||
| Sea water drowning | 265 | ||
| Management | 265 | ||
| Periodic breathing | 265 | ||
| Kussmaul breathing | 267 | ||
| Sleep apnea syndrome | 267 | ||
| COPD—Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 268 | ||
| Bronchial asthma | 268 | ||
| Emphysema | 268 | ||
| How Cigarette Smoke Affects Lungs | 268 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 268 | ||
| Effects and Sequelae | 268 | ||
| Chronic bronchitis | 269 | ||
| Bronchiectasis | 269 | ||
| Cystic fibrosis | 269 | ||
| 32 - Topics of Special Interest | 271 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 271 | ||
| Foetal lung | 271 | ||
| Placenta consists of two parts | 271 | ||
| Carbon monoxide poisoning | 271 | ||
| Diffusion capacity of lung | 272 | ||
| Artificial respiration | 273 | ||
| Iron lung (Drinker’s method or negative pressure ventilation) | 273 | ||
| Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) | 274 | ||
| Introduction | 199 | ||
| Physiological shunt | 200 | ||
| Section V - Renal physiology | 275 | ||
| 33 - Nephron and Renal Circulation | 277 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 277 | ||
| Structure of nephron | 277 | ||
| Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) | 278 | ||
| Functions of JGA | 279 | ||
| Peculiarities of renal circulation | 279 | ||
| Peculiar points about renal circulation | 280 | ||
| Renal autoregulation | 280 | ||
| Myogenic mechanism | 280 | ||
| Tubuloglomerular and glomerulo tubular feedback mechanism | 281 | ||
| 34 - Mechanism of Urine Formation | 283 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 283 | ||
| Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) | 283 | ||
| Factors affecting GFR | 283 | ||
| Conditions affecting GFR | 286 | ||
| Measurement of GFR | 286 | ||
| Tubular transport | 287 | ||
| In loop of Henle | 287 | ||
| Transport of Na+ and other solutes like glucose, , , amino acids | 288 | ||
| In Early PCT | 288 | ||
| In Late PCT | 288 | ||
| In Loop of Henle | 288 | ||
| In Early DCT | 290 | ||
| Late DCT and Collecting Duct | 290 | ||
| Renal transport of K | 290 | ||
| In PCT | 290 | ||
| In loop of Henle | 291 | ||
| In early DCT | 291 | ||
| In late DCT and collecting duct | 291 | ||
| Factors affecting urinary K+ excretion | 291 | ||
| Renal handling of glucose | 291 | ||
| In early PCT | 291 | ||
| In late PCT | 291 | ||
| Glucose titration curve | 292 | ||
| Renal handling of urea | 293 | ||
| Urea recycling | 293 | ||
| 35 - Physiology of Micturition | 295 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 295 | ||
| Micturition reflex | 295 | ||
| Nerve supply of urinary bladder | 295 | ||
| Cystometrogram | 296 | ||
| Components of cystometrogram | 297 | ||
| Diuretics | 297 | ||
| Classification of diuretic drugs | 297 | ||
| Mnemonics | 297 | ||
| Water diuresis and osmotic diuresis | 299 | ||
| Diabetes insipidus | 300 | ||
| SIADH—Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of ADH | 300 | ||
| 36 - Renal Function Tests | 303 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 303 | ||
| Renal function tests | 303 | ||
| 37 - Haemodialysis and Peritoneal Dialysis | 307 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 307 | ||
| Haemodialysis (artificial kidney) | 307 | ||
| Peritoneal dialysis | 307 | ||
| 38 - Counter Current Mechanism in Kidney | 311 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 311 | ||
| Counter current mechanism in kidney (or hyperosmolality of medullary interstitium) | 311 | ||
| Concentration dilution of urine (or factors affecting counter current mechanism) | 313 | ||
| 39 - Acidification of Urine | 317 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 317 | ||
| Acidification of urine | 317 | ||
| Acidification of urine in renal tubules | 317 | ||
| Fate of H+ Secreted by Tubular Cells | 318 | ||
| 40 - Acid Base Balance | 319 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 319 | ||
| Henderson Hasselbalch equation | 319 | ||
| Acid base disturbances | 320 | ||
