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Abstract
Hydrogen could be the fuel of the future. Some microorganisms can produce hydrogen upon illumination. Biological methods of production could be greener than chemical or physical production methods, but the potential of biological methods is still being harnessed.
This comprehensive book highlights the key steps necessary for future exploitation of solar-light-driven hydrogen production by microalgae. The highly regarded editors bring together 46 contributors from key institutions in order to suggest and examine the most significant issues that must be resolved to achieve the goal of practical implementation, while proposing reliable methodologies and approaches to solve such issues. This 19 chapter book will be an indispensable resource for academics, undergraduate and graduate students, postgraduates and postdoctoral scholars, energy scientists, bio/chemical engineers, and policy makers working across the field of biohydrogen and bioenergy.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| COMPREHENSIVE SERIES IN PHOTOCHEMICAL AND PHOTOBIOLOGICAL SCIENCE | i | ||
| Microalgal Hydrogen Production: Achievements and Perspectives | v | ||
| Copyright | vi | ||
| Foreword | vii | ||
| References | xi | ||
| Preface | xiii | ||
| Contents | xvii | ||
| Part I - Biology and Physiology of Photobiological Hydrogen Production | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1 - Photosynthesis and Hydrogen from Photosynthetic Microorganisms | 3 | ||
| 1.1. Introduction | 5 | ||
| 1.2.\rDeveloping a Low Carbon Economy | 6 | ||
| 1.2.1.\rPast and Future Carbon Emissions in Perspective | 8 | ||
| 1.2.2.\rThe Case for Hydrogen | 9 | ||
| 1.3.\rPhotosynthesis | 11 | ||
| 1.3.1.\rRelevant Concepts and Limiting Factors | 12 | ||
| 1.3.2.\rPhotosynthesis and Biofuels | 15 | ||
| 1.4.\rBiological Hydrogen Production | 16 | ||
| 1.4.1.\rBasic Concepts and Processes | 16 | ||
| 1.4.2.\rPhotosynthetic Hydrogen Production—Photosynthetic Bacteria | 19 | ||
| 1.4.3.\rPhotosynthetic Hydrogen Production—Cyanobacteria | 20 | ||
| 1.4.4.\rPhotosynthetic Hydrogen Production—Green Algae | 23 | ||
| 1.5.\rFuture Prospects | 26 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 26 | ||
| References | 26 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Structure-function of [FeFe]- and [NiFe]-Hydrogenases: an Overview of Diversity, Mechanism, Maturation, and Bifurcation | 31 | ||
| 2.1.\rIntroduction to Hydrogenases | 33 | ||
| 2.2.\r[NiFe]-hydrogenase Structure | 34 | ||
| 2.3.\r[FeFe]-hydrogenase Structure | 35 | ||
| 2.4.\rTaxonomic and Functional Diversity of H2ases | 37 | ||
| 2.4.1.\r[NiFe]-H2ase Diversity | 37 | ||
| 2.4.2.\r[FeFe]-H2ase Diversity | 39 | ||
| 2.5.\r[NiFe]- and [FeFe]-H2ase Mechanisms | 43 | ||
| 2.6.\rH2ase Maturation | 47 | ||
| 2.6.1.\r[NiFe]-H2ase Maturation | 47 | ||
| 2.6.2.\r[FeFe]-H2ase Maturation | 49 | ||
| 2.7.\rBifurcating H2ases | 52 | ||
| 2.8.\rFuture Directions | 55 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 56 | ||
| References | 56 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Theory Related to [FeFe]- and [NiFe]-hydrogenases: Stereoelectronic Properties, H-cluster Oxidation, and Mechanisms for Increasing Oxygen Tolerance | 67 | ||
| 3.1.\rIntroduction | 69 | ||
| 3.2.\rCrystallographic, Spectroscopic, and Theoretical Characterization of Relevant States in [FeFe]-hydrogenases | 70 | ||
| 3.3.\rThe Catalytic Mechanism of [FeFe]-hydrogenases | 78 | ||
| 3.4.\rInactivation (by O2) of [FeFe]-hydrogenases | 80 | ||
