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Book Details
Abstract
Traditional thermal and freezing processing techniques have been effective in maintaining a safe high quality food supply. However, increasing energy costs and the desire to purchase environmentally responsible products have been a stimulus for the development of alternative technologies. Furthermore, some products can undergo quality loss at high temperatures or freezing, which can be avoided by many alternative processing methods.
This second edition of Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing provides a review of the current major technologies that reduce energy cost and reduce environmental impact while maintaining food safety and quality. New technologies have been added and relevant legal issues have been updated. Each major technology available to the food industry is discussed by leading international experts who outline the main principles and applications of each. The degree to which they are already in commercial use and developments needed to extend their use further are addressed.
This updated reference will be of interest to academic and industrial scientists and engineers across disciplines in the global food industry and in research, and to those needing information in greener or more sustainable technologies.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Preface | vii | ||
| Contents | ix | ||
| Chapter 1 Principles of Green Food Processing (Including Lifecycle Assessment and Carbon Footprint) | 1 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1.2 Sustainability Assessment Tools | 3 | ||
| 1.3 Standards and Regulations for Assessing Sustainability | 4 | ||
| 1.3.1 The Role of Policy and Green Food Processing | 5 | ||
| 1.4 Introduction to LCA | 6 | ||
| 1.4.1 Goal and Scope Definition | 8 | ||
| 1.4.2 Lifecycle Inventory Collection | 10 | ||
| 1.4.3 Lifecycle Impact Assessment | 11 | ||
| 1.4.4 Interpretation | 12 | ||
| 1.5 LCIA of Food Processing | 14 | ||
| 1.6 LCA of Food Production, Processing and Consumption | 17 | ||
| 1.6.1 Cradle-to-grave Studies | 17 | ||
| 1.6.2 Cradle-to-gate | 19 | ||
| 1.6.3 Gate-to-gate | 21 | ||
| 1.7 Case Study: Carbon Footprint of Fluid Milk Production | 23 | ||
| 1.7.1 Methodology | 23 | ||
| 1.7.2 Packaging | 23 | ||
| 1.7.3 Electricity and Fuel | 24 | ||
| 1.7.4 Results | 24 | ||
| 1.8 An Overview of Emerging Practices and Technologies for Greener Food Production | 27 | ||
| 1.8.1 High Hydrostatic Pressure Processing | 27 | ||
| 1.8.2 Ohmic Heating of Foods | 27 | ||
| 1.8.3 Pulsed Electric Field Processing | 28 | ||
| 1.8.4 Plasma Processing | 29 | ||
| 1.8.5 Microwave Food Processing | 29 | ||
| 1.8.6 High-intensity Pulsed-light Food Processing | 30 | ||
| 1.8.7 Infrared Food Processing | 31 | ||
| 1.8.8 Ultrasonic Food Processing | 31 | ||
| 1.8.9 Supercritical Fluid Extraction | 32 | ||
| 1.8.10 Supercritical Fluid Pasteurization | 33 | ||
| 1.8.11 Membrane Separations in Food Processing | 33 | ||
| 1.9 Food Safety Surveillance Systems | 34 | ||
| 1.10 Future Directions | 36 | ||
| 1.10.1 Disability-adjusted Life-years - A Unifying Metric | 36 | ||
| 1.10.2 Food Safety and LCA | 38 | ||
| 1.10.3 Nutrition and LCA | 38 | ||
| 1.10.4 Food Waste and Sustainability | 40 | ||
| 1.10.5 Technological Advancement | 42 | ||
| 1.11 Conclusion | 43 | ||
| References | 44 | ||
