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Book Details
Abstract
For two-semester courses in General Chemistry.
A relevant, problem-solving approach to chemistry
The Third Edition of Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach presents core concepts without sacrificing rigor, enabling students to make connections between chemistry and their lives or intended careers. Drawing upon his classroom experience as an award-winning educator, Professor Tro extends chemistry to the student’s world by capturing student attention with examples of everyday processes and a captivating writing style. Throughout this student-friendly text, chemistry is presented visually through multi-level images that help students see the connections between the world around them (macroscopic), the atoms and molecules that compose the world (molecular), and the formulas they write down on paper (symbolic).
The Third Edition improves upon the hallmark features of the text and adds new assets–Self Assessment Quizzes, Interactive Worked Examples, and Key Concept Videos–creating the best learning resource available for general chemistry students.
MasteringChemistry not included. Students, if MasteringChemistry is a recommended/mandatory component of the course, please ask your instructor for the correct ISBN and course ID. MasteringChemistry should only be purchased when required by an instructor. Instructors, contact your Pearson representative for more information.
MasteringChemistry should only be purchased when required by an instructor. Please be sure you have the correct ISBN and Course ID. Instructors, contact your Pearson representative for more information.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Title Page | 1 | ||
| Copyright_Page | 2 | ||
| Brief Contents | 4 | ||
| Contents | 5 | ||
| Preface | 15 | ||
| Chapter 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving | 28 | ||
| 1.1 Atoms and Molecules | 29 | ||
| 1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge | 31 | ||
| 1.3 The Classification of Matter | 33 | ||
| The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas | 33 | ||
| Classifying Matter According to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures | 34 | ||
| 1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties | 35 | ||
| 1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change | 38 | ||
| 1.6 The Units of Measurement | 39 | ||
| The Standard Units | 39 | ||
| The Meter: A Measure of Length | 40 | ||
| The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass | 40 | ||
| The Second: A Measure of Time | 40 | ||
| The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature | 40 | ||
| Prefix Multipliers | 42 | ||
| Derived Units: Volume and Density | 43 | ||
| Volume | 43 | ||
| Density | 44 | ||
| Calculating Density | 44 | ||
| 1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement | 45 | ||
| Counting Significant Figures | 47 | ||
| Exact Numbers | 48 | ||
| Significant Figures in Calculations | 49 | ||
| Precision and Accuracy | 50 | ||
| 1.8 Solving Chemical Problems | 51 | ||
| Converting from One Unit to Another | 51 | ||
| General Problem-Solving Strategy | 53 | ||
| Units Raised to a Power | 55 | ||
| Problems Involving an Equation | 56 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 59 | ||
| Key Terms | 59 | ||
| Key Concepts | 59 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 60 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 60 | ||
| Exercises | 60 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 60 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 64 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 65 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 66 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 67 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 67 | ||
| Chapter 2 Atoms and Elements | 68 | ||
| 2.1 I maging and Moving Individual Atoms | 69 | ||
| 2.2 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It | 71 | ||
| The Law of Conservation of Mass | 71 | ||
| The Law of Definite Proportions | 72 | ||
| The Law of Multiple Proportions | 73 | ||
| John Dalton and the Atomic Theory | 74 | ||
| 2.3 The Discovery of the Electron | 74 | ||
| Cathode Rays | 75 | ||
| Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron | 76 | ||
| 2.4 The Structure of the Atom | 76 | ||
| 2.5 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms | 78 | ||
| Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons | 79 | ||
| Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies | 80 | ||
| Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons | 82 | ||
| 2.6 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table | 83 | ||
| Ions and the Periodic Table | 85 | ||
| 2.7 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms | 87 | ||
| 2.8 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them | 88 | ||
| The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen” | 88 | ||
| Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms | 89 | ||
| Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles) | 90 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 94 | ||
| Key Terms | 94 | ||
| Key Concepts | 95 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 95 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 95 | ||
| Exercises | 96 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 96 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 98 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 99 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 100 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 100 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 101 | ||
| Chapter 3 Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations | 102 | ||
| 3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water | 103 | ||
