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Nanostructured Materials for Type III Photovoltaics

BOOK

Nanostructured Materials for Type III Photovoltaics

Peter Skabara | Mohammad Azad Malik

(2017)

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Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN
978-1-78262-674-9
Edition
1
Language
English
Pages
514
Subjects
Nanosciences
Energy
Nanotechnology
Industrial chemistry & chemical engineering
Materials science
Alternative & renewable energy sources & technology

Abstract

Materials for type III solar cells have branched into a series of generic groups. These include organic ‘small molecule’ and polymer conjugated structures, fullerenes, quantum dots, copper indium gallium selenide nanocrystal films, dyes/TiO2 for Grätzel cells, hybrid organic/inorganic composites and perovskites. Whilst the power conversion efficiencies of organic solar cells are modest compared to other type III photovoltaic materials, plastic semiconductors provide a cheap route to manufacture through solution processing and offer flexible devices. However, other types of materials are proving to be compatible with this type of processing whilst providing higher device efficiencies. As a result, the field is experiencing healthy competition between technologies that is pushing progress at a fast rate. In particular, perovskite solar cells have emerged very recently as a highly disruptive technology with power conversion efficiencies now over 20%. Perovskite cells, however, still have to address stability and environmental issues. With such a diverse range of materials, it is timely to capture the different technologies into a single volume of work. This book will give a collective insight into the different roles that nanostructured materials play in type III solar cells. This will be an essential text for those working with any of the devices highlighted above, providing a fundamental understanding and appreciation of the potential and challenges associated with each of these technologies.

