BOOK
Food Irradiation Technologies
Isabel C F R Ferreira | Amilcar L Antonio | Sandra Cabo Verde
(2017)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Food preservation by irradiation is gaining recognition as a technology that is more environmentally benign than other current processes such as post-harvest chemical fumigation, it has less impact on thermally sensitive compounds than thermal decontamination technologies such as hot water or steam, and the technology is more accessible and cheaper. As the technical and economic feasibility, as well as the level of consumer acceptance, have increased its use has been growing fast. International organizations including the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have coordinated and worked with others to develop norms and review the safety and efficacy of irradiated foods. Commended in the Foreword by Carl Blackburn, Food Irradiation Specialist, Joint FAO / IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, this book makes a strong case for the use of this overwhelmingly safe food processing technique.
This comprehensive book is a useful reference for food technologists, analytical chemists and food processing professionals, covering all aspects of gamma, electron beam and X-ray food irradiation, its impact on food matrices and microorganisms, legislation and market aspects. It is the first book to cover control and structural analysis in food irradiation and, being written by leading experts in the field, addresses the current global best practices. It contains updated information about the commercial application of food irradiation technology, especially regarding the type of radiation based on food classes and covers dosimetry, radiation chemistry, food decontamination, food quarantine, food processing and food sterilization.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Foreword | v | ||
| Preface | viii | ||
| Contents | xi | ||
| Chapter 1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1.1 Almost the Beginning | 1 | ||
| 1.2 Opening Frontiers | 2 | ||
| 1.3 Still in Progress | 3 | ||
| 1.4 Has Everything Been Already Done? | 3 | ||
| 1.5 What Next? | 4 | ||
| Chapter 2 International Standards and Regulation on Food Irradiation | 5 | ||
| 2.1 International Standardisation and Regulation on Food Irradiation | 5 | ||
| 2.2 International Standards on Food Irradiation | 6 | ||
| 2.2.1 Codex Alimentarius Standard | 6 | ||
| 2.2.2 IPPC Standards | 8 | ||
| 2.3 National Regulation on Food Irradiation | 9 | ||
| 2.3.1 Regulation of Food Irradiation in North America | 9 | ||
| 2.3.2 Regulatory Framework on Food Irradiation in the EU and Its Member States | 10 | ||
| 2.3.3 Regulation of Food Irradiation in Asia | 17 | ||
| 2.4 International Trade Aspects | 18 | ||
| 2.4.1 Potential Trade Conflicts with Current Regulatory Frameworks on Food Irradiation | 19 | ||
| 2.4.2 Relevance of the WTO and Applicable WTO Rules | 20 | ||
| 2.5 Conclusions | 22 | ||
| References | 24 | ||
| Chapter 3 Gamma Irradiation Plants | 28 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 28 | ||
| 3.2 Physics Principles in Gamma Irradiation Plant Designs | 29 | ||
| 3.2.1 Attenuation of Gamma Photons Through Materials | 29 | ||
| 3.2.2 Design of Sources, Source Racks, and Source Arrangements | 31 | ||
| 3.2.3 Product Configurations Around a Source | 33 | ||
| 3.2.4 Mathematical Models | 35 | ||
| 3.3 Gamma Irradiator Components | 35 | ||
| 3.3.1 Biological Shield | 36 | ||
| 3.3.2 Product Handling System | 37 | ||
| 3.3.3 Radiation Source | 38 | ||
| 3.3.4 Control and Safety System Design - Standards, Hazard, and Safety Assessments | 39 | ||
| 3.4 Irradiator Designs for Food Applications | 40 | ||
| 3.4.1 GRAY*STAR Genesis Irradiator™ | 41 | ||
| 3.4.2 Nordion 2 Pass Pallet Irradiator | 42 | ||
| 3.4.3 Sterigenics® 4 Pass Pallet Irradiator | 44 | ||
| 3.5 Economic Aspects of Gamma Irradiation of Food | 46 | ||
| 3.5.1 Capital Investment | 46 | ||
| 3.5.2 Operating Expenses | 47 | ||
| 3.5.3 Operational Ranges | 48 | ||