| Anion gap | 322 | ||
| Buffer system | 322 | ||
| 41 - Topics of Special Interest | 327 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 327 | ||
| Nephrotic syndrome and nephritic syndrome | 327 | ||
| Acute renal failure and chronic renal failure | 327 | ||
| TAMM–horsfall proteins | 327 | ||
| Introduction | 275 | ||
| Section VI - Gastrointestinal tract | 329 | ||
| 42 - Organisation of GIT | 331 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 331 | ||
| Histology of gut (from inside to outside) | 331 | ||
| Innervation of gut | 331 | ||
| Plexus present in intrinsic nervous system | 332 | ||
| Immunology of gut | 333 | ||
| 43 - Salivary Secretion and Oesophagus | 335 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 335 | ||
| Salivary secretion | 335 | ||
| Saliva | 335 | ||
| Functions of Saliva | 335 | ||
| Oesophagus | 335 | ||
| Oesophageal sphincters | 336 | ||
| Deglutition (swallowing) | 336 | ||
| Phases of deglutition | 336 | ||
| Disorders of deglutition | 337 | ||
| Achalasia cardia | 337 | ||
| Gastroesophageal reflex disease (GERD) | 337 | ||
| 44 - Gut Peptides | 339 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 339 | ||
| Gut peptides | 339 | ||
| Gastrin | 339 | ||
| Actions of Gastrin | 339 | ||
| CCK—Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin | 339 | ||
| Actions of CCK | 339 | ||
| Secretin (1st hormone) | 340 | ||
| Bayliss and Starling | 340 | ||
| Stimuli for Secretin Release | 340 | ||
| Section VII - Nerve muscle physiology | 389 | ||
| 52 - Classification of Nerve Fibres | 391 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 391 | ||
| Classification of nerve fibres | 391 | ||
| Different types of neurons | 391 | ||
| Transport system in neuron | 393 | ||
| Sheaths around nerve | 393 | ||
| 53 - Properties of Nerve | 395 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 395 | ||
| Excitation | 395 | ||
| Resting membrane potential (RMP) | 395 | ||
| Technique to record RMP | 395 | ||
| Genesis of RMP | 395 | ||
| Nernst equation | 396 | ||
| Action potential in nerve fibre | 397 | ||
| Findings | 397 | ||
| Phases and ionic basis (Hodgkin and Huxley theory) | 398 | ||
| Action potential in mixed nerve | 399 | ||
| Characteristic features of stimulus | 399 | ||
| Technique of Recording Electrotonic Potential | 401 | ||
| Conduction | 402 | ||
| Summation | 404 | ||
| Unfatigability | 404 | ||
| Glial cells | 404 | ||
| Microglia cells | 404 | ||
| Functions of Microglia Cells | 404 | ||
| Macroglia cells | 405 | ||
| Myelinogenesis | 405 | ||
| 54 - Neuromuscular Junction | 407 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 407 | ||
| Neuromuscular junction | 407 | ||
| Sequence of events | 407 | ||
| Applied aspect | 407 | ||
| Myasthenia gravis | 407 | ||
| Lambert – eaton syndrome | 408 | ||
| 55 - Nerve Injury and Regeneration | 411 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 411 | ||
| Nerve injury and degeneration | 411 | ||
| Causes | 411 | ||
| Sunderland classification of nerve injuries | 411 | ||
| Degenerative changes in nerve fibre | 411 | ||
| Complications of nerve injury | 412 | ||
| Nerve regeneration | 412 | ||
| Neurotropins | 412 | ||
| Nerve growth factor (NGF) | 412 | ||
| Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) | 413 | ||
| Other growth factors | 413 | ||
| Mechanism of action of growth factors | 414 | ||
| 56 - Skeletal Muscle | 415 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 415 | ||
| Sarcomere and muscle proteins | 415 | ||
| Sarcotubular system | 419 | ||
| Excitation contraction coupling in skeletal muscle | 419 | ||
| Sequence of events | 419 | ||
| Isotonic and isometric contraction | 420 | ||
| Fast muscle and slow muscle | 421 | ||
| Length tension relationship in skeletal muscle | 421 | ||
| Recording | 423 | ||
| ForcE-Velocity relationship in skeletal muscle | 424 | ||
| 57 - Smooth Muscle | 425 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 425 | ||