| 3.2 Chemical Bonds | 105 | ||
| Ionic Bonds | 105 | ||
| Covalent Bonds | 106 | ||
| 3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models | 106 | ||
| Types of Chemical Formulas | 106 | ||
| Molecular Models | 108 | ||
| 3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds | 108 | ||
| 3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names | 112 | ||
| Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds | 113 | ||
| Naming Ionic Compounds | 113 | ||
| Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation | 115 | ||
| Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Kind of Cation | 116 | ||
| Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions | 117 | ||
| Hydrated Ionic Compounds | 118 | ||
| 3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names | 119 | ||
| Naming Molecular Compounds | 119 | ||
| Naming Acids | 120 | ||
| Naming Binary Acids | 121 | ||
| Naming Oxyacids | 121 | ||
| 3.7 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds | 122 | ||
| Molar Mass of a Compound | 123 | ||
| Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing | 123 | ||
| 3.8 Composition of Compounds | 125 | ||
| Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas | 127 | ||
| 3.9 D etermining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data | 128 | ||
| Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds | 130 | ||
| Combustion Analysis | 131 | ||
| 3.10 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations | 133 | ||
| Writing Balanced Chemical Equations | 135 | ||
| 3.11 Organic Compounds | 137 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 140 | ||
| Key Terms | 140 | ||
| Key Concepts | 140 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 141 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 142 | ||
| Exercises | 143 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 143 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 146 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 147 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 148 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 148 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 148 | ||
| Chapter 4 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions | 150 | ||
| 4.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels | 151 | ||
| 4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide | 153 | ||
| Making Pizza: The Relationships Among Ingredients | 153 | ||
| Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions | 154 | ||
| Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions | 154 | ||
| 4.3 L imiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and\r Percent Yield | 157 | ||
| Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses | 159 | ||
| 4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry | 163 | ||
| Solution Concentration | 164 | ||
| Using Molarity in Calculations | 165 | ||
| Solution Stoichiometry | 169 | ||
| 4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility | 170 | ||
| Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions | 171 | ||
| The Solubility of Ionic Compounds | 172 | ||
| 4.6 Precipitation Reactions | 174 | ||
| 4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations | 178 | ||
| 4.8 Acid–Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions | 180 | ||
| Acid–Base Reactions | 180 | ||
| Gas-Evolution Reactions | 183 | ||
| 4.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions | 185 | ||
| Oxidation States | 187 | ||
| Identifying Redox Reactions | 189 | ||
| Combustion Reactions | 191 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 193 | ||
| Key Terms | 193 | ||
| Key Concepts | 193 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 194 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 194 | ||
| Exercises | 194 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 194 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 198 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 199 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 200 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 201 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 201 | ||
| Chapter 5 Gases | 202 | ||
| 5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work | 203 | ||
| 5.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions | 204 | ||
| Pressure Units | 205 | ||
| 5.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law | 206 | ||
| Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure | 207 | ||
| Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature | 209 | ||
| Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles) | 211 | ||
| 5.4 The Ideal Gas Law | 212 | ||
| 5.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas | 214 | ||
| Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure | 215 | ||
| Density of a Gas | 215 | ||
| Molar Mass of a Gas | 217 | ||
| 5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures | 218 | ||
| Collecting Gases over Water | 222 | ||
| 5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited | 224 | ||
| Molar Volume and Stoichiometry | 226 | ||
| 5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases | 227 | ||
| The Nature of Pressure | 228 | ||
| Boyle’s Law | 228 | ||
| Charles’s Law | 228 | ||
| Avogadro’s Law | 228 | ||
| Dalton’s Law | 228 | ||
| Temperature and Molecular Velocities | 229 | ||
| 5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases | 231 | ||
| 5.10 Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces | 233 | ||
| The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles | 233 | ||
| The Effect of Intermolecular Forces | 234 | ||
| Van der Waals Equation | 235 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 236 | ||
| Key Terms | 236 | ||
| Key Concepts | 236 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 237 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 237 | ||
