Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
ALL-ENCOMPASSING and EXPANDED, now covering the WHOLE BODY (lower quadrant PLUS upper quadrant and spine) – The Comprehensive Textbook of Clinical Biomechanics (formerly Biomechanics in Clinic and Research) presents the latest research in a form which is accessible, practical, thorough and up-to-the minute.
• Starts from basic principles and builds up to complex concepts
• Highly practical with a constant clinical emphasis
• Written for all health care professionals including physiotherapists and podiatrists
• Addition of upper quadrant and spine
• Title has changed to truly reflect the resource’s expanded and comprehensive approach
• Case studies and additional clinical examples
• New methods in EMG analysis
• Updated elearning course which is compatible with tablet and mobile devices
• A global team of writers
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| IFC_Evolve page | IFC1 | ||
| The Comprehensive Textbook of Clinical Biomechanics | i | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| Table Of Contents | v | ||
| Editor | vi | ||
| Contributors | vii | ||
| Dedication | ix | ||
| Acknowledgements | x | ||
| Introduction | xi | ||
| Book Structure | xii | ||
| Section 1 Mechanics and Biomechanics Theory | xii | ||
| Chapter 1: Maths and Mechanics | xii | ||
| Chapter 2: Forces, Moments and Muscles | xii | ||
| Chapter 3: Ground Reaction Forces and Plantar Pressure | xii | ||
| Chapter 4: Motion and Joint Motion | xii | ||
| Chapter 5: Work and Power During Human Movement | xii | ||
| Chapter 6: Inverse Dynamics Theory | xii | ||
| Section 2 Methods of Measurement and Modelling | xii | ||
| Chapter 7: Measurement of Force and Pressure | xii | ||
| Chapter 8: Methods of Analysis of Movement | xii | ||
| Chapter 9: Anatomical Models and Marker Sets | xii | ||
| Chapter 10: Electromyography | xiii | ||
| Section 3 Clinical Assessment | xiii | ||
| Chapter 11: The Biomechanics of Clinical Assessment | xiii | ||
| Chapter 12: Biomechanics of Orthotic Management | xiii | ||
| Chapter 13: Biomechanics of the Management of Lower Limb Amputees | xiii | ||
| Glossary of Terms | xiv | ||
| 1 Mechanics and Biomechanics Theory | 1 | ||
| 1 Maths and Mechanics | 2 | ||
| Aim | 2 | ||
| 1.1 Key Terminology | 2 | ||
| 1.1.1 Units – System International | 2 | ||
| 1.1.2 Indices | 2 | ||
| 1.1.3 Introduction to Anatomical Terms | 2 | ||
| 1.2 Maths | 3 | ||
| 1.2.1 Trigonometry | 3 | ||
| Pythagorean Theorem | 4 | ||
| What Are Tangent, Sine and Cosine? | 4 | ||
| The Tangent of an Angle | 5 | ||
| The Sine ad Cosine of an Angle | 6 | ||
| Sine. | 6 | ||
| Cosine. | 6 | ||
| A Summary of Sine, Cosine and Tangent | 7 | ||
| 1.2.2 Vectors | 7 | ||
| What Is a Vector | 7 | ||
| The Resultant | 7 | ||
| The Component | 7 | ||
| Adding and Subtracting Vectors | 7 | ||
| Resolving | 8 | ||
| Guidelines for Solving Vector Problems | 8 | ||
| A Simple Vector Problem. | 8 | ||
| A More Difficult Vector Problem. | 10 | ||
| 1.3 Mechanics | 11 | ||
| 1.3.1 Forces | 11 | ||
| 1.3.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion | 12 | ||
| Newton’s First Law | 12 | ||
| Newton’s Second Law | 12 | ||
| Newton’ Third Law | 13 | ||
| 1.3.3 Mass and Weight | 13 | ||
| What Is Mass? | 13 | ||
| What Is Weight? | 13 | ||
| Acceleration Due to Gravity | 13 | ||
| 1.3.4 Static Equilibrium | 14 | ||
| 1.3.5 Free Body Analysis | 14 | ||
