Phosphorus: Polluter and Resource of the Future

Christian Schaum

BOOK

Phosphorus: Polluter and Resource of the Future

Christian Schaum

(2018)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-78040-836-1
Edition: 1
Language: English
Pages: 590
Subjects: The environment
Water supply & treatment
Mining technology & engineering

Abstract

Phosphorus has always been both a curse and a blessing. On the one hand, it is essential for all life forms and cannot be replaced by anything. On the other hand, wastewater treatment aims to minimize phosphorus concentrations in wastewater in order to minimize its discharge into rivers and lakes, where eutrophication caused by high phosphorus concentrations would lead to excessive plant growth. Phosphorus is extracted from rock phosphate deposits, which are finite and non-renewable. And as the issue of resource conservation is the focus of attention worldwide, phosphorus must be used sustainably. This includes recycling of secondary phosphates, efficient extraction and treatment of raw phosphate as well as its efficient use. The book starts from the peculiarity of the element phosphorus in Part I Phosphorus a special element?, Part II shows the possibilities and limitations of the elimination of phosphorus during the wastewater treatment. Current developments in phosphorus recovery are presented in Part III Phosphorus Recovery - Technology, where also a large number of technology developments are presented in the context of case studies. Part IV “Assessment” shows impulses for future ways. The book concludes with an “Outlook” in Part V. The book is partially based on the book Phosphorus in Environmental Technology – Principles and Application, edited by Eugina Valsami-Jones and published by IWA Publishing in 2004. Various new technologies have been developed since its release, particularly in the area of phosphorus recovery. Phosphorus: Polluter and Resource of the Future discusses all aspects of both Phosphorus elimination and recovery and summarizes the latest state of Phosphorus recovery technologies.

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Cover	Cover
Contents	v
About the Editor	xxi
Preface – Phosphorus: Curse and Blessing?	xxiii
Part I: Phosphorus – A Special Element	1
Chapter 1: Phosphorus the pollutant	3
1.1 INTRODUCTION	3
1.2 PERCEPTIONS OF PHOSPHORUS AS A POLLUTANT	5
1.3 REACTIVE P FROM RURAL ENVIRONMENTS	9
1.3.1 The phosphorus transfer continuum	9
1.3.1.1 Legacy soil phosphorus	13
1.3.1.2 Fresh phosphorus amendments	13
1.3.1.3 Other rural phosphorus sources	14
1.4 REACTIVE P FROM URBAN ENVIRONMENTS	14
1.4.1 Urban wastewater discharges	15
1.4.2 Urban stormwater run-off	16
1.5 ARE ALL SOURCES OF PHOSPHORUS EQUALLY POLLUTING?	16
1.5.1 Ecological relevance of phosphorus forms	17
1.6 CONTROL OF PHOSPHORUS POLLUTION	19
1.6.1 Point source controls	19
1.6.2 Diffuse source controls	20
1.7 STRATEGIES TOWARDS MORE SUSTAINABLE PHOSPHORUS USE	21
1.8 CONCLUSIONS	22
1.9 REFERENCES	23
Chapter 2: Phosphate pollution: A global overview of the problem	35
2.1 INTRODUCTION	35
2.2 THE EUROPEAN UNION	38
2.3 THE UNITED STATES	44
2.4 AUSTRALIA	45
2.5 JAPAN	47
2.6 SOUTH AND EAST ASIA	49
2.7 AFRICA	51
2.8 ANTARCTICA	52
2.9 CONCLUSIONS	52
2.10 REFERENCES	53
Chapter 3: Phosphorus as a resource	57
3.1 INTRODUCTION	57
3.2 PHOSPHORUS FLOW ANALYSIS	58
3.2.1 Phosphorus flows in Europe	58
3.2.1.1 System description and assumptions	58
3.2.1.2 Human phosphorus consumption	59
3.2.1.3 Phosphorus flows by sector	60
3.2.1.4 Phosphorus sinks and losses	62
3.2.2 Global phosphorus flows	63
3.2.2.1 The supply–demand chain for mined phosphorus	63