| 3.5.\rCrystallographic, Spectroscopic, and Theoretical Characterization of Relevant States in [NiFe]-hydrogenases | 84 | ||
| 3.6.\rThe Catalytic Mechanism of [NiFe]-hydrogenases | 88 | ||
| 3.7.\rAerobic and Anaerobic Inactivation and Reactivation of [NiFe]-hydrogenases | 90 | ||
| 3.7.1.\rO2-sensitive [NiFe]-hydrogenases, Oxidation to the Ni–B and Ni–A States | 91 | ||
| 3.7.2.\rO2-resistant Enzymes and the Role of Selenium | 94 | ||
| 3.7.3.\rThe Unique [4Fe–3S] Cluster in the O2-tolerant Enzymes | 95 | ||
| 3.8.\rSimilarities and Differences Between [FeFe]- and [NiFe]-hydrogenases | 98 | ||
| 3.9.\rConcluding Remarks | 100 | ||
| References | 100 | ||
| Chapter 4 - The Physiology of the Bidirectional NiFe-hydrogenase in Cyanobacteria and the Role of Hydrogen Throughout the Evolution of Life | 107 | ||
| 4.1.\rThe Physiological Role of Hydrogen Throughout the Evolution of Life and in Contemporary Organisms | 109 | ||
| 4.2.\rThe Distribution of Hydrogen and Hydrogenases in the Environment | 113 | ||
| 4.3.\rBiochemical Properties of Cyanobacterial Bidirectional NiFe-hydrogenases | 116 | ||
| 4.4.\rPhysiological Functions of Cyanobacterial Bidirectional NiFe-hydrogenases | 122 | ||
| 4.4.1.\rPhotohydrogen Production | 122 | ||
| 4.4.2.\rFermentative Hydrogen Production | 126 | ||
| 4.4.3.\rPhysiological Significance of Cyanobacterial Bidirectional NiFe-hydrogenases in the Environment of Microbial Mats and Surf... | 127 | ||
| 4.5.\rFuture Approaches Towards Enhanced Cyanobacterial Hydrogen Production Based on Current Knowledge | 129 | ||
| Methods | 132 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 133 | ||
| References | 133 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Assessment of Electrochemically-based Strategies to Protect [FeFe]-hydrogenases from Oxygen | 139 | ||
| 5.1.\rIntroduction and Background | 141 | ||
| 5.2.\rElectrocatalytic Properties of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii HydA1 and a Blue Cu Oxidase | 146 | ||
| 5.2.1.\rHydrogen Evolution and Oxidation by Chlamydomonas reinhardtii HydA1 | 146 | ||
| 5.2.2.\rOxygen Reduction by Bilirubin Oxidase | 147 | ||
| 5.3.\rAssessment of a Localized Blue Cu Oxidase as a ‘Bodyguard’ for Chlamydomonas reinhardtii HydA1 | 148 | ||
| 5.3.1.\rElectrocatalysis of H2 Cycling by HydA1 in the Presence of O2 and Effect of a Co-adsorbed Oxidase | 148 | ||
| 5.3.2.\rInterpretation and Implications | 150 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 151 | ||
| References | 151 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Sustaining Hydrogen Production in Eukaryotic Microalgae Through Genetic Approaches | 155 | ||
| 6.1.\rIntroduction | 157 | ||
| 6.2.\rIdentification of New Hydrogen Producers by Genetic Engineering and Systematic Screening | 158 | ||
| 6.2.1.\rIdentification of High H2 Producers by Systematic Screening of Libraries Created by Forward Genetics | 158 | ||
| 6.2.2.\rConstruction of High Hydrogen Producers by Reverse Genetics | 161 | ||
| 6.3.\rSystems Biology for the Identification of Gene Targets Involved in Hydrogen Production in Microalgae | 162 | ||
| 6.4.\rFuture Strategies, Prospects, and Conclusions | 162 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 163 | ||
| References | 163 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Metabolism and Genetics of Algal Hydrogen Production | 167 | ||
| 7.1.\rIntroduction | 169 | ||
| 7.2.\rHydrogen Production in Algae | 171 | ||
| 7.3.\rHydrogen Utilization in Algae | 173 | ||
| 7.4.\rAlgal Anaerobic Metabolism and Metabolic Pathways | 174 | ||