| Chapter 2 Food Law and Sustainable Food Processing: A Comparison of the EU and the USA | 53 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 53 | ||
| 2.1.1 Roadmap for This Chapter | 56 | ||
| 2.2 EU and US Law and Policy | 57 | ||
| 2.2.1 History and Development of Food Law in the EU | 57 | ||
| 2.2.2 History and Development of Food Law in the USA | 58 | ||
| 2.2.3 General Food Law Provisions in the EU and the USA | 60 | ||
| 2.2.4 Development of the International Concept of Sustainability | 61 | ||
| 2.2.5 History of Sustainability Approach in the USA and EU | 63 | ||
| 2.2.6 Sustainable Agriculture in the USA and EU | 67 | ||
| 2.2.7 Sustainable Food Processing | 75 | ||
| 2.2.8 Consideration of Trade Agreements | 79 | ||
| 2.3 Private Standards | 80 | ||
| 2.3.1 Special Challenges of Private Standards | 81 | ||
| 2.3.2 International Trade Implications of Private Standards | 83 | ||
| 2.4 Conclusion | 84 | ||
| 2.4.1 Food Law in the USA and EU | 85 | ||
| 2.4.2 Private Standards and Actions | 86 | ||
| References | 86 | ||
| Chapter 3 Ohmic Heating of Foods | 95 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 95 | ||
| 3.2 Basic Principle of Ohmic Heating | 96 | ||
| 3.2.1 The Electrical Circuit | 96 | ||
| 3.2.2 Mechanism of Ohmic Heating | 97 | ||
| 3.2.3 Factors Influencing Heat Generation Rate | 98 | ||
| 3.3 Electrical Conductivity of Foods | 99 | ||
| 3.4 Physical and Chemical Changes to Foods During Ohmic Heating | 100 | ||
| 3.4.1 Nutritional Effects | 100 | ||
| 3.4.2 Protein Coagulation/Denaturation | 100 | ||
| 3.5 Non-preserving Ohmic Heating Processes | 101 | ||
| 3.5.1 Parboiling | 101 | ||
| 3.5.2 Blanching | 102 | ||
| 3.5.3 Thawing | 104 | ||
| 3.5.4 Dough Proofing | 105 | ||
| 3.5.5 Dehydration and Evaporation | 105 | ||
| 3.5.6 Ohmically Assisted Peeling | 106 | ||
| 3.5.7 Ohmically Assisted Extraction of Compounds from Vegetable Tissues | 107 | ||
| 3.5.8 Ohmically Assisted Vegetable Softening | 107 | ||
| 3.5.9 Ohmically Assisted Hydrodistillation | 107 | ||
| 3.6 Microbial Inactivation During Ohmic Heating | 107 | ||
| 3.7 Ohmic Sterilization | 108 | ||
| 3.7.1 Technological Challenges in Validating Ohmic Sterilization Procedures | 108 | ||
| 3.7.2 Temperature Measurement | 108 | ||
| 3.7.3 Modelling of Ohmic Sterilization | 112 | ||
| 3.7.4 Markers | 112 | ||
| 3.7.5 Conductivity Differences | 112 | ||
| 3.7.6 Solid-Liquid Flow | 112 | ||
| 3.7.7 Commercial Uptake | 113 | ||
| 3.8 Specific Food Products | 113 | ||
| 3.8.1 Meat | 113 | ||
| 3.8.2 Fish | 116 | ||
| 3.8.3 Milk | 117 | ||
| 3.8.4 Fruit and Fruit Juices | 119 | ||
| 3.8.5 Egg | 120 | ||
| 3.8.6 Vegetables | 121 | ||
| 3.9 Economics of Ohmic Processing | 122 | ||
| 3.10 Ohmic Heater Control Options | 123 | ||
| 3.10.1 Control of Electricity Supply During Ohmic Heating | 123 | ||
| 3.10.2 Control of the Extent of Pasteurization/Cooking | 124 | ||
| 3.10.3 Packaging for Ohmic Processing | 124 | ||
| 3.11 Modelling | 125 | ||
| 3.11.1 General Heating Theory | 125 | ||
| 3.11.2 Model Development | 125 | ||
| 3.11.3 Prediction of Temperature Profiles in Liquid Foods | 126 | ||
| 3.11.4 Prediction of Temperature Profiles in Liquid Foods Containing Particulates | 126 | ||
| 3.11.5 Modelling the Fouling Behaviour of Ohmic Heaters | 128 | ||
| 3.11.6 Other Factors | 128 | ||
| References | 129 | ||