| Resolving. | 14 | ||
| 1.3.6 Moments and Forces | 17 | ||
| Balancing Moments | 17 | ||
| The Mathematics Behind Balancing Moments | 17 | ||
| 1.3.7 Pressure | 19 | ||
| What Is Pressure? | 19 | ||
| Finding Pressures When Standing | 19 | ||
| 1.3.8 Friction | 20 | ||
| What Causes Friction? | 20 | ||
| Static Friction | 20 | ||
| What Does Frictional Force Depend On? | 20 | ||
| Coefficient of Friction | 21 | ||
| Maximum (Limiting) Frictional Force Available | 21 | ||
| Limiting Frictional Forces During Walking | 21 | ||
| Maximum Frictional Force Available for Carpet. | 22 | ||
| Maximum Frictional Force Available for Tiled Floor | 22 | ||
| The Clinical Relevance of Friction | 22 | ||
| Summary: Maths and Mechanics | 23 | ||
| 2 Forces, Moments and Muscles | 24 | ||
| Aim | 24 | ||
| 2.1 Centre of Mass | 24 | ||
| 2.1.1 The Centre of Mass by Calculation | 24 | ||
| 2.1.2 Finding the Centre of Mass by Experiment | 25 | ||
| 2.1.3 Centre of Mass and Stability of the Body in Different Positions | 25 | ||
| 2.2 Anthropometry | 26 | ||
| 2.2.1 Background to Anthropometry | 26 | ||
| 2.2.2 Common Anthropometric Parameters | 27 | ||
| 2.2.3 Anthropometric Calculations | 28 | ||
| 2.3 Methods of Finding Moments, Muscle and Joint Forces | 30 | ||
| 2.3.1 How to Find Forces and Moments Acting on the Musculoskeletal System | 30 | ||
| 2.3.2 How to Find Muscle Force | 31 | ||
| 2.3.3 How to Find the Joint Force | 31 | ||
| Dynamic Joint Forces. | 32 | ||
| 2.4 Joint Moments, Muscle Forces and Joint Forces in the Lower Limb | 32 | ||
| 2.4.1 Joint Moments During a Squat Exercise | 32 | ||
| Moments About the Ankle Joint. | 33 | ||
| Moments About the Knee Joint. | 33 | ||
| Moments About the Hip Joint. | 34 | ||
| What Are the Effects of These Moments on the Muscles? | 34 | ||
| 2.4.2 Joint Moments in the Lower Limb During Walking | 34 | ||
| Resolving | 34 | ||
| Moments About the Ankle. | 35 | ||
| Moments About the Knee. | 35 | ||
| Moments About the Hip. | 35 | ||
| What Are the Effects of These Moments on the Muscles? | 36 | ||
| 2.4.3 Muscle Forces in Lower Limb | 36 | ||
| Resolving Forces | 36 | ||
| Taking Moments | 36 | ||
| Muscle Forces | 37 | ||
| 2.4.4 Joint Forces in Lower Limb | 37 | ||
| Joint Force Without Muscle Forces | 37 | ||
| Joint Force With Muscle Forces | 38 | ||
| So Why the Difference in Methods of Finding Joint Forces? | 39 | ||
| 2.4.5 The Effect of the Weight of the Segments on Moment Calculations | 39 | ||
| 2.5 Calculation of Moments, Muscle and Joint Forces in the Upper Limb | 39 | ||
| 2.5.1 Moments, Muscle and Joint Forces While Holding a Pint of Beer | 40 | ||
| The Weight of a Pint of Beer. | 41 | ||
| The Anthropometry. | 41 | ||
| Moments About the Elbow. | 41 | ||
| 2.5.2 Finding the Force in the Muscle | 41 | ||
| 2.5.3 Finding the Joint Force | 41 | ||
| 2.5.4 Moments and Forces About the Elbow Joint While Holding a 20 kg Weight | 42 | ||
| External Moments | 42 | ||
| Muscle Forces | 43 | ||
| Joint Forces | 43 | ||
| Summary: Forces, Moments and Muscles | 44 | ||
| 3 Ground Reaction Forces and Plantar Pressure | 45 | ||
| Aim | 45 | ||
| 3.1 Ground Reaction Forces During Standing | 45 | ||
| 3.2 Ground Reaction Forces During Walking | 46 | ||
| 3.2.1 General Description of Graph Shapes | 46 | ||
| 3.2.2 Vertical Force Measurements | 46 | ||
| Heel Strike to First Peak | 47 | ||
| First Peak (F1) to Trough (F2) | 47 | ||
| Trough (F2) to Second Peak (F3) | 48 | ||