| Exercises | 238 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 238 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 241 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 243 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 244 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 244 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 245 | ||
| Chapter 6 Thermochemistry | 246 | ||
| 6.1 Chemical Hand Warmers | 247 | ||
| 6.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions | 248 | ||
| Units of Energy | 250 | ||
| 6.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch | 251 | ||
| Internal Energy | 251 | ||
| 6.4 Quantifying Heat and Work | 256 | ||
| Heat | 256 | ||
| Thermal Energy Transfer | 258 | ||
| Work: Pressure–Volume Work | 260 | ||
| 6.5 Measuring | 261 | ||
| 6.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure | 264 | ||
| Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View | 266 | ||
| Stoichiometry Involving | 267 | ||
| 6.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring | 268 | ||
| 6.8 Hess’s Law and Other Relationships Involving | 270 | ||
| 6.9 Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Heats of Formation | 273 | ||
| Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes | 273 | ||
| Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction | 275 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 279 | ||
| Key Terms | 279 | ||
| Key Concepts | 279 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 280 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 280 | ||
| Exercises | 281 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 281 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 284 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 285 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 286 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 286 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 287 | ||
| Chapter 7 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom | 288 | ||
| 7.1 Schrödinger’s Cat | 290 | ||
| 7.2 The Nature of Light | 290 | ||
| The Wave Nature of Light | 291 | ||
| The Electromagnetic Spectrum | 293 | ||
| Interference and Diffraction | 294 | ||
| The Particle Nature of Light | 296 | ||
| 7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model | 299 | ||
| 7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy | 301 | ||
| The de Broglie Wavelength | 302 | ||
| The Uncertainty Principle | 303 | ||
| Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps | 305 | ||
| 7.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom | 307 | ||
| Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom | 307 | ||
| Atomic Spectroscopy Explained | 311 | ||
| 7.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals | 313 | ||
| s Orbitals (l = 0) | 314 | ||
| p Orbitals (l = 1) | 316 | ||
| d Orbitals (l = 2) | 317 | ||
| f Orbitals (l = 3) | 318 | ||
| The Phase of Orbitals | 318 | ||
| The Shapes of Atoms | 318 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 319 | ||
| Key Terms | 319 | ||
| Key Concepts | 320 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 320 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 321 | ||
| Exercises | 321 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 321 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 322 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 323 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 324 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 324 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 325 | ||
| Chapter 8 Periodic Properties of the Elements | 326 | ||
| 8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission | 327 | ||
| 8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table | 328 | ||
| 8.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons\r Occupy Orbitals | 329 | ||
| Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle | 330 | ||
| Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms | 330 | ||
| Electron Spatial Distributions and Sublevel Splitting | 332 | ||
| Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms | 334 | ||
| 8.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the\r Periodic Table | 337 | ||
| Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table | 338 | ||
| Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from ItsPosition in the Periodic Table | 339 | ||
| The Transition and Inner Transition Elements | 340 | ||
| 8.5 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical\r Model | 341 | ||
| 8.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective\r Nuclear Charge | 342 | ||
| Effective Nuclear Charge | 344 | ||
| Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements | 345 | ||
| 8.7 I ons: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii, and Ionization Energy | 347 | ||
| Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions | 347 | ||
| Ionic Radii | 348 | ||
| Ionization Energy | 351 | ||
| Trends in First Ionization Energy | 351 | ||
| Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy | 354 | ||
| Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies | 354 | ||
| 8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character | 355 | ||
| Electron Affinity | 356 | ||
| Metallic Character | 356 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 360 | ||
| Key Terms | 360 | ||
| Key Concepts | 360 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 361 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 361 | ||
| Exercises | 361 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 361 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 363 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 364 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 364 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 365 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 365 | ||