| Types of smooth muscles | 425 | ||
| Excitation contraction in smooth muscle | 425 | ||
| Electrophysiology of smooth muscle | 425 | ||
| 58 - Topics of Special Interest | 429 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 429 | ||
| Differences between skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle | 429 | ||
| Ryanodine receptor | 429 | ||
| Rigor mortis | 429 | ||
| Electromyography | 430 | ||
| Types of EMG | 432 | ||
| Nerve physiology | 389 | ||
| Introduction | 389 | ||
| Function of neuron | 390 | ||
| Section VIII - Endocrine | 433 | ||
| 59 - General Principles of Endocrine System | 435 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 435 | ||
| Control of hormonal secretion | 435 | ||
| Feedback regulation | 435 | ||
| Negative Feedback Regulation | 435 | ||
| Positive Feedback Regulation | 436 | ||
| Nervous regulation | 436 | ||
| Chronotropic regulation | 436 | ||
| Mechanism of action of hormones | 436 | ||
| Classification of hormones | 436 | ||
| Hypophysiotropic hormones | 437 | ||
| 60 - Pituitary Gland and Growth Hormone | 439 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 439 | ||
| Structure of pituitary gland (the master gland) | 439 | ||
| Histology of pituitary gland | 439 | ||
| Hypothalamus-pituitary axis (HPA) | 440 | ||
| Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary | 440 | ||
| Growth hormone (GH) | 440 | ||
| Actions of GH | 441 | ||
| Growth curves | 441 | ||
| Hormones affecting growth | 442 | ||
| Somatomedins | 442 | ||
| Applied aspect associated with growth hormone | 443 | ||
| Dwarfism | 443 | ||
| Types of Dwarfism | 444 | ||
| Gigantism | 445 | ||
| Acromegaly | 445 | ||
| Posterior pituitary hormones | 446 | ||
| Functions of oxytocin | 446 | ||
| Functions of vasopressin and associated applied aspect | 446 | ||
| 61 - Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormones | 447 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 447 | ||
| Structure of thyroid gland | 447 | ||
| Histological features of thyroid gland | 447 | ||
| Hormones of thyroid | 448 | ||
| Metabolism of iodine | 448 | ||
| Synthesis of thyroid hormones | 449 | ||
| Actions of thyroid hormones | 450 | ||
| Causes of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism | 451 | ||
| Causes of hypothyroidism | 451 | ||
| Graves’ disease (thyrotoxicosis) | 451 | ||
| Thyroid storm (thyrotoxic crisis) | 452 | ||
| Goitre | 452 | ||
| Cretinism | 452 | ||
| Myxoedema | 453 | ||
| 62 - Calcium Homeostasis and Calcitropic Hormones | 455 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 455 | ||
| Role of calcium in body | 455 | ||
| Calcium homeostasis or calcium balance | 455 | ||
| Absorption of calcium | 456 | ||
| Role of calcitropic hormones in calcium homeostasis | 456 | ||
| PTHrP | 459 | ||
| Bone | 459 | ||
| Cells present in bones | 459 | ||
| Types of bone tissue | 459 | ||
| Applied aspect associated with calcium homeostasis | 459 | ||
| Rickets | 459 | ||
| Osteomalacia | 460 | ||
| Osteoporosis | 460 | ||
| Osteopetrosis | 461 | ||
| Tetany | 461 | ||
| Hyperparathyroidism | 462 | ||
| 63 - Adrenal Cortical Hormones | 465 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 465 | ||
| Synthesis of adrenal cortical hormones | 465 | ||
| Actions of glucocorticoids | 466 | ||
| Glucocorticoids as anti-inflammatory (pharmacological actions of glucocorticoids) | 466 | ||
| Other actions of glucocorticoids | 467 | ||
| Regulation of secretion | 468 | ||
| Aldosterone | 469 | ||
| Aldosterone escape | 469 | ||
| Effect of renin on aldosterone | 470 | ||
| Applied aspect associated with adrenocortical hormones | 470 | ||
| Cushing syndrome | 470 | ||
| Hyperaldosteronism | 471 | ||
| Addison disease | 471 | ||
| Adrenogenital syndrome | 471 | ||
| 64 - Pancreatic Hormones | 473 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 473 | ||
| Islets of Langerhans | 473 | ||
| Insulin | 473 | ||
| Actions of insulin | 474 | ||
| Regulation of insulin secretion | 476 | ||