| 3.6 Conclusions | 49 | ||
| References | 50 | ||
| Chapter 4 Electron Beam and X-ray Equipment for Food Irradiation Applications | 51 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 51 | ||
| 4.2 Key Concepts and Parameters | 53 | ||
| 4.2.1 Dose Uniformity and Utilization Efficiency for Electron Beams | 54 | ||
| 4.2.2 Dose Uniformity and Utilization Efficiency for X-rays | 55 | ||
| 4.2.3 Dose and Dose Rate Estimation for Electrons and X-rays | 56 | ||
| 4.2.4 Throughput Estimates for Electrons and X-rays | 58 | ||
| 4.3 Key Technology Descriptions | 58 | ||
| 4.3.1 Electron Accelerator Systems | 59 | ||
| 4.3.2 Beam Scanning Systems | 62 | ||
| 4.3.3 Material Handling Systems | 62 | ||
| 4.3.4 Systems Analyses and Technology Selection | 64 | ||
| 4.4 Food Irradiation System Examples | 64 | ||
| 4.5 Concluding Remarks | 64 | ||
| References | 65 | ||
| Chapter 5 Dosimeters for Gamma, E-beam, and X-ray Food Irradiation | 66 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 66 | ||
| 5.2 Dosimetry System Definition and Role in Food Irradiation Plant Qualification | 67 | ||
| 5.3 Dosimetry Systems for Food Irradiation | 68 | ||
| 5.3.1 Selection Criteria of Dosimetry Systems | 68 | ||
| 5.3.2 Optical Dosimeters and Readout Equipment | 70 | ||
| 5.3.3 Electron Spin Resonance Dosimeters and Readout Equipment | 71 | ||
| 5.4 Traceable Calibration of Dosimetry Systems | 72 | ||
| 5.5 Future Developments in Dosimetry for Food Irradiation | 73 | ||
| Recommended Reading: Relevant ISO/ASTM Standards and Guides | 73 | ||
| References | 74 | ||
| Chapter 6 Food Phantoms and Absorbed Dose Simulation | 76 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 76 | ||
| 6.2 Chemical Dosimeters | 78 | ||
| 6.2.1 Principles | 78 | ||
| 6.2.2 Phantoms for Dosimetry | 80 | ||
| 6.3 Food Phantom Dosimeters | 81 | ||
| 6.3.1 Chemical Composition | 81 | ||
| 6.3.2 Fabrication Process | 83 | ||
| 6.3.3 Handling of Phantom Dosimeters: Pre- and Post-handling | 85 | ||
| 6.4 Validation of Food Phantom Dosimeters Using Simulation | 85 | ||
| 6.4.1 Absorbed Dose Simulation | 85 | ||
| 6.4.2 Radiation Experiment with Low-energy Electrons (1.35 MeV) | 88 | ||
| 6.4.3 Radiation Experiment with High-Energy Electrons (10 MeV) | 92 | ||
| 6.4.4 Radiation Experiment with 5 MeV X-rays | 96 | ||
| 6.5 Future Developments | 99 | ||
| 6.6 Conclusions | 101 | ||
| References | 101 | ||
| Chapter 7 Software for Food Irradiation Simulation and Equipment Validation | 105 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 105 | ||
| 7.2 Modeling Methodologies | 106 | ||
| 7.2.1 Monte Carlo | 106 | ||
| 7.2.2 Point Kernel | 110 | ||
| 7.3 Modeling as a Process Design Tool | 112 | ||
| 7.3.1 Gamma Plants | 113 | ||
| 7.3.2 Electron Beam Plants | 114 | ||
| 7.3.3 Additional Requirement for Modeling X-ray Plants | 114 | ||
| 7.3.4 Radiation Shielding Designs | 115 | ||
| 7.4 Examples of Food Irradiation Models | 115 | ||
| 7.4.1 Gamma Model | 115 | ||
| 7.4.2 Electron Beam Model | 118 | ||
| 7.4.3 X-ray Model | 120 | ||
| 7.5 Conclusions | 121 | ||
| References | 122 | ||
| Chapter 8 Packaging for Food Irradiation | 123 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 123 | ||
| 8.2 Authorized Packaging Materials for Food Packaging Intended for Irradiation | 124 | ||
| 8.3 Radiation-induced Changes in the Structure of Packaging Materials and their Role on Packaging Functional Properties | 131 | ||
| 8.4 Radiolysis Products from Packaging Materials | 138 | ||
| 8.5 Safety Assessment and Dietary Exposure to RPs | 147 | ||
| 8.6 Irradiation and Development of Biodegradable Polymer-based Packaging | 149 | ||
| 8.7 Food Active Packaging and Gamma Irradiation | 153 | ||
| 8.8 Edible Coatings and Films Combined with Gamma Irradiation | 157 | ||
| 8.9 Conclusions | 159 | ||
| References | 160 | ||
| Chapter 9 Food Irradiation for Phytosanitary and Quarantine Treatment | 169 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 169 | ||
| 9.2 Phytosanitary Irradiation | 170 | ||
| 9.2.1 Principles | 170 | ||