3.2.2.2 Additional inputs	65
3.2.2.3 Losses	65
3.2.2.4 Efficiency of phosphate rock use	67
3.3 MINERAL PHOSPHORUS RESOURCES AND RESERVES	70
3.3.1 Definition of resources and reserves	70
3.3.1.1 Current reserves and resources	70
3.3.1.2 Recent development of resources and reserves	71
3.3.1.3 Physical scarcity and peak phosphorus	72
3.4 THE PROBLEM WITH TODAY’S GLOBAL PHOSPHORUS FLOWS	74
3.4.1 Economic scarcity	74
3.4.2 Environmental pollution	75
3.4.3 Providing phosphorus for future generations	76
3.4.4 Regional differences in phosphorus balances	76
3.5 CONCLUSIONS	77
3.6 REFERENCES	77
Part II: Elimination of Phosphorus from Wastewater	81
Chapter 4: Phosphorus in wastewater	83
4.1 ORIGIN OF PHOSPHORUS IN WASTEWATER	83
4.2 CONCENTRATION AND LOAD OF PHOSPHORUS IN MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER	88
4.2.1 Domestic wastewater	88
4.2.2 Wastewater from industrial and commercial sources	92
4.3 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF PHOSPHORUS IN WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE	93
4.3.1 Speciation of phosphorus	93
4.3.2 Determination of phosphorus in water and wastewater	97
4.3.2.1 Manual and semi-automated analyses based on the ascorbic acid method	99
4.3.2.2 Automated determination of phosphate	100
4.3.2.3 Extraction of phosphorus from sludges using aqua regia	103
4.3.2.4 Determination of phosphorus in raw sludge and digested sludge	104
4.3.3 Sequential extraction procedures to determine the binding form of phosphorus	104
4.3.4 Determination of phosphonates	105
4.4 REFERENCES	105
Chapter 5: Phosphorus removal in wastewater treatment plants	109
5.1 BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL	109
5.1.1 Process configurations for EBPR	110
5.1.1.1 Anaerobic/oxic (Phoredox and A/O) system	111
5.1.1.2 PhoStrip process	111
5.1.1.3 Three-stage modified Bardenpho and A2/O system	111
5.1.1.4 Five-stage modified Bardenpho	112
5.1.1.5 University of Cape Town (UCT) and Virginia Initiative Plant (VIP) processes	112
5.1.1.6 Johannesburg and Westbank processes	113
5.1.1.7 Time-cyclic processes	113
5.1.2 Factors affecting performance	113
5.1.2.1 Influent characteristics	113
5.1.2.2 Integrity of the anaerobic zone	114
5.1.2.3 Aerobic zone impacts	116
5.1.2.4 pH	117
5.1.2.5 Solids and hydraulic retention times	117
5.1.2.6 Temperature	117
5.1.2.7 Solids capture	118
5.1.2.8 Secondary release and recycle load management	118
5.2 CHEMICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL	118
5.2.1 Process principles	119
5.2.2 Mechanisms of chemical phosphorus removal	120
5.2.2.1 Phosphorus species	121
5.2.2.2 Reactions with coagulants	122
5.2.2.3 Simultaneous phosphorus precipitation	126
5.2.2.4 Sequential phosphorus precipitation	128
5.2.3 Applications of chemical phosphorus removal	128
5.3 REFERENCES	129
Chapter 6: Total solids and phosphorus: A cross-linked topic?	133
6.1 NECESSITY OF ADVANCED PHOSPHORUS AND PARTICLE REMOVAL	133
6.2 PHOSPHORUS AND PARTICLES	134
6.3 PROCESSES OF ADVANCED P-ELIMINATION	136
6.4 PROCESSES OF SOLID REMOVAL	137
6.4.1 Overview of separation processes	137
6.4.2 Sedimentation, lamella separator, flotation in combination with post-precipitation	137
6.4.3 Filtration processes	139
6.4.3.1 Overview of different filtration technologies	139
6.4.3.2 Dimensioning of granular wastewater filtration	141
6.4.4 Shallow bed filtration	141
6.4.4.1 Shallow bed with granular media	141
6.4.4.2 Microstrainer	142
6.4.4.3 Cloth media filter	143
6.4.5 Deep bed filtration	144
6.4.6 Membrane filtration	146
6.5 ASSESSMENT OF THE DIFFERENT PARTICLE SEPARATION PROCESSES	147
6.6 REFERENCES	148