| Chapter 9 Chemical Bonding I: The Lewis Model | 366 | ||
| 9.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs | 368 | ||
| 9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds | 368 | ||
| 9.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots | 370 | ||
| 9.4 Ionic Bonding: Lewis Symbols and Lattice Energies | 371 | ||
| Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer | 371 | ||
| Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story | 372 | ||
| Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size | 373 | ||
| Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge | 373 | ||
| Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality | 374 | ||
| 9.5 Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures | 375 | ||
| Single Covalent Bonds | 375 | ||
| Double and Triple Covalent Bonds | 376 | ||
| Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality | 376 | ||
| 9.6 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity | 377 | ||
| Electronegativity | 378 | ||
| Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character | 379 | ||
| 9.7 L ewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and\r Polyatomic Ions | 382 | ||
| Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds | 382 | ||
| Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions | 383 | ||
| 9.8 R esonance and Formal Charge | 384 | ||
| Resonance | 384 | ||
| Formal Charge | 386 | ||
| 9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, Incomplete Octets, and Expanded Octets | 389 | ||
| Odd-Electron Species | 389 | ||
| Incomplete Octets | 389 | ||
| Expanded Octets | 390 | ||
| 9.10 Bond Energies and Bond Lengths | 391 | ||
| Bond Energy | 392 | ||
| Using Average Bond Energies to EstimateEnthalpy Changes for Reactions | 393 | ||
| Bond Lengths | 395 | ||
| 9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model | 396 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 398 | ||
| Key Terms | 398 | ||
| Key Concepts | 398 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 399 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 399 | ||
| Exercises | 399 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 399 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 401 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 402 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 403 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 403 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 403 | ||
| Chapter 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory | 404 | ||
| 10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape | 405 | ||
| 10.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes | 406 | ||
| Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry | 407 | ||
| Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry | 407 | ||
| Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry | 407 | ||
| Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry | 408 | ||
| Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry | 409 | ||
| 10.3 V SEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs | 410 | ||
| Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs | 410 | ||
| Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs | 412 | ||
| Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs | 413 | ||
| 10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries | 414 | ||
| Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper | 417 | ||
| Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules | 417 | ||
| 10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity | 418 | ||
| 10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond | 421 | ||
| 10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of\r Atomic Orbitals | 423 | ||
| sp3 Hybridization | 425 | ||
| sp2 Hybridization and Double Bonds | 426 | ||
| sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds | 430 | ||
| sp3d and sp3d2 Hybridization | 431 | ||
| Writing Hybridization and BondingSchemes | 433 | ||
| 10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization | 435 | ||
| Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO | 436 | ||
| Period Two Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules | 439 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 446 | ||
| Key Terms | 446 | ||
| Key Concepts | 446 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 447 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 447 | ||
| Exercises | 447 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 447 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 450 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 452 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 452 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 453 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 453 | ||
| Chapter 11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces | 454 | ||
| 11.1 Water, No Gravity | 455 | ||
| 11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular\r Comparison | 456 | ||
| Changes between States | 458 | ||
| 11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together | 458 | ||
| Dispersion Force | 459 | ||
| Dipole–Dipole Force | 461 | ||
| Hydrogen Bonding | 463 | ||
| Ion–Dipole Force | 465 | ||
| 11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension,\r Viscosity, and Capillary Action | 466 | ||
| Surface Tension | 467 | ||
| Viscosity | 467 | ||
| Capillary Action | 468 | ||
| 11.5 V aporization and Vapor Pressure | 468 | ||
| The Process of Vaporization | 468 | ||
| The Energetics of Vaporization | 469 | ||
| Heat of Vaporization | 470 | ||
| Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium | 471 | ||
| Temperature Dependence of Vapor Pressureand Boiling Point | 473 | ||
| The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation | 474 | ||