| Chapter 4 Cold Plasma Processing to Improve Food Safety | 138 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 138 | ||
| 4.2 Antimicrobial Modes of Action | 139 | ||
| 4.3 Cold Plasma Feed Gases | 140 | ||
| 4.4 Cold Plasma Equipment | 141 | ||
| 4.4.1 Vacuum and Partial-pressure Cold Plasma Systems | 141 | ||
| 4.4.2 Atmospheric Cold Plasma Systems | 143 | ||
| 4.4.3 Dielectric Barrier Discharges | 146 | ||
| 4.4.4 Enclosed, In-package Cold Plasma Systems | 147 | ||
| 4.5 Conclusion | 150 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 150 | ||
| References | 150 | ||
| Chapter 5 Supercritical Fluid Pasteurization and Food Safety | 153 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 153 | ||
| 5.2 Supercritical Fluids and Green Technology | 155 | ||
| 5.3 Current Issues in Food Pasteurization | 158 | ||
| 5.3.1 Food Preservation | 158 | ||
| 5.3.2 Nutritional Properties | 160 | ||
| 5.3.3 Innovative Techniques | 160 | ||
| 5.3.4 Packaging Materials | 161 | ||
| 5.3.5 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) | 162 | ||
| 5.4 Mechanisms and Biochemistry of Microbial Deactivation | 163 | ||
| 5.4.1 Pressure: Permeability, Membrane Disruption, and Extraction | 164 | ||
| 5.4.2 Temperature: Permeability and Extraction | 165 | ||
| 5.4.3 pH: Cell Metabolism and Protein Activity | 165 | ||
| 5.4.4 Fluid Flow and Contacting: Mass Transfer, Effect of Media, and Kinetics of Pasteurization | 166 | ||
| 5.5 Applications of Supercritical Fluids for Food Preservation | 167 | ||
| 5.5.1 Biofilms | 169 | ||
| 5.5.2 Modeling Approaches for High-Pressure Microorganism Inactivation | 170 | ||
| 5.5.3 Inactivation of Enzymes | 170 | ||
| 5.5.4 Processes Based on Gases Other Than CO2 | 172 | ||
| 5.5.5 Subcellular Systems (Phages, Viruses, Proteins, Prions, Hazardous Macromolecular Substances) | 173 | ||
| 5.5.6 Treatment of Solid Objects | 174 | ||
| 5.5.7 Unsolved Problems to Date | 175 | ||
| 5.5.8 Outlook and Discussion | 176 | ||
| 5.5.9 Materials and Composites of Future Interest | 176 | ||
| 5.6 Commercial Aspects | 177 | ||
| 5.6.1 Equipment for CO2 Technology | 177 | ||
| 5.6.2 Patents | 181 | ||
| 5.6.3 Commercialization | 181 | ||
| 5.6.4 Economic Aspects | 184 | ||
| 5.7 Conclusion | 184 | ||
| References | 185 | ||
| Chapter 6 Developments in the Processing of Foods and Natural Products Using Pressurized Fluids | 196 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 196 | ||
| 6.2 Supercritical Versus Subcritical Fluids | 197 | ||
| 6.3 Current Status of Supercritical Fluid Processing with CO2 | 206 | ||
| 6.4 Subcritical Fluids for Processing of Food and Natural Products | 208 | ||
| 6.5 Multi-fluid and Unit Operation Processing Options | 214 | ||
| 6.6 Multi-phase Fluids for Sustainable and ‘‘Green\" Food Processing | 221 | ||
| 6.7 Brief Introduction to High-pressure Pasteurization in Food Processing | 227 | ||
| 6.8 Extraction Versus Reaction Using Pressurized Fluids | 228 | ||
| 6.8.1 Extraction of Organic Acids and Lipids Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide | 229 | ||
| 6.8.2 Subcritical Water Extraction/Reaction to Produce Thermally Labile Substances from Natural Product Matrices | 236 | ||
| 6.8.3 Subcritical Water Hydrolysis to Deconstruct Biopolymers Such as Proteins and Carbohydrates | 239 | ||
| 6.9 Conclusions | 241 | ||
| References | 242 | ||
| Chapter 7 High Hydrostatic Pressure Food Processing: Potential and Limitations | 251 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 251 | ||