Chapter 7: Effects of phosphorus removal in wastewater on sludge treatment processes and sludge dewatering	151
7.1 INTRODUCTION	151
7.2 DETERMINATION OF DEWATERABILITY OF SEWAGE SLUDGES	152
7.3 IMPACT OF WAS AND BIOLOGICAL P-REMOVAL ON SLUDGE DEWATERING	158
7.4 ALTERNATIVE FOR MITIGATING THE IMPACT OF EBPR ON DEWATERING	164
7.4.1 Phosphate reduction through metal salt addition	165
7.4.2 Stored phosphorus release	165
7.4.3 Thermal and chemical thermal cell lysis	168
7.4.4 Struvite precipitation	169
7.5 SUMMARY	171
7.6 REFERENCES	171
Chapter 8: Phosphorus removal and recovery in focus of a holistic wastewater treatment of the future	175
8.1 INTRODUCTION	175
8.2 APPROACHES FOR IMPROVED BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL AND SUBSEQUENT RECOVERY	177
8.2.1 Kinetic values of conventional biological phosphorus removal	177
8.2.2 Optimization of classical biological phosphorus removal	179
8.2.3 Membrane processes	181
8.2.4 Alternative microorganisms and metabolic processes for phosphorus fixation	182
8.3 INNOVATIVE METHODS FOR IMPROVED INTERFACES BETWEEN PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL AND RECYCLATE PRODUCTION	183
8.3.1 Microbial fuel cell	183
8.3.2 Algae and macrophyte cultures (aquatic plants)	184
8.3.3 Use of enzymes/proteins	185
8.3.4 Bioleaching	186
8.3.5 P-mobilization by bacterial colonization	187
8.3.6 Plant systems for heavy metal depletion	188
8.3.7 Fungi or mycorrhiza	189
8.4 EMERGING PROCESS DESIGNS AND THEIR IMPACT ON PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL AND RECOVERY	189
8.4.1 Characterization of phosphorus compounds occurring in wastewater treatment	190
8.4.2 Exemplary treatment concepts and their effect on phosphorus removal and recovery	192
8.4.2.1 Scenario 0: Conventional biological wastewater treatment with P removal by precipitation (state of the art)	193
8.4.2.2 Scenario 1: Conventional biological wastewater treatment enhanced biological P-removal and P-redissolution from surplus	194
8.4.2.3 Scenario 2: “Main stream deammonification” for nitrogen removal and effluent filtration	196
8.4.3 Comparison and evaluation of phosphorus removal concepts in WWTPs of the future	198
8.5 REFERENCES	200
Chapter 9: Phosphorus removal: An economic assessment	205
9.1 INTRODUCTION	205
9.2 BACKGROUND ON PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL	205
9.3 FACTORS AFFECTING COSTS OF PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL	206
9.4 ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF DIFFERENT SYSTEMS	207
9.5 COSTS OF PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL	208
9.5.1 Introduction	208
9.5.2 Capital costs (simultaneous precipitation)	210
9.5.3 Capital costs (enhanced biological phosphorus removal)	212
9.5.4 Capital costs (filtration)	213
9.5.5 Capital costs (summary)	214
9.5.6 Operational costs	215
9.5.7 Lifecycle costs	216
9.6 SUMMARY	217
9.7 REFERENCES	217
Chapter 10: Modeling the phosphorus cycle in the wastewater treatment process	219
10.1 INTRODUCTION	219
10.1.1 Phosphorus transformations in wastewater treatment	220
10.2 MODELING PHOSPHORUS TRANSFORMATIONS	223
10.2.1 Biological transformations in mainline	223
10.2.2 Anaerobic transformations in sidestream	225
10.2.3 Chemical transformations	226
10.2.3.1 General chemistry modeling	227
10.2.3.2 Water line: coagulation and flocculation with iron and alum	227
10.2.3.3 Sludge line: precipitation with calcium, magnesium and iron	229
10.3 PLANT-WIDE MODELING OF PHOSPHORUS	230
10.3.1 Modeling interactions with iron and sulfur cycles	230
10.3.2 Implementation and solution in a plant-wide context	232
10.4 PERSPECTIVES AND CHALLENGES	233