| Effect of insulin excess and insulin deficiency | 476 | ||
| Effects of insulin excess | 476 | ||
| Effects of insulin deficiency | 477 | ||
| Diabetes Mellitus | 477 | ||
| Oral hypoglycaemic drugs | 479 | ||
| Glucose transporters | 481 | ||
| Forms of insulin | 481 | ||
| Glucagon | 481 | ||
| Synthesis | 481 | ||
| Mechanism of action | 481 | ||
| Insulin-Glucagon Molar Ratio | 481 | ||
| Diabetogenic hormones | 482 | ||
| 65 - Stress Hormones | 485 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 485 | ||
| Stress hormones | 485 | ||
| Neuroendocrinal response to stress | 486 | ||
| 66 - Pineal Gland and Melatonin | 489 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 489 | ||
| Pineal gland | 489 | ||
| Melatonin | 489 | ||
| Functions of melatonin | 489 | ||
| 67 - Topics of Special Interest | 493 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 493 | ||
| Differences between enzymes and hormones | 493 | ||
| Metabolic syndrome | 493 | ||
| Treatment | 493 | ||
| Biological rhythm or circadian rhythm | 493 | ||
| Kallmann syndrome | 494 | ||
| Sheehan’s syndrome or Simmond’s syndrome | 494 | ||
| Introduction | 433 | ||
| Section IX - Nervous system | 495 | ||
| 68 - Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters | 497 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 497 | ||
| Structure of chemical synapse | 497 | ||
| Events taking place during chemical synaptic transmission | 497 | ||
| Properties of synapse | 499 | ||
| Types of inhibition in CNS | 501 | ||
| Neurotransmitters | 502 | ||
| Criteria of neurotransmitter | 502 | ||
| Classification of neurotransmitters | 502 | ||
| Receptors | 503 | ||
| Glutamate | 503 | ||
| Acetylcholine | 504 | ||
| GABA—Gamma amino butyric acid | 504 | ||
| Receptors | 504 | ||
| Mechanism of Action | 504 | ||
| Glycine | 505 | ||
| Catecholamines | 505 | ||
| Fate of Catecholamines | 505 | ||
| Histamine | 506 | ||
| Neuropeptides | 506 | ||
| Opioid peptides | 506 | ||
| 69 - Motor Cortex | 509 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 509 | ||
| Cerebral cortex | 509 | ||
| Layers of cerebral cortex | 509 | ||
| Cells in cerebral cortex | 509 | ||
| Lobes of cerebral cortex | 509 | ||
| Motor cortex and descending tracts | 511 | ||
| Motor cortex | 511 | ||
| Descending tracts | 512 | ||
| Corticospinal Tract (Pyramidal Tract) | 512 | ||
| Extrapyramidal Tracts | 513 | ||
| Upper and lower motor neurons | 515 | ||
| Brown-Sequard syndrome | 516 | ||
| 70 - Somatosensory Transmission | 519 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 519 | ||
| Sensory receptors | 519 | ||
| Mechanoreceptors | 519 | ||
| Nociceptors | 520 | ||
| Properties of sensory receptors | 521 | ||
| Somatosensory cortex | 522 | ||
| Somatosensory pathways or ascending tracts of spinal cord | 523 | ||
| Spinothalamic tract | 523 | ||
| Pain | 525 | ||
| Referred pain | 527 | ||
| Theories of referred pain | 527 | ||
| Gate control theory of pain | 529 | ||
| 71 - Posture Regulating Mechanisms | 533 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 533 | ||
| Posture | 533 | ||
| The stretch reflex/myotatic reflex | 533 | ||
| Muscle Spindle: Structure | 533 | ||
| Mechanism of Stretch Reflex | 535 | ||
| Functions of Stretch Reflex | 535 | ||
| Inverse stretch reflex /golgi tendon reflex/inverse myotatic reflex | 536 | ||
| Righting reflexes | 536 | ||
| Tonic neck and tonic labyrinthine reflexes | 537 | ||
| Procedure for studying tonic reflexes | 537 | ||
| Role of tonic reflexes | 537 | ||
| Placing and hopping reactions | 537 | ||
| Mechanism of standing in man | 537 | ||
| Spinal animal | 538 | ||
| Stage of areflexia or stage of spinal shock | 538 | ||
| Stage of recovery or stage of reflex activity | 538 | ||
| Decerebrate animal or bulbospinal animal | 538 | ||
| Mid-brain animal or ‘mesenchephalic animal’ or ‘high decerebrate animal’ | 539 | ||
| Decorticate animal | 539 | ||
| Decerebellate animal | 539 | ||
| Spinal shock | 540 | ||