| Second Peak (F3) to Toe Off | 50 | ||
| Anterior–Posterior Force Measurements | 51 | ||
| Claw Back and Heel Strike Transients | 52 | ||
| Heel Strike to Posterior Peak (F4) | 52 | ||
| Posterior Peak to Crossover | 52 | ||
| Crossover to Anterior Peak (F5) | 52 | ||
| Anterior Peak to Toe Off | 52 | ||
| 3.2.3 The Medial–Lateral Component of the Ground Reaction Force | 52 | ||
| 3.3 Centre of Pressure and Force Vectors During Normal Walking | 54 | ||
| 3.3.1 Centre of Pressure During Walking | 54 | ||
| 3.3.2 Resultant Ground Reaction Forces and Pedotti Diagrams? | 57 | ||
| 3.3.3 Construction of Pedotti Diagrams | 58 | ||
| 3.3.4 How Force Vectors Relate to Muscle Activity | 58 | ||
| 3.4 Impulse and Momentum | 59 | ||
| 3.4.1 Impulse | 59 | ||
| 3.4.2 Momentum | 60 | ||
| 3.4.3 Impulse and Change in Momentum During a Sprint Start | 60 | ||
| 3.4.4 Protection Against the Force of Impacts | 62 | ||
| 3.5 Integration and the Area Beneath Data Curves | 62 | ||
| 3.5.1 Integration | 62 | ||
| 3.5.2 Integration of Simple Shapes | 62 | ||
| 3.5.3 Counting the Squares | 62 | ||
| 3.5.4 Bounds for the Area | 62 | ||
| 3.5.5 The Rectangular Rule | 63 | ||
| 3.5.6 Trapezium Rule | 63 | ||
| 3.6 Ground Reaction Force Patterns During Running | 66 | ||
| 3.6.1 Vertical Forces During Running | 66 | ||
| Rate of Loading. | 66 | ||
| The Impact Peak. | 66 | ||
| Trough. | 66 | ||
| Maximum Vertical Force. | 68 | ||
| 3.6.2 Anterior–Posterior Forces During Running | 68 | ||
| The Posterior Impact Peak. | 68 | ||
| Maximum Posterior Breaking Force. | 68 | ||
| Maximum Anterior Thrusting Force. | 68 | ||
| Breaking and Thrusting Impulse. | 70 | ||
| 3.6.3 Medial–Lateral Forces During Running | 70 | ||
| 3.7 Plantar Pressure | 70 | ||
| 3.7.1 Why Is Foot Pressure Measurement Important? | 72 | ||
| 3.7.2 Definition | 72 | ||
| 3.7.3 Units of Pressure | 72 | ||
| 3.7.4 Display and Presentation of Data | 72 | ||
| 3.7.5 Interpretation of Data | 73 | ||
| Regions-of-Interest. | 73 | ||
| Average Force. | 73 | ||
| Contact Area. | 73 | ||
| Average Pressure. | 73 | ||
| Maximum/Peak Pressure. | 73 | ||
| Pressure–Time Integral. | 75 | ||
| Centre of Pressure (COP). | 76 | ||
| Summary: Ground Reaction Forces, Impulse and Momentum | 77 | ||
| 4 Motion and Joint Motion | 79 | ||
| Aim | 79 | ||
| 4.1 Movement Analysis in Clinical Research | 79 | ||
| 4.1.1 The Early Pioneers | 79 | ||
| 4.1.2 Clinical Gait Analysis | 79 | ||
| 4.2 The Gait Cycle | 81 | ||
| 4.2.1 Spatial Parameters | 81 | ||
| 4.2.2 Temporal Parameters | 81 | ||
| 4.3 Normal Movement Patterns During Gait | 84 | ||
| 4.3.1 Plantarflexion and Dorsiflexion of the Ankle Joint | 85 | ||
| Phase 1. | 85 | ||
| Phase 2. | 85 | ||
| Phase 3. | 85 | ||
| Phase 4. | 86 | ||
| Different Terms Commonly Used to Describe Ankle Motion. | 86 | ||
| 4.3.2 Movement of the Ankle, Rearfoot, Midfoot and Forefoot | 86 | ||
| Tibia-to-Foot Movement | 86 | ||
| Sagittal Plane (Plantarflexion–Dorsiflexion). | 86 | ||
| Coronal Plane (Inversion–Eversion). | 86 | ||
| Transverse Plane (Internal–External Rotation or Pronation–Supination). | 86 | ||
| Calcaneus-to-Tibia Movement | 87 | ||
| Sagittal Plane (Plantarflexion–Dorsiflexion). | 87 | ||
| Coronal Plane (Inversion–Eversion). | 88 | ||
| Transverse Plane (Internal–External Rotation or Pronation–Supination). | 88 | ||
| Metatarsal-to-Calcaneus Movement | 89 | ||
| Sagittal Plane (Plantarflexion–Dorsiflexion). | 89 | ||