| 7.5.\rAlgal Hydrogenase Isoforms | 178 | ||
| 7.6.\rAlgal Hydrogenase Diversity | 179 | ||
| 7.7.\rHydrogenases in Saltwater Algae | 181 | ||
| 7.8.\rFuture Directions | 182 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 183 | ||
| References | 183 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Photosynthetic Electron Transfer Pathways During Hydrogen Photoproduction in Green Algae: Mechanisms and Limitations | 189 | ||
| 8.1.\rIntroduction | 191 | ||
| 8.2.\rElectron Pathways Involved in Hydrogen Photoproduction | 192 | ||
| 8.2.1.\rDirect Biophotolysis | 193 | ||
| 8.2.2.\rIndirect Biophotolysis | 193 | ||
| 8.2.3.\rEffect of Nutrient Deprivation and Role of Starch Reserves | 195 | ||
| 8.3.\rLimitation of Hydrogen Photoproduction Related to the Electron Supply | 196 | ||
| 8.3.1.\rCompetition with the Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction Cycle | 197 | ||
| 8.3.2.\rDown-regulation by the Proton Gradient and Contribution of Cyclic Electron Flow | 198 | ||
| 8.3.3.\rNon-photochemical Reduction of the Plastoquinone Pool | 199 | ||
| 8.4.\rOxygen Concentration in the Vicinity of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase | 199 | ||
| 8.4.1.\rRole of Mitochondrial Respiration | 200 | ||
| 8.4.2.\rRole of Plastidial O2 Uptake Processes | 201 | ||
| 8.4.3.\rEffect of the PSII:PSI Ratio | 203 | ||
| 8.5.\rPhysiological Function of Hydrogen Photoproduction | 204 | ||
| 8.6.\rFuture Directions | 206 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 207 | ||
| References | 207 | ||
| Chapter 9 - The Role of Chlamydomonas Ferredoxins in Hydrogen Production and Other Related Metabolic Functions | 213 | ||
| 9.1.\rIntroduction and Background | 215 | ||
| 9.2.\rFerredoxin 1 (FDX1 or PETF) | 223 | ||
| 9.3.\rFerredoxin 2 (FDX2) | 225 | ||
| 9.4.\rFerredoxin 5 (FDX5) | 228 | ||
| 9.5.\rConclusions and Future Directions | 229 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 230 | ||
| References | 230 | ||
| Chapter 10 - The Metabolic Acclimation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii to Depletion of Essential Nutrients: Application for Hydrogen Production | 235 | ||
| 10.1.\rIntroduction | 237 | ||
| 10.2.\rChlamydomonas as a Model System to Study Metabolic Flexibility in Response to Abiotic Stresses | 238 | ||
| 10.3.\rDeprivation-induced Remodeling of Algal Metabolism | 242 | ||
| 10.3.1.\rNitrogen Depletion | 242 | ||
| 10.3.2.\rSulfur and Phosphorus Deficiencies | 246 | ||
| 10.4.\rAnaerobic Metabolism and Hydrogen Evolution in C. reinhardtii | 248 | ||
| 10.5.\rComparison of Acclimation Patterns and Hydrogen Photoproduction in S, N, P, or Mg-deprived Cultures | 251 | ||
| Conclusions | 257 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 258 | ||
| References | 258 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Environmental Factors Affecting Hydrogen Production from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii | 265 | ||
| 11.1.\rIntroduction | 267 | ||
| 11.2.\rHydrogen from Microalgae | 268 | ||
| 11.3.\rHydrogen from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii | 268 | ||
| 11.4.\rRole of Environmental Factors in Photobiological Hydrogen Production | 282 | ||
| 11.4.1.\rLight | 283 | ||
| 11.4.2.\rTemperature | 284 | ||
| 11.4.3.\rpH | 284 | ||
| 11.4.4.\rFluid Dynamics | 285 | ||
| 11.5.\rConclusions and Future Developments | 286 | ||
| References | 293 | ||
| Chapter 12 - In vitro Light-driven Hydrogen Production | 299 | ||
| 12.1.\rIntroduction | 301 | ||
| 12.2.\rDesign Principles to Control Electron Transfer in Hydrogenase | 303 | ||