| 72 - Cerebellum | 543 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 543 | ||
| Anatomy | 543 | ||
| Circuits of cerebellum | 543 | ||
| Layers of cerebellar cortex (outside to inside) | 543 | ||
| Functional connections of cerebellum | 545 | ||
| Cerebellar functions | 545 | ||
| Cerebellar dysfunction | 547 | ||
| Cerebellar function tests | 547 | ||
| 73 - Basal ganglia | 549 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 549 | ||
| Circuits of basal ganglia | 549 | ||
| Major connections within basal ganglia | 549 | ||
| Neural pathways through basal ganglia involved in controlling motor activities | 549 | ||
| Functions of basal ganglia | 549 | ||
| Diseases of basal ganglia | 550 | ||
| Parkinsonism | 550 | ||
| Chorea | 552 | ||
| Athetosis | 552 | ||
| Huntington disease | 552 | ||
| Hemiballismus | 552 | ||
| Wilson disease (hepatolenticular degeneration) | 552 | ||
| Tardive dyskinesia | 552 | ||
| 74 - Hypothalamus and thalamus | 555 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 555 | ||
| Hypothalamus | 555 | ||
| Connections of hypothalamus | 555 | ||
| Functions of hypothalamus | 555 | ||
| Theories of Food Intake | 555 | ||
| Role in Sex Regulation | 556 | ||
| Rage and sham rage | 558 | ||
| Thalamus | 558 | ||
| Thalamic nuclei | 558 | ||
| Connections of thalamic nuclei | 558 | ||
| Functions of thalamus | 559 | ||
| Thalamic pain syndrome | 560 | ||
| 75 - Electrical Activity of Brain: EEG, RAS, Sleep | 561 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 561 | ||
| Electroencephalogram (EEG) | 561 | ||
| Physiological basis of EEG | 561 | ||
| Technique of EEG recording | 561 | ||
| Waves of EEG | 561 | ||
| Alpha waves | 561 | ||
| Reticular activating system (RAS) | 563 | ||
| Functions of RAS | 564 | ||
| Sleep | 564 | ||
| Genesis of sleep | 565 | ||
| Role of melatonin | 566 | ||
| Sleep disorders | 567 | ||
| Parasomnias | 567 | ||
| 76 - Higher Functions of CNS | 569 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 569 | ||
| Memory | 569 | ||
| Neurological basis of memory | 570 | ||
| Role of hippocampus and amygdala | 570 | ||
| Synaptic plasticity and memory | 570 | ||
| Post-tetanic potentiation | 570 | ||
| Long-term potentiation and long-term depression | 571 | ||
| Types of LTP | 571 | ||
| Learning | 572 | ||
| Associative learning | 572 | ||
| Non associative learning | 572 | ||
| Senile dementia and Alzheimer disease | 573 | ||
| Speech | 574 | ||
| Categorical and representational hemisphere | 575 | ||
| Physiology of emotions | 576 | ||
| Arnold theory of emotions | 576 | ||
| Neural mechanisms of genesis of emotions | 576 | ||
| 77 - CSF Flow | 579 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 579 | ||
| CSF formation and circulation | 579 | ||
| Functions of CSF | 579 | ||
| Collection of CSF | 580 | ||
| Applied aspect | 580 | ||
| Hydrocephalus | 580 | ||
| Countrecoup injury | 580 | ||
| 78 - Blood–Brain Barrier | 581 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 581 | ||
| Blood–brain barrier (BBB) | 581 | ||
| Circumventricular organs | 582 | ||
| Circumventricular organs and physioclinical significance | 582 | ||
| 79 - Autonomic Nervous System | 583 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 583 | ||
| Autonomic nervous system | 583 | ||
| Sympathetic division of ANS | 583 | ||
| Neurotransmitters in ANS | 584 | ||
| Acetylcholine (ACh) | 584 | ||
| Mechanism of Action | 584 | ||
| Norepinephrine (NE) | 585 | ||
| Mechanism of Action | 585 | ||
| Non-adrenergic non-cholinergic neurotransmitters | 585 | ||
| Integrated role of parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of ANS | 588 | ||
| Antagonistic effect | 588 | ||
| Synergistic effect | 588 | ||
| Complementary effect | 588 | ||
| Concept of catabolic and anabolic nervous system | 588 | ||
| Organophosphorus poisoning | 589 | ||
| Autonomic function tests | 589 | ||
| 80 - Topics of Special Interest | 591 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 591 | ||