10.4.1 Modeling challenges	233
10.4.2 Enhancing phosphorus recovery	233
10.5 CONCLUSIONS	234
10.6 REFERENCES	234
Part IIIa: Phosphorus Recovery: Technology	239
Chapter 11: Wastewater as a resource: From rare earth metals to phosphorus	241
11.1 INTRODUCTION	241
11.2 ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE	243
11.3 GERMAN SURVEY OF SEWAGE SLUDGE ASHES	244
11.4 REFERENCES	250
Chapter 12: From push to pull: Coupling the diverse phosphorus products to the market	253
12.1 INTRODUCTION	253
12.1.1 A new product in an existing market	253
12.1.2 From supply driven to demand driven	254
12.2 STAKEHOLDERS IN SUPPLY CHAIN	255
12.2.1 The supply chain	255
12.2.2 Suppliers	255
12.2.3 Users	256
12.2.3.1 Aggregators/raw material processors	256
12.2.3.2 End-users	257
12.2.4 Service providers	258
12.2.5 Policymakers	258
12.3 MEETING DEMAND	259
12.3.1 General requirements demand	259
12.3.1.1 Chemical properties	259
12.3.1.2 Biochemical properties	260
12.3.1.3 Physical properties	261
12.3.1.4 Legal status	261
12.3.1.5 Security of supply	262
12.3.2 Summary requirements	262
12.4 TOWARDS PULL: WHAT TO DO?	263
12.4.1 Choosing and creating supply chain	263
12.4.2 Top products	263
12.4.3 Visibility and accessibility of product	267
12.4.4 The contract	267
12.4.5 Closed a contract: now what?	267
12.5 REFERENCES	268
Chapter 13: Phosphorus recovery – the North American perspective	269
13.1 INTRODUCTION	269
13.2 KEY DRIVERS AND BARRIERS	269
13.3 TECHNOLOGY REVIEW	270
13.3.1 Fluidized bed reactor	271
13.3.2 Waste activated sludge stripping to recover internal phosphate (WASSTRIP®)	274
13.3.3 AirPrex™	274
13.4 MARKET ANALYSIS	275
13.5 CASE STUDIES	278
13.6 CONCLUSION	278
13.7 REFERENCES	278
Chapter 14: The current situation regarding phosphorus recovery in Asian countries	281
14.1 PHOSPHORUS DEMAND IN THE ASIA REGION	281
14.1.1 The phosphorus flow in China	283
14.1.2 The phosphorus flow in Korea	285
14.1.3 The phosphorus flow in Taiwan	286
14.1.4 The phosphorus flow in Thailand	286
14.1.5 The phosphorus flow in Vietnam	288
14.1.6 The phosphorus flow in Japan	289
14.2 CHALLENGES FOR PHOSPHORUS RECOVERY FROM THE JAPANESE SEWERAGE SYSTEM	290
14.2.1 Phosphorus recovery technologies	291
14.2.1.1 Recovery from wastewater and/or rejected water	291
14.2.2 Phosphorus recovery from sewage sludge	295
14.2.3 Phosphorus recovery from incineration ash	296
14.2.4 Phosphorus recovery from a melting process	297
14.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS	299
14.4 REFERENCES	300
Chapter 15: New research ideas for phosphorus recovery from wastewater and sewage sludge ash	305
15.1 INTRODUCTION	305
15.2 NEW FIRST GENERATION PROCESSES	309
15.2.1 ExtraPhos® – chemical phosphate recovery from sewage sludge by CO2 acidulation and precipitation	309
15.2.1.1 Raw materials	310
15.2.1.2 Conclusion and outlook	310
15.2.2 Chemical phosphate recovery by functionalized superparamagnetic particles	311
15.2.2.1 Conclusion and outlook	312
15.2.3 Sequential electrodialytic phosphorus recovery from sewage sludge ash	312
15.2.3.1 Applying ED to frozen SS	313
15.2.3.2 Applying ED to fresh SS	313
15.2.3.3 Applying ED to SSA from low-temperature gasification	314
15.2.3.4 Applying ED to SSA incineration	315
15.2.3.5 Conclusion and outlook	315
15.2.4 Thermal white phosphorus extraction from sewage sludge ash	315
15.2.4.1 Introduction to thermal phosphate processing	315
15.2.4.2 Thermal processing of secondary raw materials	317
15.2.4.3 RecoPhos P4 process	317
15.2.4.3.1 Background	317
15.2.4.3.2 Process description	318
15.2.4.3.3 Raw materials	319
15.2.4.3.4 Pilot plant and test work	320
15.2.4.3.5 Conclusion	320