| The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter | 476 | ||
| 11.6 Sublimation and Fusion | 477 | ||
| Sublimation | 477 | ||
| Fusion | 478 | ||
| Energetics of Melting and Freezing | 478 | ||
| 11.7 Heating Curve for Water | 479 | ||
| 11.8 Phase Diagrams | 480 | ||
| The Major Features of a Phase Diagram | 480 | ||
| Regions | 480 | ||
| Lines | 481 | ||
| The Triple Point | 481 | ||
| The Critical Point | 481 | ||
| Navigation within a Phase Diagram | 482 | ||
| 11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance | 482 | ||
| 11.10 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures | 483 | ||
| Closest-Packed Structures | 487 | ||
| 11.11 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types | 489 | ||
| Molecular Solids | 490 | ||
| Ionic Solids | 490 | ||
| Atomic Solids | 491 | ||
| 11.12 Crystalline Solids: Band Theory | 493 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 495 | ||
| Key Terms | 495 | ||
| Key Concepts | 495 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 496 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 497 | ||
| Exercises | 497 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 497 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 501 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 502 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 502 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 503 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 503 | ||
| Chapter 12 Solutions | 504 | ||
| 12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Should Not Drink\r Seawater | 505 | ||
| 12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility | 507 | ||
| Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy 507 The Effect\r of Intermolecular Forces | 508 | ||
| 12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation | 511 | ||
| Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration | 512 | ||
| 12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting\r Solubility | 515 | ||
| The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids | 515 | ||
| Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gasesin Water | 516 | ||
| 12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration | 518 | ||
| Molality | 520 | ||
| Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume | 520 | ||
| Mole Fraction and Mole Percent | 521 | ||
| 12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering,\r Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation,\r and Osmotic Pressure | 523 | ||
| Vapor Pressure Lowering | 524 | ||
| Vapor Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile(Nonelectrolyte) Solute | 527 | ||
| Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation | 528 | ||
| Osmosis | 531 | ||
| 12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte\r Solutions | 533 | ||
| Strong Electrolytes and Vapor Pressure | 534 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 536 | ||
| Key Terms | 536 | ||
| Key Concepts | 536 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 537 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 537 | ||
| Exercises | 538 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 538 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 540 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 542 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 542 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 543 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 543 | ||
| Chapter 13 Chemical Kinetics | 544 | ||
| 13.1 Catching Lizards | 545 | ||
| 13.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction | 546 | ||
| 13.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on\r Reaction Rate | 549 | ||
| Determining the Order of a Reaction | 551 | ||
| Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants | 552 | ||
| 13.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of\r Concentration on Time | 555 | ||
| The Half-Life of a Reaction | 559 | ||
| 13.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate | 562 | ||
| Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of\r the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy | 564 | ||
| The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency\r Factor | 567 | ||
| 13.6 R eaction Mechanisms | 568 | ||
| Rate Laws for Elementary Steps | 568 | ||
| Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws | 569 | ||
| Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step | 570 | ||
| 13.7 Catalysis | 572 | ||
| Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis | 573 | ||
| Enzymes: Biological Catalysts | 574 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 577 | ||
| Key Terms | 577 | ||
| Key Concepts | 577 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 578 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 578 | ||
| Exercises | 578 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 578 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 583 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 585 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 586 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 587 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 587 | ||
| Chapter 14 Chemical Equilibrium | 588 | ||
| 14.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium | 589 | ||
| 14.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium | 591 | ||
| 14.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K) | 592 | ||
| Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Reactions | 593 | ||
| The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant | 594 | ||
| Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and theChemical Equation | 595 | ||
| 14.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms\r of Pressure | 597 | ||
| Units of K | 598 | ||