| 12.3.\rHydrogenase as a H2-production Catalyst Coupled Directly to Photosynthetic Reaction Centers | 305 | ||
| 12.3.1.\rStrategies and Principles for Direct Coupling of Biological Light-harvesting to Hydrogenase-catalyzed H2 Production | 307 | ||
| 12.3.2.\rHydrogenases Coupled to PSI | 307 | ||
| 12.3.3.\rHydrogenases Coupled to Water Splitting by PSII | 308 | ||
| 12.4.\rHydrogen Production by Hydrogenases in Artificial Photosynthesis Systems | 309 | ||
| 12.4.1.\rMechanistic Principles of Molecular Assembly and Electron Transfer in Hydrogenase-based, Model Systems | 311 | ||
| 12.4.2.\rPEC Hydrogenase Systems | 314 | ||
| 12.4.3.\rSelf-assembled, Photocatalytic Complexes Composed of Hydrogenases and Nanostructured, Light-harvesting Materials | 315 | ||
| 12.5.\rFuture Prospects | 317 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 318 | ||
| References | 318 | ||
| Part II - Biotechnology of Hydrogen Production | 323 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Hydrogen Production Using Novel Photosynthetic Cell Factories. Cyanobacterial Hydrogen Production: Design of Efficient Organisms | 325 | ||
| 13.1.\rIntroduction | 327 | ||
| 13.2.\rCyanobacterial Hydrogenases, the Native System | 327 | ||
| 13.3.\rDesign of Improved Cyanobacteria for Enhanced Hydrogen Production | 328 | ||
| 13.3.1.\rDeletion of the Capacity to Take up Hydrogen | 329 | ||
| 13.3.2.\rDesign of More Efficient Catalysts for Hydrogen Production | 329 | ||
| 13.3.3.\rIncrease Photosynthetic Efficiencies for Efficient Hydrogen Production | 330 | ||
| 13.3.4.\rLimit Competing Pathways for Increased Hydrogen Production | 331 | ||
| 13.4.\rFuture Directions—Efficient Photosynthetic Cell Factories for Hydrogen Production | 332 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 332 | ||
| References | 332 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Improving Photosynthetic Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency: the Truncated Light-harvesting Antenna (TLA) Concept | 335 | ||
| 14.1.\rIntroduction | 337 | ||
| 14.1.1.\rGreen Microalgal Chlorophyll-protein Light-harvesting Antenna Complexes | 337 | ||
| 14.1.2.\rCyanobacterial Bilin-protein Light-harvesting Antenna Complexes | 339 | ||
| 14.2.\rCompetition for Light-harvesting Among Photosynthetic Organisms | 340 | ||
| 14.2.1.\rSize of the Light-harvesting Antenna | 340 | ||
| 14.2.2.\rSunlight-to-biomass Energy Conversion Efficiency in Photosynthesis | 341 | ||
| 14.2.3.\rThe Principle of Light-harvesting Antenna Engineering for Mass Cultures | 342 | ||
| 14.3.\rMinimizing the Chlorophyll Antennae to Maximize Photosynthetic Efficiency and Productivity | 344 | ||
| 14.3.1.\rImport, Transit, and Assembly of the Light-harvesting Proteins in Developing Thylakoids | 344 | ||
| 14.4.\rConclusions | 347 | ||
| 14.5.\rFuture Directions | 348 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 349 | ||
| References | 350 | ||
| Chapter 15 - Immobilization of Microalgae as a Tool for Efficient Light Utilization in H2 Production and Other Biotechnology Applications | 355 | ||
| 15.1.\rIntroduction | 357 | ||
| 15.2.\rTechnical Aspects of Microalgae Immobilization | 357 | ||
| 15.2.1.\rNatural Immobilization Approaches | 358 | ||
| 15.2.2.\rArtificial Immobilization Approaches | 359 | ||
| 15.3.\rBiotechnological Applications of Immobilized Microalgae | 362 | ||
| 15.3.1.\rRemoval of Inorganic Nutrients | 362 | ||
| 15.3.2.\rHeavy Metals Removal from Wastewater | 363 | ||
| 15.3.3.\rRemoval of Organic Pollutants | 364 | ||