15.3 SECOND GENERATION PROCESSES	320
15.3.1 Nutrient recycling (N + P) by enhanced (microbial) biomass production and nitrogen conservation	320
15.3.2 Nutrient (N + P) recycling by microalgae and mixed microbial cultures to fish and fish products	321
15.3.3 Nutrient recycling from wastewater by lithoautotrophic (aerobic hydrogen oxidizing) bacteria	324
15.3.3.1 Rethinking sewage treatment – the Power-to-Protein concept (www.powertoprotein.eu)	327
15.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION	329
15.5 REFERENCES	329
Part IIIb: Phosphorus Recovery: Technology	333
Chapter 16: The Crystalactor® at the WWTP Geestmerambacht (The Netherlands)	335
16.1 INTRODUCTION	335
16.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION	336
16.2.1 Process scheme	336
16.2.2 Chemistry	337
16.2.3 Crystalactor®	338
16.3 RESULTS OF THE LARGE-SCALE IMPLEMENTATION	338
16.3.1 Performance data	339
16.3.2 Costs	339
16.3.3 Conclusion	340
16.3.4 Fact sheet	340
16.4 REFERENCES	341
Chapter 17: AirPrex® sludge optimization and struvite recovery from digested sludge	343
17.1 THEMATIC INTRODUCTION	343
17.2 PROCEDURAL DEFINITION	344
17.3 ANAEROBIC REDISSOLUTION OF PHOSPHORUS	345
17.4 THE INFLUENCE OF STRUVITE PRECIPITATION ON THE TREATMENT OF DIGESTED SLUDGE	346
17.4.1 Influence on unwanted struvite crystallizations	346
17.4.2 Influence on sludge dewatering	346
17.5 THE AIRPREX® PROCESS	347
17.6 STRUVITE PRECIPITATION BASED ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE RWZI IN AMSTERDAM-WEST [5]	348
17.7 CONCLUSION	350
17.8 REFERENCES	350
Chapter 18: The PHOSPAQ™ process	351
18.1 INTRODUCTION	351
18.2 THE PROCESS	352
18.2.1 Description	352
18.2.1.1 Product	352
18.2.1.2 Case Study: Waterstromen Olburgen (The Netherlands)	353
18.2.2 Key figures of the process	356
18.3 OUTLOOK – FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS	357
18.4 REFERENCES	357
Chapter 19: The Pearl® and WASSTRIP® processes (Canada)	359
19.1 INTRODUCTION	359
19.2 THE PROCESS	360
19.2.1 The Pearl process description	360
19.2.2 The WASSTRIP process description	361
19.2.3 Crystal Green	361
19.2.4 Key figures of the process	362
19.3 OUTLOOK – FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS	365
Chapter 20: The PHOSNIX process at the WWTP Lake Shinji East (Japan)	367
20.1 INTRODUCTION	367
20.2 PROCESS	368
20.2.1 Apparatus	368
20.2.2 Operation	369
20.2.2.1 Main flow	369
20.2.2.2 Struvite extraction	369
20.3 COMMERCIAL PLANT	369
20.3.1 Capacity	369
20.3.2 Performance	370
20.3.3 Cost	370
20.3.4 Product quality	371
20.4 APPLICATION FOR ANOTHER PURPOSE	372
20.5 REFERENCES	373
Chapter 21: The Stuttgart Process (Germany)	375
21.1 INTRODUCTION	375
21.2 THE PROCESS	376
21.3 NUTRIENT RECOVERY PILOT PLANT	377
21.3.1 Operation of the plant (batch mode)	378
21.3.1.1 Acidic leaching of phosphate	378
21.3.1.2 Dewatering of acidified digested sludge	379
21.3.1.3 Struvite precipitation	379
21.3.1.4 Recyclate/struvite harvesting	381
21.3.2 Performance data	382
21.3.2.1 Phosphorus recovery rates and recyclate yields	382
21.3.2.2 Consumption of chemicals	383
21.3.3 Recyclate quality	384
21.3.3.1 Nutrients	384
21.3.3.2 Metals	384
21.3.3.3 Recalcitrant organic compounds (ROCs)	388
21.3.4 Cost analysis	388
21.4 KEY FIGURES OF THE PROCESS	390
21.5 OUTLOOK – FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS	390
21.6 REFERENCES	390
Chapter 22: The ExtraPhos® process (Germany)	391
22.1 INTRODUCTION	391
22.2 THE PROCESS	392
22.2.1 Description	392
22.2.2 Key figures of the process	393
22.3 OUTLOOK – FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS	393
22.4 REFERENCES	394
Chapter 23: KRN-Mephrec (Germany)	395