| 14.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving\r Solids and Liquids | 599 | ||
| 14.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from\r Measured Equilibrium Concentrations | 600 | ||
| 14.7 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction\r of Change | 603 | ||
| 14.8 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations | 605 | ||
| Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When We Are Given the\r Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium\r Concentrations of the Reactants and Products | 605 | ||
| Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems | 610 | ||
| 14.9 L e Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at\r Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances | 614 | ||
| The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium | 614 | ||
| The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium | 616 | ||
| The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium | 617 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 619 | ||
| Key Terms | 619 | ||
| Key Concepts | 620 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 620 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 621 | ||
| Exercises | 621 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 621 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 625 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 626 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 626 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 627 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 627 | ||
| Chapter 15 Acids and Bases | 628 | ||
| 15.1 Heartburn | 629 | ||
| 15.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases | 630 | ||
| 15.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases | 631 | ||
| The Arrhenius Definition | 632 | ||
| The Brønsted–Lowry Definition | 632 | ||
| 15.4 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization\r Constant (Ka | 634 | ||
| Strong Acids | 634 | ||
| Weak Acids | 635 | ||
| The Acid Ionization Constant (Ka) | 636 | ||
| 15.5 Autoionization of Water and pH | 637 | ||
| The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity | 639 | ||
| pOH and Other p Scales | 641 | ||
| 15.6 Finding the [H3o+] and pH of Strong and\r Weak Acid Solutions | 642 | ||
| Strong Acids | 642 | ||
| Weak Acids | 642 | ||
| Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid | 648 | ||
| 15.7 Base Solutions | 650 | ||
| Strong Bases | 650 | ||
| Weak Bases | 650 | ||
| Finding the [OH−] and pH of Basic Solutions | 652 | ||
| 15.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts | 653 | ||
| Cations as Weak Acids | 657 | ||
| Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral | 658 | ||
| 15.9 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure | 660 | ||
| Binary Acids | 660 | ||
| Oxyacids | 661 | ||
| 15.10 Lewis Acids and Bases | 662 | ||
| Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids | 663 | ||
| Cations That Act as Lewis Acids | 664 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 665 | ||
| Key Terms | 665 | ||
| Key Concepts | 665 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 666 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 666 | ||
| Exercises | 666 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 666 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 669 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 670 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 671 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 671 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 671 | ||
| Chapter 16 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium | 672 | ||
| 16.1 The Danger of Antifreeze | 673 | ||
| 16.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change | 674 | ||
| Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution | 676 | ||
| The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation | 677 | ||
| Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution | 680 | ||
| The Stoichiometry Calculation | 680 | ||
| The Equilibrium Calculation | 681 | ||
| Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid | 683 | ||
| 16.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity | 685 | ||
| Relative Amounts of Acid and Base | 685 | ||
| Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base | 685 | ||
| Buffer Range | 686 | ||
| Buffer Capacity | 687 | ||
| 16.4 Titrations and pH Curves | 688 | ||
| The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base | 689 | ||
| The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base | 692 | ||
| The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid | 698 | ||
| Indicators: pHDependent Colors | 699 | ||
| 16.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant | 701 | ||
| Ksp and Molar Solubility | 701 | ||
| Ksp and Relative Solubility | 703 | ||
| The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility | 703 | ||
| The Effect of pH on Solubility | 705 | ||
| 16.6 Precipitation | 706 | ||
| 16.7 Complex Ion Equilibria | 707 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 710 | ||
| Key Terms | 710 | ||
| Key Concepts | 710 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 710 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 711 | ||
| Exercises | 711 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 711 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 715 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 716 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 716 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 717 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 717 | ||
| Chapter 17 Free Energy and Thermodynamics | 718 | ||
| 17.1 Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You Can’t Break Even | 720 | ||
| 17.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes | 721 | ||