| 9.2.2 Comparison of Irradiation and Alternative Treatments | 171 | ||
| 9.3 International and National Standards and Agreements | 172 | ||
| 9.3.1 Australia and New Zealand | 173 | ||
| 9.3.2 USA | 173 | ||
| 9.4 Trade in Fresh Produce | 174 | ||
| 9.4.1 Domestic Inter-state Trade | 174 | ||
| 9.4.2 International Trade | 175 | ||
| 9.5 Outstanding Issues | 175 | ||
| 9.5.1 Generic Doses | 175 | ||
| 9.5.2 Dose and Energy Limits | 177 | ||
| 9.5.3 Labeling | 179 | ||
| 9.5.4 Consumer Reaction and the Future | 180 | ||
| 9.6 Conclusions | 180 | ||
| References | 181 | ||
| Chapter 10 Food Irradiation as Sanitary Treatment | 183 | ||
| 10.1 Introduction | 183 | ||
| 10.2 Response of Foodborne Microorganisms to Ionizing Radiation | 184 | ||
| 10.2.1 Microbial Inactivation Kinetics | 186 | ||
| 10.2.2 Biotic and Abiotic Factors | 187 | ||
| 10.3 Applications of Food Irradiation as a Sanitary Treatment | 190 | ||
| 10.3.1 Aromatic and Medicinal Plants | 192 | ||
| 10.3.2 Fresh Fruits and Vegetables | 194 | ||
| 10.3.3 Meat, Fish, and Eggs | 195 | ||
| 10.3.4 Food Irradiation for Immunocompromised Patients, Calamity Situations, and Space Missions | 198 | ||
| 10.4 Conclusion and Future Trends | 204 | ||
| References | 205 | ||
| Chapter 11 Food Irradiation Chemistry | 210 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 210 | ||
| 11.2 Main Chemical Effects of Irradiation | 211 | ||
| 11.2.1 Water Radiolysis | 211 | ||
| 11.2.2 Free Radical Formation and Interaction with Molecules | 212 | ||
| 11.2.3 New Compounds Formed by Radiation | 212 | ||
| 11.3 Foodstuff Major Component Changes | 214 | ||
| 11.3.1 Electron Beam Irradiation Effects | 214 | ||
| 11.3.2 Gamma Irradiation Effects | 219 | ||
| 11.3.3 X-ray Irradiation Effects | 228 | ||
| 11.4 Chemical Changes Limited by Irradiation Conditions | 228 | ||
| 11.5 Modification, Improvement, and Extractability of Chemical Compounds | 230 | ||
| 11.6 Best Radiation Source, Lower Impact: Gamma, E-beam, or X-rays? | 231 | ||
| 11.7 Future Perspectives | 231 | ||
| 11.7.1 Current Trends Regarding Food Processing and Radiochemistry Studies | 231 | ||
| 11.7.2 Further Knowledge is Needed: What We Know and What Is Missing | 232 | ||
| References | 232 | ||
| Chapter 12 Methods Combined with Irradiation for Food Preservation | 237 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 237 | ||
| 12.2 Combined Treatments: The Hurdle Concept | 238 | ||
| 12.3 Food Preservation Factors and Technologies | 240 | ||
| 12.4 Irradiation in Hurdle Approaches | 241 | ||
| 12.4.1 Combination with Packaging and Refrigerated Storage | 241 | ||
| 12.4.2 Combination with Modified Atmosphere Packaging | 245 | ||
| 12.4.3 Combination with Edible Coatings | 251 | ||
| 12.4.4 Combination with Natural and Chemical Preservatives | 255 | ||
| 12.4.5 Combination with Heat Treatments | 263 | ||
| 12.4.6 Combination with Cold Treatments and Freezing | 267 | ||
| 12.4.7 Combination with Low Water Activity | 267 | ||
| 12.4.8 Irradiation in Multiple-hurdle Approaches | 270 | ||
| 12.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends | 274 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 275 | ||
| References | 275 | ||
| Chapter 13 Physical Detection Methods | 280 | ||
| 13.1 Food Irradiation and the Detection of Food Preserved by Radiation | 280 | ||
| 13.2 Legislation | 283 | ||
| 13.3 Physical Methods | 284 | ||
| 13.3.1 ESR/EPR Spectroscopy | 285 | ||
| 13.3.2 Luminescence Techniques | 290 | ||
| 13.3.3 Physical Methods not Accepted Presently for Practical Use | 294 | ||
| 13.4 Reporting to the European Commission | 296 | ||
| 13.5 Future Trends | 297 | ||
| References | 298 | ||
| Chapter 14 Chemical Methods | 301 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 301 | ||
| 14.2 Potential Target Compounds | 302 | ||
| 14.2.1 Products Resulting from Peroxidation Reactions | 302 | ||
| 14.2.2 Fatty Acids and Irradiation-induced Hydrocarbons | 303 | ||
| 14.2.3 Stable Radiolytic Macromolecule Derivatives | 303 | ||
| 14.2.4 H2 - Changes in Gas Composition | 305 | ||