23.1 INTRODUCTION	395
23.2 THE PROCESS	396
23.2.1 Description	396
23.2.2 Key figures of the process	399
23.3 OUTLOOK – FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS	400
Chapter 24: The REMONDIS TetraPhos® Process at the WWTP in Hamburg (Germany)	401
24.1 INTRODUCTION	401
24.2 PHOSPHORUS RECOVERY: NOW & IN THE NEAR FUTURE	402
24.2.1 Raw phosphates for industrial business	402
24.2.2 Solubility of phosphates in ashes	403
24.3 REMONDIS TETRAPHOS® PROCESS	404
24.4 THE PILOT PLANT: PUTTING THEORY INTO PRACTICE	406
24.4.1 Results: Phosphorus recovery & heavy metals	407
24.5 OUTLOOK – UPSCALING TECHNOLOGY	409
24.6 REFERENCES	409
Chapter 25: The LeachPhos process at the waste-to-energy plant Bern (Switzerland)	411
25.1 INTRODUCTION	411
25.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION	412
25.2.1 Leaching process	413
25.2.2 Precipitation process	413
25.2.3 Wastewater treatment	414
25.2.4 Equipment	414
25.3 MASS BALANCE	414
25.4 CONCLUSION	414
25.5 REFERENCES	416
Chapter 26: The PARFORCE-Technology (Germany)	417
26.1 INTRODUCTION	417
26.2 THE PROCESS	418
26.2.1 Description	418
26.2.2 Key figures of the process	420
26.3 OUTLOOK – FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS	424
26.4 REFERENCES	424
Chapter 27: The AshDec® process – evolution from its earlier stages to current practice	425
27.1 INTRODUCTION	425
27.2 THE EVOLUTION	426
27.2.1 Challenges and responses	426
27.2.2 Towards the current AshDec® process	428
27.3 KEY PROCESS FIGURES	429
27.3.1 General data	429
27.3.2 Utilities and consumables	429
27.3.3 Waste	429
27.3.4 Advantages	430
27.4 THE PRODUCT	430
27.5 OUTLOOK – DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS	431
27.6 REFERENCES	433
Chapter 28: Sludge melting system	435
28.1 INTRODUCTION	435
28.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION	436
28.2.1 Principle of phosphorus recovery	436
28.2.2 Reactor	437
28.2.3 Sewage sludge treatment process	438
28.3 RESULTS OF THE LARGE-SCALE IMPLEMENTATION	438
28.3.1 Pilot plant test	438
28.3.2 Plant cultivation test	441
28.4 COSTS	441
28.5 CONCLUSION	441
Chapter 29: The RecoPhos/Inducarb process (the Netherlands)	443
29.1 INTRODUCTION	443
29.2 THE PROCESS	444
29.2.1 Description	444
29.2.2 Key figures of the process	445
29.3 OUTLOOK – FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS	446
29.4 REFERENCES	446
Chapter 30: Total phosphorus recovery and direct utilization of the sewage sludge ash as a fertilizer at Ulm WWTP (Germany)	447
30.1 INTRODUCTION	447
30.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION	449
30.3 PERFORMANCE DATA	450
30.4 COSTS	452
30.5 CONCLUSIONS	452
30.6 REFERENCES	453
Part IIIc: Phosphorus Recovery: Assessment	455
Chapter 31: Comparison of technologies for phosphorus recovery – Identification of an ideal solution?	457
31.1 INTRODUCTION	457
31.2 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES	458
31.2.1 Urine separation	458
31.2.1.1 Process description	458
31.2.1.2 Status of development	459
31.2.2 Recovery from secondary treated effluent	459
31.2.2.1 Process description	459
31.2.2.2 Status of development	460
31.2.3 Recovery from liquid phase of sludge treatment	460
31.2.3.1 Process description	460
31.2.3.2 Status of development	460
31.2.4 Recovery from sewage sludge	461
31.2.4.1 Process description	461
31.2.4.2 Status of development	462
31.2.5 Recovery from sewage sludge ashes	463
31.2.5.1 Process description	463
31.2.5.2 Status of development	465
31.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR THE COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT	466
31.3.1 Modular reference system and assessed technologies	466