| 17.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics | 722 | ||
| Entropy | 723 | ||
| The Entropy Change Associated witha Change in State | 728 | ||
| 17.4 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings | 729 | ||
| The Temperature Dependence of | 730 | ||
| Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings | 730 | ||
| 17.5 Gibbs Free Energy | 732 | ||
| The Effect of | 734 | ||
| 17.6 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating | 735 | ||
| Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics | 736 | ||
| 17.7 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating | 740 | ||
| Calculating Free Energy Changes with | 740 | ||
| Calculating | 741 | ||
| Calculating | 743 | ||
| Why Free Energy Is “Free” | 744 | ||
| 17.8 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States:The Relationship between | 745 | ||
| The Free Energy Change of a Reaction Under Nonstandard Conditions | 746 | ||
| Standard Conditions | 746 | ||
| Equilibrium Conditions | 747 | ||
| Other Nonstandard Conditions | 747 | ||
| 17.9 Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating | 748 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 751 | ||
| Key Terms | 751 | ||
| Key Concepts | 752 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 752 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 753 | ||
| Exercises | 753 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 753 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 756 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 757 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 758 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 758 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 759 | ||
| Chapter 18 Electrochemistry | 760 | ||
| 18.1 Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid | 761 | ||
| 18.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations | 762 | ||
| 18.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions | 765 | ||
| Electrochemical Cell Notation | 767 | ||
| 18.4 Standard Electrode Potentials | 768 | ||
| Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation–Reduction Reaction | 773 | ||
| Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid | 775 | ||
| 18.5 Cell Potential, Free Energy, and\r the Equilibrium Constant | 775 | ||
| The Relationship between .G° and E°cell | 776 | ||
| The Relationship between E°cell and K | 777 | ||
| 18.6 Cell Potential and Concentration | 779 | ||
| Concentration Cells | 782 | ||
| 18.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity | 783 | ||
| Dry-Cell Batteries | 783 | ||
| Lead–Acid Storage Batteries | 784 | ||
| Other Rechargeable Batteries | 784 | ||
| Fuel Cells | 785 | ||
| 18.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity | 786 | ||
| Stoichiometry of Electrolysis | 789 | ||
| 18.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions | 790 | ||
| Preventing Corrosion | 792 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 793 | ||
| Key Terms | 793 | ||
| Key Concepts | 793 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 794 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 795 | ||
| Exercises | 795 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 795 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 798 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 799 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 800 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 800 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 801 | ||
| Chapter 19 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry | 802 | ||
| 19.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis | 803 | ||
| 19.2 Types of Radioactivity | 804 | ||
| Alpha (A) Decay | 805 | ||
| Beta (B) Decay | 806 | ||
| Gamma (G) Ray Emission | 807 | ||
| Positron Emission | 807 | ||
| Electron Capture | 807 | ||
| 19.3 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity | 809 | ||
| Magic Numbers | 811 | ||
| Radioactive Decay Series | 811 | ||
| 19.4 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating | 811 | ||
| The Integrated Rate Law | 813 | ||
| Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity toMeasure the Age of Fossils and Artifacts | 814 | ||
| Uranium/Lead Dating | 816 | ||
| 19.5 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power | 817 | ||
| Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity | 819 | ||
| 19.6 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy | 820 | ||
| Mass Defect | 821 | ||
| 19.7 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun | 823 | ||
| 19.8 The Effects of Radiation on Life | 824 | ||
| Acute Radiation Damage | 824 | ||
| Increased Cancer Risk | 824 | ||
| Genetic Defects | 824 | ||
| Measuring Radiation Exposure | 824 | ||
| 19.9 Radioactivity in Medicine | 826 | ||
| Diagnosis in Medicine | 826 | ||
| Radiotherapy in Medicine | 827 | ||
| Chapter in Review | 828 | ||
| Key Terms | 828 | ||
| Key Concepts | 829 | ||
| Key Equations and Relationships | 830 | ||
| Key Learning Objectives | 830 | ||
| Exercises | 830 | ||
| Problems by Topic | 830 | ||
| Cumulative Problems | 832 | ||
| Challenge Problems | 832 | ||
| Conceptual Problems | 833 | ||
| Questions for Group Work | 833 | ||
| Answers to Conceptual Connections | 833 | ||
| Appendix I | 835 | ||
| Appendix II | 841 | ||
| Appendix III | 851 | ||
| Appendix IV | 876 | ||
| Glossary | 881 | ||
| Credits | 897 | ||
| Index | 899 | ||
| A | 899 | ||
| B | 901 | ||
| C | 903 | ||
| D | 906 | ||
| E | 906 | ||
| F | 909 | ||
| G | 910 | ||
| H | 911 | ||
| I | 913 | ||
| J | 914 | ||
| K | 914 | ||
| L | 915 | ||
| M | 916 | ||
| N | 918 | ||
| O | 919 | ||
| P | 920 | ||
| Q | 922 | ||
| R | 923 | ||
| S | 924 | ||
| T | 928 | ||
| U | 929 | ||
| V | 929 | ||
| W | 930 | ||
| X | 931 | ||
| Y | 931 | ||
| Z | 931 |