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Book Details
Abstract
The identification and quantification of material present and collected at a crime scene are critical requirements in investigative analyses. Forensic analysts use a variety of tools and techniques to achieve this, many of which use light. Light is not always the forensic analyst’s friend however, as light can degrade samples and alter results.
This book details the analysis of a range of molecular systems by light-based techniques relevant to forensic science, as well as the negative effects of light in the degradation of forensic evidence, such as the breakage of DNA linkages during DNA profiling. The introductory chapters explain how chemiluminescence and fluorescence can be used to visualise samples and the advantages and limitations of available technologies. They also discuss the limitations of our knowledge about how light could alter the physical nature of materials, for example by breaking DNA linkages during DNA profiling or by modifying molecular structures of polymers and illicit drugs. The book then explains how to detect, analyse and interpret evidence from materials such as illicit drugs, agents of bioterrorism, and textiles, using light-based techniques from microscopy to surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy.
Edited by active photobiological and forensic scientists, this book will be of interest to students and researchers in the fields of photochemistry, photobiology, toxicology and forensic science.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | Cover | ||
| COMPREHENSIVE SERIES IN PHOTOCHEMICAL AND PHOTOBIOLOGICAL SCIENCE | i | ||
| Preface | vii | ||
| Contents | xi | ||
| Chapter 1 - Light for Crime Scene Examination | 1 | ||
| 1.1. Introduction | 3 | ||
| 1.2. A Brief Summary on the Theory of Light | 5 | ||
| 1.3. Imaging on the Crime Scene: Finding Traces | 9 | ||
| 1.3.1. Observation in the Absorption/Reflection Mode | 9 | ||
| 1.3.2. Fluorescence | 10 | ||
| 1.3.3. Chemiluminescence | 15 | ||
| 1.4. Photographic Techniques: Documenting Traces | 15 | ||
| 1.4.1. Absorption Mode | 15 | ||
| 1.4.2. Diffuse Reflection Mode | 19 | ||
| 1.5. The Lab-on-the-scene Approach | 22 | ||
| 1.6. Conclusion | 23 | ||
| References | 24 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Degradation and Damage due to Exposure to Light in Trace Evidence | 27 | ||
| 2.1. Introduction | 29 | ||
| 2.2. The Degradation of Polymers | 30 | ||
| 2.3. Polymer Degradation in a Forensic Context | 37 | ||
| 2.4. Conclusion | 47 | ||
| References | 48 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Use of Light in the Detection of Genetic Variation of Forensic Importance | 51 | ||
| 3.1. Introduction to DNA and RNA Structure, Function and Variation | 53 | ||
| 3.2. Enabling Technologies for DNA Analysis | 54 | ||
| 3.3. Analysis of DNA in Forensic Casework | 57 | ||
| 3.3.1. DNA Detection | 57 | ||
| 3.3.2. DNA Quantification | 61 | ||
| 3.3.3. STR Typing | 64 | ||
| 3.3.4. mtDNA Gene Sequence Identification | 67 | ||
| 3.3.5. Body Fluid Identification | 69 | ||
| 3.3.6. Biogeographic Origin and Phenotypic Trait Inference | 71 | ||
| 3.4. Degradation of DNA by Light | 72 | ||
| 3.5. Summary | 75 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 75 | ||
| References | 75 | ||
| Chapter 4 - Use of Light in Fingerprint Detection | 83 | ||
| 4.1. Introduction: What Is a Fingerprint | 85 | ||