| 7.1.1 Rationale for the Interest in High-pressure Processing | 251 | ||
| 7.1.2 Brief Description of Processing Steps and Concept of Adiabatic Heating | 252 | ||
| 7.1.3 Is HPP a Green (Environmentally Friendly) Technology? | 254 | ||
| 7.2 HPP as an Efficient Tool for Food Microbial Safety and Shelf Life Extension | 255 | ||
| 7.2.1 Food Safety | 255 | ||
| 7.2.2 Shelf Life | 258 | ||
| 7.3 Nutritional and Toxicological Aspects of Pressurized Foods | 261 | ||
| 7.4 Quality Attributes of Pressurized Food Products | 263 | ||
| 7.4.1 Textural and Rheological Properties | 263 | ||
| 7.4.2 Functional Properties | 271 | ||
| 7.4.3 Color | 272 | ||
| 7.4.4 Flavor | 273 | ||
| 7.4.5 Allergenicity/Antigenicity | 274 | ||
| 7.5 Pressure-assisted Extraction of Food Components | 275 | ||
| 7.6 Commercial Applications of HPP | 276 | ||
| 7.6.1 Juices and Beverages | 288 | ||
| 7.6.2 Non-beverage Fruit and Vegetable Products | 289 | ||
| 7.6.3 Meat Products | 290 | ||
| 7.6.4 Seafood | 292 | ||
| 7.6.5 Dairy Products | 293 | ||
| 7.7 Industrial HPP Equipment | 294 | ||
| 7.7.1 Design | 294 | ||
| 7.7.2 Size and Output | 299 | ||
| 7.7.3 Investment and Processing Costs | 300 | ||
| 7.8 Final Remarks | 301 | ||
| References | 301 | ||
| Chapter 8 Ultrasonic Food Processing | 316 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 316 | ||
| 8.2 Mechanisms Involved in Ultrasonic Food Processing | 317 | ||
| 8.2.1 Acoustic Cavitation in Fluids | 317 | ||
| 8.2.2 Physical Effects of Ultrasound | 320 | ||
| 8.3 Delivery of Ultrasound into Food | 322 | ||
| 8.3.1 Generation and Delivery of Ultrasonic Waves | 324 | ||
| 8.3.2 Ultrasonic Parameters for Food Processing | 325 | ||
| 8.3.3 Ultrasonic Processing Equipment | 327 | ||
| 8.3.4 Ultrasound Propagation in Liquid Foods | 328 | ||
| 8.3.5 Ultrasound Propagation in Solid Foods | 328 | ||
| 8.3.6 Ultrasound Propagation in Foams | 329 | ||
| 8.4 Ultrasonic Food Processing Applications | 329 | ||
| 8.4.1 Applications Due to Mechanical Vibration Caused by Ultrasound | 329 | ||
| 8.4.2 Applications Due to Physical Effects of Acoustic Cavitation | 333 | ||
| 8.4.3 Applications Due to a Combination of Physical and Chemical Effects of Ultrasound Arising from Cavitation | 343 | ||
| 8.5 Future Outlook and Conclusion | 346 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 346 | ||
| References | 346 | ||
| Chapter 9 High-intensity Pulsed Light Processing | 355 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 355 | ||
| 9.2 Fundamentals of Pulsed Light Technology | 356 | ||
| 9.2.1 Pulsed Light Dose | 356 | ||
| 9.2.2 Components of Pulsed Light Systems | 357 | ||
| 9.3 Microbial Inactivation Using Pulsed Light | 358 | ||
| 9.3.1 Mechanisms of Inactivation | 358 | ||
| 9.3.2 Critical Factors That Affect Microbial Inactivation by Pulsed Light | 361 | ||
| 9.3.3 Microbial Inactivation Kinetics in Pulsed Light Treatment | 366 | ||
| 9.4 Applications of Pulsed Light Treatment | 368 | ||
| 9.4.1 Pulsed Light Treatment of Liquids | 368 | ||
| 9.4.2 Pulsed Light Treatment of Solid Foods | 370 | ||
| 9.4.3 Other Applications of Pulsed Light Treatment | 378 | ||
| 9.5 Combination of Pulsed Light with Other Treatments | 379 | ||
| 9.6 Sensory Effects on Products Treated with PL | 380 | ||
| 9.7 Pulsed Light Systems | 382 | ||
| 9.8 Conclusions | 384 | ||