| Rigidity and spasticity | 591 | ||
| Cerebral palsy | 591 | ||
| Addiction | 591 | ||
| Depression | 592 | ||
| Raynaud phenomenon | 592 | ||
| Introduction | 495 | ||
| Section X - Special senses | 593 | ||
| 81 - Vision | 595 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 595 | ||
| Anatomy of human eye | 595 | ||
| Flow of aqueous humour | 596 | ||
| Dioptric power of eye | 597 | ||
| Refractive indices | 597 | ||
| Schematic eye and Listing’s reduced eye | 597 | ||
| Errors of refraction | 597 | ||
| Myopia and hypermetropia | 597 | ||
| Astigmatism | 597 | ||
| Presbyopia | 598 | ||
| Accommodation and pupillary light reflexes | 598 | ||
| Accommodation | 598 | ||
| Pupillary light reflexes | 599 | ||
| Retina | 599 | ||
| Photoreceptors | 600 | ||
| Structurally | 601 | ||
| Rhodopsin and phototransduction | 602 | ||
| Rhodopsin (or visual purple) | 602 | ||
| Phototransduction | 602 | ||
| Dark adaptation | 603 | ||
| Visual pathway and lesions | 604 | ||
| Visual pathway | 604 | ||
| Effect of lesions | 604 | ||
| Processing of visual information | 605 | ||
| Primary visual cortex (V1) | 607 | ||
| Cells and columns in primary visual cortex | 607 | ||
| Colour vision | 608 | ||
| Importance of colour vision determination | 609 | ||
| Tests to check colour vision | 609 | ||
| Eye movements | 609 | ||
| Field of vision and binocular vision | 609 | ||
| Field of vision | 609 | ||
| Extent of Normal Field of Vision | 609 | ||
| Charting of Central Field of Vision | 610 | ||
| Binocular vision | 611 | ||
| 82 - Hearing | 613 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 613 | ||
| Ear and sound transmission | 613 | ||
| External ear | 613 | ||
| Middle ear | 613 | ||
| Internal ear (labyrinth) | 614 | ||
| Components of Bony Labyrinth | 614 | ||
| Components of Membranous Labyrinth | 614 | ||
| Sound transmission | 617 | ||
| Tip link theory | 617 | ||
| Von Bekesy travelling wave theory/place theory | 618 | ||
| Tympanic reflex or attenuation reflex | 618 | ||
| Impedance matching | 619 | ||
| Qualities of sound waves | 619 | ||
| Deafness | 620 | ||
| Causes of deafness | 620 | ||
| Hearing tests | 620 | ||
| Vestibular disorders | 621 | ||
| Vestibular pathway | 621 | ||
| Auditory cortex | 622 | ||
| Auditory pathway | 622 | ||
| Role of vestibular apparatus in maintaining equilibrium | 622 | ||
| Response to rotational acceleration: functioning of semicircular canals | 622 | ||
| Response towards linear acceleration | 623 | ||
| Role of otolith organs in maintaining equilibrium | 623 | ||
| 83 - Taste and Smell | 627 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 627 | ||
| Taste | 627 | ||
| Taste bud | 627 | ||
| Taste pathway | 627 | ||
| Receptors for taste sensation | 627 | ||
| Smell | 627 | ||
| Functions | 629 | ||
| 84 - Topics of Special Interest | 631 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 631 | ||
| Electro-oculogram (EOG) | 631 | ||
| Electroretinogram (ERG) | 631 | ||
| Visual evoked potential (VEP) | 632 | ||
| Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) | 632 | ||
| Hearing aids | 632 | ||
| Brain stem auditory evoked potential (baep) or brain stem evoked response audiometry (bera) | 632 | ||
| Applications | 632 | ||
| Introduction | 593 | ||
| Section XI - Reproductive physiology | 635 | ||
| 85 - Embryology of Reproductive System | 637 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 637 | ||
| Differentiation of external genitalia from primordial (indifferent) structure | 637 | ||
| Sex differentiation | 637 | ||
| 86 - Puberty: Changes, Regulation and Disorders | 639 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 639 | ||
| Puberty | 639 | ||
| Sudden physical growth | 639 | ||
| Development of secondary sexual characters | 639 | ||
| Hormonal changes during puberty | 639 | ||
| Regulation of onset of puberty | 640 | ||
| Disorders of puberty | 641 | ||
| Causes | 641 | ||
| Clinical features | 641 | ||
| Treatment | 641 | ||