| 14.3 High-performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) | 305 | ||
| 14.4 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) | 306 | ||
| 14.5 Conclusions | 310 | ||
| References | 310 | ||
| Chapter 15 Biological Techniques | 314 | ||
| 15.1 Biological Changes in Irradiated Foods | 314 | ||
| 15.2 Detection of Irradiated Foods by Biological Methods | 315 | ||
| 15.2.1 Measurement of DNA Changes | 315 | ||
| 15.2.2 Measurement of Microbiological Changes | 325 | ||
| 15.2.3 Measurement of Histological and Morphological Changes: Germination and Half-embryo Tests | 329 | ||
| 15.3 Conclusions | 331 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 332 | ||
| References | 332 | ||
| Chapter 16 Toxicological Aspects of Irradiated Foods | 337 | ||
| 16.1 Introduction | 337 | ||
| 16.2 Formation of Radiolytic Products | 339 | ||
| 16.2.1 Formation of 2-Alkylcyclobutanones | 341 | ||
| 16.2.2 Formation of Furans in Food | 341 | ||
| 16.2.3 Formation of Volatiles and Off-flavours in Meat | 343 | ||
| 16.3 Health Risks Associated with Radiolytic Products | 345 | ||
| 16.4 Reducing the Effects of Radiolytic Products | 346 | ||
| 16.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends | 348 | ||
| References | 348 | ||
| Chapter 17 Successful Marketing of Irradiated Foods | 352 | ||
| 17.1 Introduction | 352 | ||
| 17.2 Background | 353 | ||
| 17.2.1 Food Safety | 354 | ||
| 17.2.2 Insect Control | 354 | ||
| 17.3 The Common Past of Food Technologies | 355 | ||
| 17.3.1 Pasteurization | 355 | ||
| 17.3.2 Anti-vaccination Movement | 357 | ||
| 17.3.3 Anti-chlorination Movement | 357 | ||
| 17.3.4 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) | 357 | ||
| 17.3.5 Resistance to ‘‘New\" Technologies | 358 | ||
| 17.4 Consumer Acceptance of Foods That Have Been Irradiated | 359 | ||
| 17.4.1 Summary of Retail Experience | 360 | ||
| 17.4.2 Understanding Consumer Attitudes | 360 | ||
| 17.4.3 Defining Moment in Food Safety | 362 | ||
| 17.4.4 Barriers to Acceptance | 363 | ||
| 17.5 Future Directions | 363 | ||
| 17.5.1 Future Strategies | 364 | ||
| 17.5.2 Food Producer Requirements | 365 | ||
| 17.6 Conclusions | 366 | ||
| References | 367 | ||
| Chapter 18 Technical and Economic Considerations in Food Irradiation | 369 | ||
| 18.1 Technical Considerations in Food Irradiation | 369 | ||
| 18.1.1 Low-energy E-beam and Low-energy X-ray | 369 | ||
| 18.1.2 High-energy E-beam | 370 | ||
| 18.1.3 High-energy X-ray | 370 | ||
| 18.1.4 Gamma Radiation | 371 | ||
| 18.2 Processing Considerations in Food Irradiation | 372 | ||
| 18.2.1 Bulk Inline Processing | 372 | ||
| 18.2.2 Box Processing | 372 | ||
| 18.2.3 Pallet or Tote Processing | 373 | ||
| 18.3 Main Factors Influencing Economics | 373 | ||
| 18.3.1 Capital Investment | 373 | ||
| 18.3.2 Fixed Costs | 374 | ||
| 18.3.3 Variable Costs | 374 | ||
| 18.3.4 Minimum Dose | 374 | ||
| 18.3.5 E-beam or X-ray Energy | 375 | ||
| 18.3.6 Dual E-beam and X-ray Systems | 375 | ||
| 18.4 Economical Comparison | 376 | ||
| 18.4.1 Assumptions for Best and Worst Case Scenarios | 377 | ||
| 18.4.2 Other Assumptions | 377 | ||
| 18.4.3 Economical Comparison of 10 MeV E-beam and 5 MeV X-rays and Gamma Rays | 378 | ||
| 18.5 Summary | 382 | ||
| References | 382 | ||
| Chapter 19 Qualification and Certification of Ionizing Radiation Facilities | 383 | ||
| 19.1 Installation Qualification and Operational Qualification | 383 | ||
| 19.2 Performance Qualification | 387 | ||
| 19.3 Quality Management and Certification | 390 | ||
| 19.4 Conclusions | 395 | ||
| References | 395 | ||
| Chapter 20 Global Status and Commercial Applications of Food Irradiation | 397 | ||
| 20.1 Background | 397 | ||
| 20.2 Historical Perspective | 398 | ||
| 20.3 Current Status | 399 | ||
| 20.3.1 Africa | 399 | ||
| 20.3.2 America | 404 | ||
| 20.3.3 Asia | 409 | ||
| 20.3.4 Europe | 416 | ||
| 20.3.5 Oceania | 419 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 423 | ||
| References | 423 | ||
| Subject Index | 425 |