| Coronal Plane (Inversion–Eversion). | 89 | ||
| 2 Methods of Measurement and Modelling | 137 | ||
| 7 Measurement of Force and Pressure | 138 | ||
| 7.1 Methods of Force Measurement | 138 | ||
| 7.1.1 Force Platform Types | 138 | ||
| 7.1.2 How Force Platforms Work | 138 | ||
| 7.1.3 Frequency Content and Force Platforms | 139 | ||
| 7.1.4 Signal Drift | 140 | ||
| 7.1.5 Force Plate Scaling | 140 | ||
| 7.1.6 Calculating Moments on a Force Plate | 141 | ||
| Example of Moment Calculations Using a Piezoelectric Platform | 142 | ||
| Moments and COP in the Sagittal Plane Mx′ (Fig. 7.5A) | 143 | ||
| Moments and COP in the Coronal Plane My′ (Fig. 7.5B) | 143 | ||
| Moments in the Transverse Plane Mz′ (Fig. 7.5C). | 144 | ||
| 7.1.7 Considerations for Force Platform Fitting and Positioning | 144 | ||
| 7.1.8 Force Platform Location and Configurations | 144 | ||
| Force Platform Configuration 1 | 145 | ||
| Force Platform Configuration 2 | 145 | ||
| Force Platform Configuration 3 | 145 | ||
| Force Platform Configuration 4 | 146 | ||
| 7.1.9 The Video Vector Generator | 146 | ||
| 7.2 Methods of Measuring Pressure | 146 | ||
| 7.2.1 What Is the Difference between a Force Platform and a Pressure Platform? | 146 | ||
| 7.2.2 Pressure Measurement Technologies | 147 | ||
| 7.2.3 Pressure-Sensitive Mats and Film | 147 | ||
| 7.2.4 Pedobarograph (Optical) | 147 | ||
| 7.2.5 Electronic Sensors | 148 | ||
| Sensor Technical Specifications | 148 | ||
| Calibration | 149 | ||
| Capacitive | 149 | ||
| Resistive/Force-Sensing Resistors (FSRs) | 149 | ||
| Hydrocell | 150 | ||
| 7.2.6 Sensor Arrangements | 150 | ||
| Individual Sensors | 150 | ||
| Matrix Sensors | 151 | ||
| 7.2.7 Pressure Mats/Platforms | 151 | ||
| 7.2.8 In-Shoe Pressure Systems | 151 | ||
| 7.2.9 Pressure Treadmills | 152 | ||
| 7.2.10 Recommendations for Data Collection | 153 | ||
| 7.2.11 Future Developments | 155 | ||
| Summary: Measurement of Force and Pressure | 155 | ||
| 8 Methods of Analysis of Movement | 156 | ||
| AIM | 156 | ||
| 8.1 Early Pioneers of Movement Analysis Equipment | 156 | ||
| 8.2 Simple Measurement of Temporal and Spatial Parameters | 157 | ||
| 8.2.1 Temporal and Spatial Parameters in Clinical Assessment | 157 | ||
| 8.2.2 Walkmat Systems | 157 | ||
| 8.3 Potentiometers, Electrogoniometers, Accelerometers, and Inertial Measurement Units | 158 | ||
| 8.3.1 Goniometers, Potentiometers, and Electrogoniometers | 158 | ||
| What is a Goniometer? | 158 | ||
| What are Potentiometers and Electrogoniometers? | 159 | ||
| 8.3.2 Development of Electrogoniometers | 159 | ||
| 8.3.3 Accuracy of Electrogoniometers and Potentiometers | 161 | ||
| 8.3.4 Accelerometers | 161 | ||
| 8.3.5 Inertial Measurement Units | 162 | ||
| 8.4 Camera Movement Analysis Systems | 163 | ||
| 8.4.1 Camera Positioning | 164 | ||
| 8.4.2 Camera Speed, Sampling Frequency and Shutter Speed | 165 | ||
| 8.4.3 Synchronizing the Cameras | 165 | ||
| 8.4.4 Calibrating Image Space | 167 | ||
| Static Calibration | 167 | ||
| Dynamic Calibration | 168 | ||
| Norm of Residuals | 168 | ||
| Lens Correction | 169 | ||
| 8.4.5 Data Capture | 170 | ||
| Clusters and Markers | 171 | ||
| Errors Involved with Marker Placement | 172 | ||
| 8.4.6 Digitizing, Transformation and Filtering | 173 | ||
| Manual Digitizing | 173 | ||
| Automatic Digitizing | 173 | ||
| Transformation | 173 | ||
| Data Filtering | 173 | ||