| 87 - Male Reproductive System | 643 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 643 | ||
| Structure of human testes | 643 | ||
| Sertoli cells | 643 | ||
| Functions | 643 | ||
| Structure of sperm | 644 | ||
| Spermatogenesis | 644 | ||
| Semen | 645 | ||
| Sperm capacitation | 646 | ||
| Endocrine function of testes | 646 | ||
| Androgens | 646 | ||
| Synthesis | 647 | ||
| Actions and Effects of Androgens | 647 | ||
| Other Actions of Androgens | 647 | ||
| Regulation of Testicular Function | 648 | ||
| Abnormalities of male reproductive system | 648 | ||
| Cryptorchidism | 648 | ||
| Male hypogonadism | 648 | ||
| Causes | 648 | ||
| Features | 648 | ||
| Male menopause | 649 | ||
| Prostate cancer | 649 | ||
| Clinical Features | 649 | ||
| Diagnosis | 649 | ||
| Treatment | 649 | ||
| 88 - Female Reproductive System | 651 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 651 | ||
| Ovarian hormones | 651 | ||
| Oestrogen | 651 | ||
| Synthesis | 651 | ||
| Effects of Oestrogen | 652 | ||
| Mechanism of Action | 652 | ||
| Oestrogen and Endocrine Regulation | 652 | ||
| Progesterone | 653 | ||
| Synthesis and Degradation | 653 | ||
| Functions | 653 | ||
| Other ovarian hormones | 653 | ||
| Menstrual cycle and hormonal regulation of female sexual cycle | 654 | ||
| Ovarian cycle | 654 | ||
| Uterine cycle (endometrial cycle) | 655 | ||
| Cyclical changes occurring in uterine cervix | 656 | ||
| Cyclical changes occurring in female breasts | 656 | ||
| Reflex ovulation | 657 | ||
| Oestrous cycle | 657 | ||
| Menstrual abnormalities | 657 | ||
| Determinants of ovulation | 657 | ||
| Anovulatory cycle | 660 | ||
| Menopause (or climateric) | 660 | ||
| 89 - Pregnancy | 661 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 661 | ||
| Fertilisation and implantation | 661 | ||
| Fertilisation | 661 | ||
| Maternal physiological changes during pregnancy | 662 | ||
| Pregnancy tests | 662 | ||
| Fetoplacental unit | 664 | ||
| Placental progesterone | 664 | ||
| Placental oestrogen synthesis | 665 | ||
| Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) | 665 | ||
| Significance of hCG | 665 | ||
| Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) or chorionic growth hormone-prolactin (CGP) or human placental lactogen (HPL) | 665 | ||
| Other placental hormones | 665 | ||
| Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) ACT | 665 | ||
| 90 - Parturition and Lactation | 667 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 667 | ||
| Parturition | 667 | ||
| Role of oxytocin during parturition | 667 | ||
| Ferguson reflex | 668 | ||
| Section XII - miscellaneous topics | 679 | ||
| 93 - Ageing | 681 | ||
| Age-related changes in different organ systems | 681 | ||
| Theories of ageing | 683 | ||
| Genetic theories of ageing | 683 | ||
| Damage repair theory of ageing concept | 683 | ||
| How to stay young/delay ageing? | 684 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 681 | ||
| 94 - Body Temperature and Regulation | 685 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 685 | ||
| Body temperature | 685 | ||
| Factors affecting body temperature | 685 | ||
| Physiological Variations | 685 | ||
| Pathological Variations | 686 | ||
| Heat producing mechanisms | 686 | ||
| Heat loss mechanisms | 687 | ||
| 95 - Physiological Changes in Newborn After Birth | 691 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 691 | ||
| Cardiovascular changes | 691 | ||
| Respiratory changes | 691 | ||
| CNS changes | 691 | ||
| Haematological and immunological changes | 691 | ||
| Renal changes | 692 | ||
| Temperature regulatory changes | 692 | ||
| GIT changes | 692 | ||
| Foetal circulation | 692 | ||
| Changes after birth | 693 | ||
| 96 - Topics of Special Interest | 695 | ||
| Knowledge goals | 695 | ||
| Yoga and pranayama | 695 | ||
| Benefits of yoga | 695 | ||
| Yoga nidra | 695 | ||
| Benefits of yoga nidra | 695 | ||
| Steps of yoga nidra practice | 695 | ||
| Cognition | 696 | ||
| Introduction | 679 | ||
| Index | 697 |