| 4.2. Examination of Fingermarks Without Pretreatment | 86 | ||
| 4.2.1. Visual Examination | 86 | ||
| 4.2.2. Ultraviolet Imaging | 87 | ||
| 4.2.3. Infrared Imaging | 87 | ||
| 4.3. Development of Latent Fingermarks on Porous Substrates | 88 | ||
| 4.3.1. Ninhydrin and Post-treatment | 88 | ||
| 4.3.2. Fluorescent Analogues of Ninhydrin | 90 | ||
| 1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one (DFO).The first synthesis of 1,8- Diazafluoren-9-one (DFO) (Scheme 4.4) was described in 1950 by Druey an... | 90 | ||
| 1,2-Indanedione.Although 1,2-Indanedione (1,2-IND) (Scheme 4.5) was first described in 1912,29 it had never been tested on laten... | 91 | ||
| 4.4. Development of Latent Fingermarks on Non-porous Substrates | 92 | ||
| 4.4.1. Cyanoacrylate Fuming and Fluorescent Post-treatment | 92 | ||
| 4.4.2. One-step Fluorescent Cyanoacrylates | 96 | ||
| 4.5. Miscellaneous Methods Based on Luminescence | 101 | ||
| 4.5.1. Fluorescent Powders | 101 | ||
| 4.5.2. Fluorescent NPs | 102 | ||
| 4.5.3.Other Methods | 104 | ||
| References | 107 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Light as an Ionizing Agent in Mass Spectrometry. Microbial Identification by Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization–Mass Spectrometry | 111 | ||
| 5.1. Introduction to Mass Spectrometry | 113 | ||
| 5.2. Electron Beams as Ionizing Agent | 114 | ||
| 5.2.1. Electron Ionization | 114 | ||
| 5.3. Gas Phase Reactions as Ionizing Agent | 114 | ||
| 5.3.1. Chemical Ionization (CI) | 114 | ||
| 5.3.2. Negative-ion Chemical Ionization (NCI) | 115 | ||
| 5.4. Atmospheric Pressure Ionization (API) Processes | 115 | ||
| 5.4.1. Electrospray Ionization (ESI) | 116 | ||
| 5.4.2. Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization (APCI) | 116 | ||
| 5.5. Light as Ionizing Agent | 116 | ||
| 5.5.1. Atmospheric Pressure Photoionization (APPI) | 117 | ||
| 5.5.2. Laser Desorption/Ionization (LDI), Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization (MALDI) and Surface Activated Laser Desorpt... | 124 | ||
| 5.5.3. Surface Activated Laser Desorption Ionization (SALDI) | 130 | ||
| 5.6. Applications of Laser Desorption Ionization in Microbiology | 131 | ||
| 5.6.1. Detection and Identification of Agents of Biological Warfare | 133 | ||
| 5.7. Conclusions | 136 | ||
| References | 136 | ||
| Chapter 6 - The Use of Light in Forensic Glass Analysis | 143 | ||
| 6.1 .Introduction | 145 | ||
| 6.1.1. What is Glass | 146 | ||
| 6.1.2. Evidential Value of Glass in Forensic Casework | 148 | ||
| 6.1.3. The Importance of Light in the Analysis of Glass | 151 | ||
| 6.2. Use of Light for the Initial Analysis of Glass Samples | 152 | ||
| 6.2.1. Photoluminescence of Glass | 154 | ||
| 6.3. Glass Refractive Index Measurements | 156 | ||
| 6.3.1. Methods for Determining the Refractive Index (RI) of Glass | 157 | ||
| 6.3.2. Intra-variation in Refractive Index of Glass | 165 | ||
| 6.3.3. Change in Refractive Index Upon Annealing | 166 | ||
| 6.4. Use of Light for Determining Curvature and Topography Detail | 167 | ||
| 6.5. The Use of Light to Quantify Trace Elemental Composition | 168 | ||
| 6.6. Conclusion | 170 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 170 | ||
| References | 170 | ||
| Chapter 7 - A Review on Analytical Techniques Used for Forensic Fiber Analysis | 175 | ||
| 7.1. Background | 177 | ||
| 7.2. Analytical Methods Used for Forensic Fiber Examination | 180 | ||
| 7.3. Microscopy | 181 | ||
| 7.3.1. Stereomicroscopy | 182 | ||