| 8.4.7 Errors Due to Digitizing | 177 | ||
| 8.5 Configurations for Camera-Based Motion Capture | 177 | ||
| 8.5.1 Configuration of Two-Dimensional Motion Analysis Systems | 177 | ||
| 8.5.2 Video Camera Configuration | 177 | ||
| 8.5.3 Three-Dimensional Motion Analysis Systems | 178 | ||
| Linear Camera Configuration | 178 | ||
| Umbrella Camera Configuration | 178 | ||
| Summary: Methods of Analysis of Movement | 178 | ||
| 9 Anatomical Models and Marker Sets | 180 | ||
| Aim | 180 | ||
| 9.1 Lower-Limb Marker Sets | 180 | ||
| 9.1.1 The Simple Marker Set | 180 | ||
| 9.1.2 Vaughan Marker Set | 180 | ||
| 9.1.3 Helen Hayes Marker Set | 180 | ||
| 9.1.4 The CAST Marker Set | 181 | ||
| ‘Anatomical Calibration’ Markers | 181 | ||
| Dynamic Tracking Markers | 181 | ||
| 9.1.5 What is the Benefit of Using CAST Compared with Other Marker Sets? | 182 | ||
| 9.1.6 What Do We Mean by ‘Six Degrees of Freedom’? | 182 | ||
| 9.1.7 Why Do We Need ‘Six Degrees of Freedom’? | 183 | ||
| 9.2 Methods of Identifying Anatomical Landmarks | 185 | ||
| 9.2.1 The CAST Marker Set with the Davis Dynamic Pointer (or Pointy Stick Method) | 185 | ||
| 9.2.2 The CAST Marker Set with Functional Joint Centre Identification | 186 | ||
| 9.2.3 The Effect of Using Different Anatomical Landmarks on Gait Data | 186 | ||
| 9.3 Foot Models | 188 | ||
| 9.3.1 Single Segment Foot Models | 188 | ||
| 9.3.2 Multiple Segment Foot Models | 188 | ||
| 9.4 Models for the Trunk and Spine | 192 | ||
| 9.4.1 Modelling of the Trunk | 192 | ||
| 9.4.2 Modelling of the Thorax | 192 | ||
| 9.4.3 Segmental and Intersegmental Movement of the Spine | 194 | ||
| 9.4.4 Intersegmental Movement of the Spine Using Marker Clusters | 194 | ||
| 9.5 Shoulder Modelling | 196 | ||
| 9.5.1 Three-Dimensional Shoulder Models | 196 | ||
| 9.5.2 Shoulder Motion Reconstruction | 198 | ||
| 9.6 Biomechanical Models Using Inertial Measurement Units | 199 | ||
| 9.6.1 Anatomical Calibration and Joint Angles Using IMUs | 199 | ||
| 9.7 Coordinate Systems and Joint Angles | 201 | ||
| 9.7.1 Calculation of Joint Angles in the Global Coordinate System | 201 | ||
| 9.7.2 Errors between Global and Segment Coordinate Systems | 201 | ||
| 9.7.3 Cardan Sequences and Their Effect on Gait Data | 202 | ||
| 9.7.4 Helical Angles | 205 | ||
| 9.7.5 Recommendations | 206 | ||
| Summary: Anatomical Models and Marker Sets | 207 | ||
| 10 Electromyography | 208 | ||
| Aim | 208 | ||
| 10.1 Background to Electromyography | 208 | ||
| 10.1.1 What is the Link between Electricity and Muscle Activation? | 208 | ||
| 10.1.2 Muscles, Motor Units and EMG | 209 | ||
| 10.1.3 Muscles and Fibre Types | 209 | ||
| 10.1.4 Motor Unit Recruitment, Firing Rate and Force Modulation | 210 | ||
| 10.2 Methods of Detecting the EMG Signal | 212 | ||
| 10.2.1 Intramuscular EMG Recording Technique | 212 | ||
| 10.2.2 Surface EMG Recording Technique | 214 | ||
| 10.2.3 EMG Systems | 216 | ||
| 10.3 Which Factors Affect the Quality of the EMG Signal? | 217 | ||
| 10.3.1 Electrode Position | 217 | ||
| 10.3.2 Sensor Characteristics | 219 | ||
| 10.3.3 Baseline Noise and Skin–Electrode Interface | 219 | ||
| 10.3.4 Motion Artefact | 220 | ||
| 10.3.5 Physiological Noise | 221 | ||
| 10.3.6 Power Line and Electrical Noise | 221 | ||
| 10.3.7 Crosstalk | 221 | ||
| 10.3.8 Recommendations for Good-Quality Surface EMG Signals | 222 | ||
| 10.4 Processing the EMG Signal | 223 | ||
| 10.4.1 Raw EMG Signal | 223 | ||