| References | 384 | ||
| Chapter 10 Infrared Food Processing Technology: Fundamentals and Case Studies of Recent Advances in Grain Processing | 397 | ||
| 10.1 Engineering Principles of Infrared Heating | 397 | ||
| 10.1.1 Fundamentals | 397 | ||
| 10.1.2 Infrared Emitters | 399 | ||
| 10.1.3 Characteristics of Catalytic Infrared Emitters | 401 | ||
| 10.2 Interaction of Infrared Radiation with Foods | 402 | ||
| 10.2.1 Effect of Water Content, Product Thickness, and Physicochemical Nature | 403 | ||
| 10.2.2 Selective Infrared Heating and Absorption of Foods | 404 | ||
| 10.2.3 Radiation Model | 405 | ||
| 10.3 Engineering Continuous Drying and Decontamination of Grains Using Infrared Heating | 406 | ||
| 10.3.1 Description of a Newly Built Pilot-Scale Catalytic Infrared System | 406 | ||
| 10.3.2 Case Study of Shelled Corn Drying and Decontamination | 408 | ||
| 10.3.3 Case Study of Rice Drying | 409 | ||
| 10.4 The Future of Infrared Heat Treatments | 414 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 415 | ||
| References | 415 | ||
| Chapter 11 Membrane Separations | 418 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 418 | ||
| 11.2 Types of Membrane Separation Processes | 419 | ||
| 11.2.1 Pressure-driven Membrane Separations | 419 | ||
| 11.2.2 Other Types of Membrane Separation Processes | 420 | ||
| 11.3 Separation Characteristics | 421 | ||
| 11.3.1 Filtration Modes | 421 | ||
| 11.3.2 Membrane Separation Parameters | 422 | ||
| 11.4 Concentration Polarization and Membrane Fouling | 423 | ||
| 11.4.1 Concentration Polarization | 423 | ||
| 11.4.2 Membrane Fouling | 424 | ||
| 11.5 Membrane Characteristics and Membrane Modules | 427 | ||
| 11.5.1 Membrane Characteristics | 427 | ||
| 11.5.2 Membrane Modules | 428 | ||
| 11.6 Enhancement of Membrane Separation Performance | 432 | ||
| 11.6.1 Optimization of Operational Parameters | 432 | ||
| 11.6.2 Effects of Feed Properties | 437 | ||
| 11.6.3 Membrane Selection and Surface Modification | 440 | ||
| 11.6.4 Modification of Membrane Module Configuration | 441 | ||
| 11.6.5 Flow Manipulation | 451 | ||
| 11.6.6 Applications of External-body Forces | 456 | ||
| 11.6.7 Other Techniques | 461 | ||
| 11.6.8 Selection of the Techniques | 462 | ||
| 11.7 Membrane Cleaning and Sanitation | 463 | ||
| 11.8 Comparison Between Membrane Separations and Corresponding Traditional Technologies | 465 | ||
| 11.8.1 General Applications and Technological Advantages of Membrane Separations | 465 | ||
| 11.8.2 Economic Aspects of Membrane Processing Applications | 467 | ||
| 11.9 Applications of Membrane Separations in the Food Industry | 468 | ||
| 11.9.1 Membrane Processes in the Dairy Industry | 468 | ||
| 11.9.2 Membrane Processes in the Brewing Industry | 471 | ||
| 11.9.3 Membrane Processes in the Winemaking Industry | 472 | ||
| 11.9.4 Membrane Processes in the Production of Fruit and Vegetable Juices | 474 | ||
| 11.9.5 Membrane Processes in the Sugar Industry | 474 | ||
| 11.9.6 Membrane Processes in the Production of Soy Ingredients and Products | 475 | ||
| 11.9.7 Membrane Processes in Tea and Coffee Production | 475 | ||
| 11.9.8 Membrane Emulsification | 476 | ||
| 11.9.9 Other Applications in the Food Industry | 476 | ||
| 11.10 Conclusions and Perspectives | 477 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 478 | ||
| References | 478 | ||
| Subject Index | 499 |