| 15.3.4.\rIntegration of Wastewater Treatment and Biofuels Production | 365 | ||
| 15.4.\rHydrogen Photoproduction by Immobilized Microalgae | 365 | ||
| 15.4.1.\rHydrogen Photoproduction by the Model Alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii | 366 | ||
| 15.4.2.\rComparison of Immobilized Green Algae and Cyanobacteria as Hydrogen Producers | 370 | ||
| 15.4.3.\rApproaches to Cell Co-immobilization | 373 | ||
| 15.4.4.\rEngineered Algal Biofilms for Efficient Light Utilization and Hydrogen Production | 375 | ||
| 15.5.\rConcluding Remarks and Future Directions | 377 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 378 | ||
| References | 378 | ||
| Chapter 16 - Development of Photobioreactors for H2 Production from Algae | 385 | ||
| 16.1.\rIntroduction | 387 | ||
| 16.2.\rProduction of Hydrogen from Microalgae | 387 | ||
| 16.3.\rDescription of the Process | 389 | ||
| 16.4.\rMajor Factors Influencing Photobioreactor Performance | 391 | ||
| 16.5.\rFundamentals of Photobioreactors for Hydrogen Production | 394 | ||
| 16.5.1.\rDesign of Tubular Photobioreactors | 394 | ||
| 16.6.\rPerformance of the Proposed Two-step, H2-production System at Pilot Scale | 411 | ||
| 16.7.\rConcluding Remarks and Future Developments | 415 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 415 | ||
| References | 416 | ||
| Chapter 17 - Microalgal Hydrogen Production Outdoors: First Attempts | 419 | ||
| 17.1.\rIntroduction | 421 | ||
| 17.2.\rTheoretical Limit for Biological Hydrogen Production | 421 | ||
| 17.2.1.\rBiotechnology of Hydrogen Production in Laboratory-scale Bioreactors | 423 | ||
| 17.2.2.\rAttempt to Scale up the Hydrogen Production Process with C. reinhardtii. Experiments in Tubular Reactors of 50 and 110 Li... | 426 | ||
| 17.3.\rGrowth and Hydrogen Production of Outdoor Cultures of Synechocystis PCC 6803 Using an Indirect Light-driven Process | 429 | ||
| 17.4.\rBiological Constraints in the Outdoor Production of Hydrogen with Microalgae | 432 | ||
| 17.5.\rFuture Prospects | 434 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 435 | ||
| References | 435 | ||
| Chapter 18 - Material Characteristics and Requirements for Photobiological Hydrogen Production Applications | 439 | ||
| 18.1.\rIntroduction | 441 | ||
| 18.2.\rRequirements for Materials Used for Hydrogen Photobioreactors | 441 | ||
| 18.3.\rHydrogen Leakage | 443 | ||
| 18.4.\rToxic Effects | 448 | ||
| 18.5.\rMaterials for Use in Hydrogen Photobioreactors | 451 | ||
| 18.5.1.\rGlass | 451 | ||
| 18.5.2.\rPlastic | 452 | ||
| 18.5.3.\rMetal Components | 453 | ||
| 18.5.4.\rMetal Coating Materials | 455 | ||
| 18.5.5.\rElastomers | 456 | ||
| 18.6.\rConclusion | 458 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 461 | ||
| References | 461 | ||
| Chapter 19 - Environmental Life Cycle Assessments of Photobiological Hydrogen Production | 465 | ||
| 19.1.\rIntroduction | 467 | ||
| 19.2.\rLCA Background | 468 | ||
| 19.2.1.\rLCA Definition | 468 | ||
| 19.2.2.\rGoal and Scope Definition | 468 | ||
| 19.2.3.\rLife Cycle Inventory | 469 | ||
| 19.2.4.\rLife Cycle Impact Assessment | 469 | ||
| 19.2.5.\rInterpretation of the Results | 470 | ||
| 19.3.\rReview of LCA Studies of H2 Photobiological Production | 470 | ||
| 19.3.1.\rScope of the Studies | 471 | ||
| 19.3.2.\rLCI of Algal H2-production Systems | 471 | ||
| 19.3.3.\rLCIA of Algal H2-production Systems | 477 | ||
| 19.4.\rDiscussion | 478 | ||
| 19.5.\rConclusions and Future Directions | 479 | ||
| References | 479 | ||
| Postscript - Future Perspectives | 483 | ||
| Subject Index | 489 |