| 10.4.2 Analysis of EMG Amplitude | 225 | ||
| Root Mean Square | 225 | ||
| Rectification | 225 | ||
| Envelope | 225 | ||
| Amplitude Normalization | 225 | ||
| EMG Amplitude, Isometric Muscle Force and Joint Moment | 226 | ||
| EMG Amplitude During Concentric and Eccentric (Anisometric) Muscle Contractions | 226 | ||
| Analysis of Muscle Contribution | 228 | ||
| 10.4.3 Analysis of the EMG Activation Timing | 228 | ||
| 10.4.4 Analysis of the EMG Frequency Content | 229 | ||
| Frequency Changes During Muscle Fatigue | 230 | ||
| 10.5 EMG Decomposition | 231 | ||
| 10.5.1 Challenges of EMG Decomposition | 231 | ||
| 10.5.2 Intramuscular EMG and Surface EMG Decomposition | 232 | ||
| 10.5.3 What Information Can Be Obtained From EMG Decomposition? | 234 | ||
| Motor Unit Firing Trains | 234 | ||
| Recruitment and De-recruitment Threshold | 235 | ||
| MUAP Shape | 235 | ||
| Motor Unit Mean Firing Rate | 236 | ||
| Other Parameters of the Motor Unit Firing Behaviour | 236 | ||
| 10.5.4 Findings From EMG Decomposition | 236 | ||
| The Onion-Skin Scheme of Motor Unit Firing | 236 | ||
| The Common Drive | 237 | ||
| Motor Unit Firing Behaviour During Muscle Fatigue | 238 | ||
| Summary: Electromyography and Measurement of Muscle Function | 239 | ||
| 3 Clinical Assessment | 240 | ||
| 11 The Biomechanics of Clinical Assessment | 241 | ||
| Aim | 241 | ||
| 11.1 Kinetic Chains | 241 | ||
| 11.2 Sitting to Standing | 242 | ||
| 11.2.1 Introduction | 242 | ||
| 11.2.2 Biomechanics of Sit-to-Stand | 242 | ||
| Ankle Joint Motion During Sit-to-Stand Task | 242 | ||
| Knee Joint Motion During Sit-to-Stand Task | 242 | ||
| Hip Joint Motion During Sit-to-Stand Task | 242 | ||
| 11.3 The Timed Up-and-Go Test | 243 | ||
| 11.4 Steps and Stairs | 244 | ||
| 11.4.1 Step and Stair Ascent | 245 | ||
| 11.4.2 Step and Stair Descent | 246 | ||
| 11.4.3 Motion of the Lower Limbs During Stair Descent | 249 | ||
| Ankle Joint Motion | 249 | ||
| Knee Joint Motion | 249 | ||
| 11.5 Squats and Dips | 249 | ||
| 11.5.1 Quadriceps Wrap | 249 | ||
| 11.5.2 Quadriceps Neutral | 249 | ||
| 11.5.3 Joint Moments and EMG Activity During a Single Limb Squat | 252 | ||
| 11.6 Gait Initiation | 253 | ||
| 11.6.1 Normal Phases of Gait Initiation | 253 | ||
| 11.6.2 Gait Initiation, Freezing of Gait and Parkinson’s Disease | 255 | ||
| 11.7 Muscle Strength and Power Assessment | 257 | ||
| 11.7.1 What Affects Strength and Power Assessment? | 257 | ||
| Body Segment Inclination | 257 | ||
| The Position and Size of the Applied Load | 258 | ||
| Muscle Insertion Points | 258 | ||
| The Effect of the Angle of Muscle Pull | 258 | ||
| Type of Muscle Contraction | 259 | ||
| The Effect of the Speed of Contraction | 259 | ||
| 11.8 Clinical Assessment of Muscle Strength | 260 | ||
| 11.8.1 The Oxford Scale | 260 | ||
| 11.8.2 Hand-Held Dynamometers | 260 | ||
| 11.8.3 Free Weights and Springs | 260 | ||
| 11.9 Isokinetic and Isometric Testing | 261 | ||
| 11.9.1 Measurements Taken in Isometric Testing | 261 | ||
| Torque Measures During a Contraction | 261 | ||
| Ratio of Maximum Torque of Antagonistic Muscle | 263 | ||
| Maximum Torque-to-Bodyweight Ratio | 263 | ||
| Impulse Torque | 263 | ||
| 11.9.2 Typical Measurements Taken in Isokinetic Testing | 263 | ||
| Peak Torque | 263 | ||
| Peak Torque-to-Bodyweight Ratio | 264 | ||
| Angle-Specific Torque | 264 | ||
| Work Done | 264 | ||
| Peak Power and Average Power | 265 | ||