| 7.3.2. Polarized Light Microscopy | 182 | ||
| 7.3.3.\rConfocal Microscopy | 183 | ||
| 7.3.4.\rThermo-microscopy | 183 | ||
| 7.3.5.\rElectron Microscopy | 184 | ||
| 7.3.6.\rInfrared Microscopy | 185 | ||
| 7.3.7.\rFluorescence Microscopy | 185 | ||
| 7.4.\rChromatography | 185 | ||
| 7.4.1.\rThin Layered Chromatography | 186 | ||
| 7.4.2.\rHigh Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) | 187 | ||
| 7.4.3.\rCapillary Electrophoresis | 190 | ||
| 7.4.4.\rGel Permeation Chromatography | 192 | ||
| 7.5.\rSpectroscopy | 192 | ||
| 7.5.1.\rMicrospectrophotometry | 193 | ||
| 7.5.2.\rFourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy | 194 | ||
| 7.5.3.\rRaman Spectroscopy | 195 | ||
| 7.5.4.\rX-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectroscopy | 197 | ||
| 7.5.5.\rIR-Chemical Imaging (IRCI) Spectroscopy | 198 | ||
| 7.5.6.\rFluorescence Spectroscopy | 198 | ||
| 7.6.\rOther Methods for Forensic Fiber Analysis | 200 | ||
| 7.7.\rConclusion | 201 | ||
| References | 202 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) and Recent Scenarios: Epidemiological, Anthropological and Clinical Pharmacological Issues | 207 | ||
| 8.1.\rIntroduction | 209 | ||
| 8.1.1. Definitions of NPS\r | 209 | ||
| 8.1.2.\rSources, Numbers and Categories of NPS | 210 | ||
| 8.2.\rEpidemiology of NPS | 211 | ||
| 8.2.1.\rPrevalence of NPS | 213 | ||
| 8.2.2.\rReasons for Using NPS | 214 | ||
| 8.2.3.\rWhat NPS are Being Seized | 214 | ||
| 8.2.4.\rPrice, Purity and Potency of NPS | 218 | ||
| 8.2.5.\rControl and Regulation of NPS | 219 | ||
| 8.2.6.\rSanctions for NPS | 221 | ||
| 8.2.7.\rKnowing the Size of the NPS Market | 221 | ||
| 8.2.8.\rNPS-related Health Issues | 223 | ||
| 8.2.9.\rNPS-related Deaths | 225 | ||
| 8.3.\rAnthropological Issues – Characteristics of Users | 226 | ||
| 8.3.1.\rExplanations About the Recent Emergence of NPS: The ’Drugs 2.0.’Internet Revolution | 227 | ||
| 8.3.2.\rA New Generation of Drug/NPS Users (e-Psychonauts): Anthropological, Evolutionary and Psychological Issues | 228 | ||
| 8.4.\rClinical Pharmacological Concerns | 231 | ||
| 8.4.1.\rSynthetic Tryptamines | 231 | ||
| 8.4.2.\rSynthetic Phenethylamines | 232 | ||
| 8.4.3.\rPiperazines | 234 | ||
| 8.4.4.\rBenzofurans | 235 | ||
| 8.4.5.\rAmphetamine-type Substances (ATS) and Novel Psychostimulants | 235 | ||
| 8.4.6.\rSynthetic Cannabinoids | 236 | ||
| 8.4.7.\rSynthetic Cathinones | 237 | ||
| 8.4.8.\rOpioid NPS | 238 | ||
| 8.5.\rClinical Approaches to NPS | 238 | ||
| 8.6.\rWhat Might the Future Hold | 240 | ||
| 8.7.\rConclusions | 241 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 242 | ||
| References | 243 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Raman Spectroscopy for the Analysis of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) | 257 | ||
| 9.1.\rIntroduction | 259 | ||
| 9.2.\rGeneral Characterisation of NPS Using Raman Spectroscopy | 261 | ||
| 9.3.\rFluorescence Interference When Characterising NPS Using Raman Spectroscopy | 265 | ||
| 9.4.\rSurface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) in NPS Investigations | 267 | ||
| 9.5.\rProtocol for the Analysis of NPS Using Handheld Raman Spectroscopy | 274 | ||
| 9.6.\rConclusions | 276 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 276 | ||
| References | 277 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Light in Forensic Science: Microcrystalline Tests of New Psychoactive Substances Using Light Microscopy | 279 | ||