31.3.2 Recovery potential and assessment of the recovered materials	467
31.3.3 Economic assessment	467
31.3.3.1 Cost calculation	467
31.3.3.2 Calculation of savings and revenues	468
31.3.4 Environmental assessment	468
31.4 RESULTS OF THE COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT	469
31.4.1 Recovery potential and assessment of the recovered materials	469
31.4.1.1 Recovery potential	469
31.4.1.2 Nutrient content and plant availability	469
31.4.1.3 Pollutants content	471
31.4.1.4 Texture and handling	472
31.4.2 Economic assessment	474
31.4.3 Environmental assessment	476
31.4.3.1 Cumulative energy demand (CED)	476
31.4.3.2 Gaseous emissions (CO2e) with global warming potential (GWP)	476
31.4.3.3 Gaseous emissions (SO2e) with acidification potential (AP)	477
31.4.3.4 Relevance of the environmental impact in the context of the status quo	479
31.4.4 Uncertainty	480
31.5 CONCLUSIONS	481
31.6 REFERENCES	483
Chapter 32: Success factors for implementing P recovery and recycling technologies	487
32.1 INTRODUCTION	487
32.1.1 The value chain	487
32.1.2 Success factors	489
32.2 TECHNOLOGIES UNDER DEVELOPMENT, IN USE, OR BEING IMPLEMENTED	496
32.2.1 Sewage sludge in direct application	496
32.2.2 Struvite recovery	496
32.2.3 Sludge processes	499
32.2.3.1 EXTRAPHOS by Budenheim	499
32.2.3.2 Acidic leaching of digested sludge	500
32.2.4 Ash based processes	501
32.2.4.1 Glatt® Seraplant	502
32.2.4.2 Ecophos	503
32.2.4.3 LeachPhos	504
32.2.4.4 TetraPhos	505
32.2.4.5 AshDec	505
32.2.4.6 Mephrec	506
32.2.4.7 Recophos-P4	507
32.3 CONCLUSIONS	508
32.4 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS	510
32.5 OUTLOOK	511
32.6 REFERENCES	512
Chapter 33: Phosphorus recovery – decision-making under uncertainties, sector integration and digital modernization by using multi-criterial decision analysis	515
33.1 INTRODUCTION	515
33.2 DEFINING THE MATTER AT HAND	516
33.3 THE INNOVATION FIELD FOR PHOSPHORUS RECOVERY	517
33.3.1 Imperative of phosphorus recovery	518
33.3.2 General framework conditions for the modernization of WWTPs	519
33.3.3 Criteria for comparing approaches towards modernization of WWTPs	521
33.4 SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS FOR TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN THE WASTEWATER SECTOR	523
33.5 SUMMARY AND PERSPECTIVE	530
33.6 REFERENCES	532
Part IV: Outlook	535
Chapter 34: Wastewater treatment of the future: Health, water and resource protection	537
34.1 INTRODUCTION	537
34.2 OBJECTIVES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT	538
34.2.1 Health protection	538
34.2.1.1 Safeguarding basic sanitation	538
34.2.1.2 Disinfection: Bathing water quality and water reuse	539
34.2.2 Water protection	540
34.2.2.1 European water framework directive	540
34.2.2.2 Minimization of nutrient input into waterbodies	540
34.2.2.3 Micropollutants, nanoparticles and microplastics	541
34.2.2.4 Substance prohibition for water (and health) protection	541
34.2.3 Resource protection	541
34.3 RESOURCES IN WASTEWATER: WATER, NUTRIENTS AND ENERGY	542
34.3.1 Water	542
34.3.2 Nutrients	542
34.3.3 Energy	544
34.3.3.1 Chemically bound energy in wastewater: Evaluation via COD balancing	544
34.3.3.2 Sewage sludge treatment plants in interaction with the energy industry	545
34.4 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS OF THE FUTURE: FROM TREATMENT PLANT TO (SYSTEM) SERVICE PROVIDER	547
34.5 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK: FROM TREATMENT FACILITY TO SYSTEM SERVICE PROVIDER	549
34.6 REFERENCES	550
Index	555

Phosphorus: Polluter and Resource of the Future

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