| 11.9.3 Muscle Testing Using Isokinetics | 265 | ||
| Testing of Antagonistic Pairs of Muscles | 265 | ||
| The Effect of Angular Velocity on Concentric and Eccentric Torque and Power | 269 | ||
| 11.10 Assessment of Joint Control and Quality of Movement | 270 | ||
| 11.10.1 Linear Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration | 270 | ||
| Linear Displacement | 270 | ||
| Linear Velocity | 270 | ||
| Linear Acceleration | 270 | ||
| 11.10.2 Kinematics of a Reaching Task | 271 | ||
| Linear Displacement of the Hand During Reaching with and without Shoulder Dysfunction | 271 | ||
| Linear Velocity of the Hand During Reaching with and without Shoulder Dysfunction | 271 | ||
| Linear Acceleration of the Hand During Reaching with and without Shoulder Dysfunction | 272 | ||
| 11.10.3 Angular Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration | 272 | ||
| Angular Displacement | 272 | ||
| Angular Velocity | 272 | ||
| Angular Acceleration | 272 | ||
| Angular Displacement and Velocity in the Assessment of Quality of Movement in Stroke Survivors | 272 | ||
| 11.11 Biofeedback | 273 | ||
| 11.11.1 Types of Feedback | 273 | ||
| Instant Feedback | 273 | ||
| Shaping | 273 | ||
| Identification of Poor Phases of Contraction | 274 | ||
| Objective Measurement | 274 | ||
| EMG Biofeedback in Muscle Training | 275 | ||
| Biofeedback in Using Three-Dimensional Motion Analysis | 275 | ||
| 11.12 Proprioception | 275 | ||
| 11.12.1 What Is Proprioception? | 275 | ||
| 11.12.2 Functional Relevance of Proprioception | 276 | ||
| 11.12.3 Assessment of Deficit in Proprioception | 276 | ||
| 11.13 Assessment of Physiological Cost | 276 | ||
| 11.13.1 Oxygen Consumption and Energy Expenditure | 277 | ||
| 11.13.2 Energy Expenditure During Walking | 277 | ||
| 11.13.3 Energy Expenditure with Respect to Distance Walked | 278 | ||
| 11.13.4 Heart Rate and Physiological Cost | 279 | ||
| 11.13.5 Heart Rate and Walking Speed | 280 | ||
| Summary: The Biomechanics of Clinical Assessment | 281 | ||
| 12 Biomechanics of Orthotic Management | 282 | ||
| Aim | 282 | ||
| 12.1 Foot Orthoses | 282 | ||
| 12.1.1 The Assessment of Leg-Length Discrepancy | 283 | ||
| 12.1.2 Orthotic Treatment of Leg-Length Discrepancy | 283 | ||
| GRFs with and without the Heel Raise | 283 | ||
| Movement of the Pelvis with and without the Heel Raise | 285 | ||
| 12.1.3 Wedging or Posting of the Rearfoot | 286 | ||
| 12.1.4 Control of the Line of Action of GRFs | 287 | ||
| 12.1.5 The Effect of Wedging or Posting the Rearfoot During Normal Walking | 288 | ||
| Rearfoot Motion | 288 | ||
| Medial and Lateral Forces | 288 | ||
| 12.1.6 Assessment of Foot Pressure | 289 | ||
| Body Mass | 289 | ||
| Gender | 289 | ||
| Age | 289 | ||
| The At-Risk Foot | 290 | ||
| Case Study – The Effectiveness of a Rocker Sole Diabetic Shoe in Offloading the Forefoot (Healy et al., 2013) | 290 | ||
| Footwear/Orthoses | 290 | ||
| 12.2 Management of the Ankle Joint Using Orthoses | 291 | ||
| 12.2.1 Direct Orthotic Management | 291 | ||
| 12.2.2 Modification of Joint Moments with Orthoses | 291 | ||
| 12.2.3 Biomechanics of Ankle Foot Orthoses | 292 | ||
| Rigid Ankle Foot Orthoses | 292 | ||
| The Effect of Rigid Ankle Foot Orthoses | 293 | ||
| Ankle Foot Orthoses Footwear Combinations | 294 | ||
| Posterior Leaf Spring Ankle Foot Orthoses | 295 | ||
| The Effect of Posterior Leaf Spring Ankle Foot Orthoses | 296 | ||