| 10.1.\rIntroduction | 281 | ||
| 10.2.\rExperimental | 287 | ||
| 10.3.\rResults and Discussion | 289 | ||
| 10.3.1.\rGamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) | 289 | ||
| 10.3.2.\rBenzylpiperazine (BZP) | 292 | ||
| 10.3.3.\rMephedrone (4-Methylmethcathinone, 4-MMC) | 294 | ||
| 10.3.4.\r3,4-Methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI) | 295 | ||
| 10.3.5.\rMixtures and NPS Products | 297 | ||
| 10.4.\rConclusion | 299 | ||
| References | 300 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Optical Detection of NPS Internet Products via HPLC-DAD Systems: A Selective Review | 301 | ||
| 11.1.\rIntroduction | 303 | ||
| 11.2.\rAchiral and Chiral Separation of Novel Psychoactive Substances by HPLC or by Other High Performance Separation Techniques w... | 304 | ||
| 11.2.1.\rSynthetic Cannabinoids | 304 | ||
| 11.2.2.\rNew Benzodiazepines | 307 | ||
| 11.2.3.\rNew Tryptamines | 309 | ||
| 11.2.4.\rNew Phenethylamines | 311 | ||
| 11.2.5.\rNew Amphetamines and Methamphetamines | 313 | ||
| 11.2.6.\rCathinones | 315 | ||
| 11.2.7.\rSubstituted Benzofurans | 322 | ||
| 11.2.8.\rKetamine and Derivatives | 323 | ||
| 11.2.9.\rMorpholines | 324 | ||
| 11.2.10.\rPhenidines | 324 | ||
| 11.2.11.\rPhenidates | 325 | ||
| 11.2.12.\rThiophenes | 325 | ||
| 11.2.13.\rOther Compounds | 328 | ||
| 11.3.\rConclusion | 330 | ||
| References | 330 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Supramolecular Approach in Detecting Drugs of Abuse: Optical Sensors | 333 | ||
| 12.1.\rIntroduction | 335 | ||
| 12.2.\rChemosensor Design | 340 | ||
| 12.3.\rAnalytical Techniques | 342 | ||
| 12.4.\rOptical Techniques | 343 | ||
| 12.5.\rOptical Detection for Illicit Drugs | 345 | ||
| 12.6.\rOptical Sensors Using a Bioinspired Approach: Aptameric and Immunoassay Assays | 347 | ||
| 12.7.\rOptical Molecular Imprinted Polymers (MIPS) | 351 | ||
| 12.8.\rFluorescent Molecular Receptors | 354 | ||
| 12.9.\rSurface Detection Methods | 362 | ||
| 12.10.\rConclusion and Future Perspective | 365 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 365 | ||
| References | 366 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Photodegradation of Drugs/Illicit Drugs in Water | 371 | ||
| 13.1.\rIntroduction | 373 | ||
| 13.2.\rPhotochemical Reactions in Surface Waters | 375 | ||
| 13.2.1.\rDirect Photolysis Processes | 375 | ||
| 13.2.2.\rIndirect or Sensitised Photochemistry | 379 | ||
| 13.2.3.\rPhotochemical Reactions in Surface-water Environments | 383 | ||
| 13.2.4.\rDaily, Seasonal and Long-term Trends of Water Chemistry: Implications for Photoreactions | 386 | ||
| 13.3.\rPhotoinduced Transformation of Drugs | 390 | ||
| 13.3.1.\rIllicit Drugs | 391 | ||
| 13.3.2.\rPharmaceuticals of Particular Concern | 393 | ||
| 13.4.\rConclusions | 394 | ||
| References | 394 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Photodegradation of Drugs of Abuse in Hair | 399 | ||
| 14.1.\rIntroduction | 401 | ||
| 14.1.1.\rHair Analysis in Crime Investigation | 401 | ||
| 14.1.2.\rHair Matrix | 401 | ||
| 14.1.3.\rDrug Incorporation into Hair | 403 | ||
| 14.1.4.\rInfluence of Light on Hair Structure | 404 | ||
| 14.1.5.\rExposure of Hair Drugs to Light: Sunlight and Artificial Lamps | 406 | ||
| 14.2.\rTarget Drug Analytes in Hair | 407 | ||
| 14.3.\rPhotodegradation of Drugs of Abuse in Hair Samples: A Few Existing Studies | 412 | ||
| 14.4.\rConclusions | 419 | ||
| References | 419 | ||
| Subject Index | 423 |