| Hinged Ankle Foot Orthoses | 300 | ||
| The Effect of Hinged Ankle Foot Orthoses | 301 | ||
| Fine Tuning Ankle Foot Orthoses | 301 | ||
| 12.3 Management of the Knee, Ankle and Foot Using Orthoses | 304 | ||
| 12.3.1 Use of Knee Ankle Foot Orthoses | 304 | ||
| 12.3.2 Common Force Systems for Knee Ankle Foot Orthoses | 304 | ||
| 12.3.3 Clinical Case Study of the Use of Knee Ankle Foot Orthoses | 305 | ||
| 12.4 Management of the Knee Moments Using Orthoses/Braces | 307 | ||
| 12.4.1 Biomechanics of Knee Orthoses | 307 | ||
| 12.4.2 Knee Orthoses to Correct Moments | 307 | ||
| 12.4.3 Consideration of Individual Segments | 308 | ||
| 12.4.4 Consideration of Segments Together | 308 | ||
| 12.4.5 Analysis of the Forces Acting on Valgus Bracing | 308 | ||
| Distal Segment | 309 | ||
| Proximal Segment | 310 | ||
| 12.4.6 Is There a Maximum Supportable Angle Using Valgus Brace? | 311 | ||
| Distal Segment | 311 | ||
| Proximal Segment | 312 | ||
| 12.4.7 Valgus Bracing in Medial Compartment Osteoarthritis | 312 | ||
| Varus Knee Angle | 313 | ||
| Knee Adduction Moments | 314 | ||
| 12.4.8 Controlling Moments About the Knee Joint with Shoes and Foot Orthoses | 315 | ||
| The Effect of Lateral Wedging in Medial Compartment Osteoarthritis | 315 | ||
| The Effect of Footwear in Medial Compartment Osteoarthritis | 316 | ||
| 12.5 Management of Translational Forces at the Knee Moments Using Braces | 317 | ||
| 12.5.1 Modification of Translational Forces at the Knee with Orthoses | 317 | ||
| 12.5.2 The ‘Mechanics’ of Soft Bracing of the Knee | 318 | ||
| The System of Forces in Patellofemoral Bracing | 319 | ||
| The Effect of Patellofemoral Bracing on Joint Stability | 319 | ||
| Summary: Biomechanics of Orthotic Management | 322 | ||
| 13 Biomechanics of the Management of Lower Limb Amputees | 323 | ||
| Aim | 323 | ||
| 13.1 Chapter Introduction | 323 | ||
| 13.1.1 Amputation Demographics | 323 | ||
| 13.1.2 Symmetry | 323 | ||
| 13.2 Types of Prostheses | 324 | ||
| 13.2.1 Transtibial Amputees | 324 | ||
| 13.2.2 Transfemoral Amputees | 324 | ||
| Stance Control Stability | 325 | ||
| Motion Control During Swing | 325 | ||
| Mechanical Knee Joints | 325 | ||
| Microprocessor-Controlled Knees | 325 | ||
| 13.3 Early Gait Retraining | 326 | ||
| 13.4 Level Walking | 326 | ||
| 13.4.1 Temporal-Spatial Parameters | 326 | ||
| 13.4.2 Stance and Swing Times | 327 | ||
| 13.4.3 Joint Angular Kinematics | 328 | ||
| 13.4.4 Comparison of the Knee Joint Kinematics and Kinetics When Transfemoral Amputees Walk with Different Prosthetic Knee Joints | 329 | ||
| 13.4.5 Compensations at the Hip and Pelvis During Amputee Gait | 330 | ||
| 13.4.6 Kinetic Adaptations During Amputee Gait | 330 | ||
| Ground Reaction Forces (GRFs) | 330 | ||
| Joint Moments and Powers | 332 | ||
| 13.5 Stair Walking | 335 | ||
| 13.5.1 Phases During Stair Walking | 335 | ||
| Temporal-Spatial Parameters | 335 | ||
| Joint Kinematics | 336 | ||
| GRFs and Joint Kinetics | 336 | ||
| Summary: Biomechanics of the Management of Lower Limb Amputees | 339 | ||
| References | 340 | ||
| Index | 355 | ||
| A | 355 | ||
| B | 355 | ||
| C | 356 | ||
| D | 356 | ||
| E | 356 | ||
| F | 357 | ||
| G | 358 | ||
| H | 358 | ||
| I | 358 | ||
| J | 358 | ||
| K | 359 | ||
| L | 359 | ||
| M | 359 | ||
| N | 360 | ||
| O | 360 | ||
| P | 360 | ||
| Q | 361 | ||
| R | 361 | ||
| S | 361 | ||
| T | 362 | ||
| U | 362 | ||
| V | 362 | ||
| W | 363 |