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover Cover
Nanostructured Materials for Type III Photovoltaics i
Preface vii
Dedication ix
Contents xi
Chapter 1 - Reliably Measuring the Performance of Emerging Photovoltaic Solar Cells 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Lamp Spectrum 5
1.1.2 Spectral Quality 6
1.1.3 Spatial Uniformity 8
1.1.4 Temporal Uniformity 9
1.2 Reference Diodes and Mismatch Factors 10
1.3 Area Measurements 14
1.4 External Quantum Efficiency 19
1.5 Making Measurements 20
1.6 Example of Two Emerging Photovoltaic Systems 23
1.7 Summary 30
Acknowledgements 31
References 31
Chapter 2 - Bulk Heterojunction Organic Solar Cells: Working Principles and Power Conversion Efficiencies 33
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 History of Organic Photovoltaic Cells 35
2.3 Working Principle and Device Design 39
2.3.1 Importance of the Absorber Morphology 41
2.3.1.1 Post-treatment Exposure56 42
2.3.1.2 Solvents and Solvent Mixtures 42
2.3.1.3 Processing Additives 43
2.3.1.4 Chemical Design58 43
2.3.1.5 Planar Heterostructures or Graded Junction Solar Cells 43
2.3.2 Materials for OPV Cells 44
2.4 Efficiency of OSCs 46
2.4.1 CTCs and Detailed Balance Limit for OPV Cells 49
2.4.2 Empirical Approaches 52
2.4.3 Improving Single-junction Devices 55
2.4.4 Third-generation Photovoltaics and OSCs 57
2.5 Summary: Promising Approaches for Higher Efficiencies 60
References 61
Chapter 3 - High-performance Organic Photovoltaic Donor Polymers 69
3.1 Introduction 69
3.1.1 Photophysics in OPV Devices 70
3.1.1.1 Organic Semiconductors and Light Absorption Properties 70
3.1.1.2 Frenkel Excitons and the Photovoltaic Process 71
3.1.1.3 Bulk Heterojunctions and Nanoscale Morphology 72
3.1.2 Device Architectures 73
3.1.3 Organic Photovoltaic Semiconductors 74
3.1.3.1 Donor Materials 75
3.1.3.2 Acceptor Materials 76
3.2 Design Considerations for Donor Polymer Materials 77
3.3 High-efficiency Donor Polymers 79
3.3.1 Introduction to Push–Pull Copolymers 79
3.3.2 Push–Pull Copolymers Based on Thiophenes, Fused Thiophenes and Their Derivatives 80
3.3.3 Push–Pull Copolymers Based on Cyclopentadithiophene, Dithienosilole, Dithienogermole and Other Bridged Bithiophene Derivati... 85
3.3.4 Push–Pull Copolymers Based on Benzodithiophene and Its Derivatives 88
3.3.5 Push–Pull Copolymers Based on Fluorene, Silafluorene, Carbazole and Other Bridged Biphenyl Derivatives 96
3.3.6 Push–Pull Copolymers Based on Indacenodithiophene and Its Derivatives 98
3.4 Conclusions and Outlook 101
References 102
Chapter 4 - p-Type Molecular Materials for Organic Solar Cells 109
4.1 Introduction 109
4.1.1 Operating Principles 110
4.1.2 Device Architecture 112
4.2 Designing OPV Materials 112
4.2.1 Bandgap Engineering 113
4.2.2 Power Conversion Efficiency 117
4.2.3 Morphology 120
4.3 Thiophene-based Materials 120
4.4 Diketopyrrolopyrrole-based Materials 125
4.5 Oligoacene-based Materials 130
4.6 Triphenyl Amine-based Materials 133
4.7 Dyes and Other Miscellaneous Materials 135
4.7.1 Squaraine Dye Materials 135
4.7.2 BODIPY-based Materials 139
4.7.3 Miscellaneous Materials 142
4.8 Future Prospects and Outlook 145
References 147
Chapter 5 - Fullerenes and New Acceptors for Organic Solar Cells 154
5.1 Introduction 154
5.2 Fullerenes and Derivatives 158
5.2.1 C60 and C70 159
5.2.2 Aryl-fullerene-butyric Acid Methyl Ester 160
5.2.2.1 PC61BM, PC71BM and PC85BM 160
5.2.2.2 PC61BM and PC71BM Multi-adduct 161
5.2.2.3 Aryl-substituted PCBM 161
5.2.3 Indene-fullerene Adduct 161
5.2.4 Other Fullerene Derivatives 162
5.3 New Acceptors 163
5.3.1 Subphthalocyanine Derivatives 163
5.3.2 Amide/imide-functionalized Materials 164
5.3.2.1 Perylene Diimide and Related Acceptors 164
5.3.2.1.1\rPDI Polymers.Figure 5.4 and Table 5.4 illustrate the chemical structures and performance data, respectively, of PDI polymer acce... 164
5.3.2.1.2\rPDI and Related Small Molecules.PDI small molecules are the earliest and one of the most common non-fullerene acceptors used in ... 167
5.3.2.2 Naphthalene Diimide Acceptors 170
5.3.2.3 Other Amide/imide-functionalized Acceptors 172
5.3.3 Fused-ring Electron Acceptors 174
5.4 Summary and Outlook 176
References 176
Chapter 6 - Structure/Property/Processing Relationships for Organic Solar Cells 182
6.1 Introduction 182
6.1.1 Microscopic Considerations in Organic Photovoltaics 183
6.1.2 Macroscopic Considerations in OPV Devices 186
6.2 Chemical Design Criteria for Polymers Targeted for OPV Applications 187
6.2.1 Manipulation of Optoelectronic Properties Based on Chemical Structure 187
6.2.2 Influence of Chemical Structure on Solution Behaviour 190
6.2.3 Effects of Solvent(s) 192
6.2.4 Controlling Structure Formation in the Solid State Through Chemical Design 193
6.2.4.1 Regioregularity and Coupling Defects 194
6.2.4.2 Effect of Molecular Weight 196
6.2.4.3 Effect of Glass Transition Temperature and Tendency for Vitrification 197
6.2.4.4 Molecular Order and Preferred Orientation (Texture) 198
6.2.5 Chemical Design of Fullerene Acceptors to Manipulate Device Performance 199
6.3 Physicochemical Tools to Manipulate OPV Blends 203
6.3.1 Solubility in Solution, Evaporation Rate and Drying Conditions 203
6.3.2 Use of Co-solvents and Solvent Additives 204
6.3.3 Surface Energy Effects 206
6.3.4 Wetting and Film Formation Phenomena 207
6.4 Formation of Solid State Structure in OPV Blends 208
6.4.1 Solid State Miscibility and the Presence of Mixed Phases 209
6.4.2 Use of Phase Diagrams 211
6.4.3 Thermal Stability of OPV Blends 214
6.5 Conclusions 216
References 217
Chapter 7 - Charge Generation and Recombination in Organic Solar Cells 226
7.1 Introduction 226
7.2 From Light Absorption to Exciton Dissociation 228
7.2.1 Light Absorption and Exciton Delocalisation 230
7.2.2 Role of Phase Morphology 232
7.2.3 Hole Transfer 235
7.3 From Bound to Separate Charges 236
7.3.1 Evidence for Ultrafast Long-range Charge Separation 236
7.3.2 Interfacial Charge Transfer States 238
7.3.3 Involvement of Hot States 241
7.3.4 Impact of Phase Morphology and Interface Structure 244
7.3.5 Effect of Transport Properties on Electron–Hole Separation 249
7.4 Non-geminate Recombination of Separate Charges 254
7.4.1 Bimolecular Langevin Recombination 255
7.4.2 Recombination via Triplet States 257
7.4.3 Trap-based Recombination 257
7.4.4 Auger and Higher Order Recombination 258
7.5 Conclusions 259
Acknowledgements 259
References 260
Chapter 8 - Dye-sensitised Solar Cells 268
8.1 Introduction 268
8.2 Structure and Mechanism of DSSCs 269
8.3 Substrates for DSSCs 271
8.4 Nanocrystalline Semiconductors 272
8.5 Electrolytes 273
8.5.1 Liquid Electrolytes 273
8.5.2 Ionic Liquid and Quasi-solid State Electrolytes 273
8.5.3 Solid Electrolytes 274
8.6 Sensitising Dyes 277
8.6.1 Ruthenium Complexes 278
8.6.2 Porphyrin and Phthalocyanine Dyes 281
8.6.3 Metal-free Organic Dyes 281
8.6.4 Co-sensitisers 283
8.7 Counter Electrodes 284
8.8 Scaling-up of DSSCs 286
8.8.1 Device Architectures of DSSC Modules 287
8.8.1.1 Series Connections 287
8.8.1.1.1\rMonolithic Designs.In the monolithic configuration (also called the Kay cell, named after the inventor Andrea Kay, who reported ... 287
8.8.1.1.2\rZ-Type Designs.The Z-type configuration is a sandwich-type design requiring two TCO substrates. The adjacent cells are isolated ... 288
8.8.1.1.3\rW-Type Designs.The W-type configuration is also a sandwich-type design that requires two TCO substrates. The adjacent cells are ... 289
8.8.1.2 Parallel Connections 289
8.9 Printing/Coating Techniques 289
8.10 Manufacturing of DSSC Modules 290
8.11 Conclusions 291
References 292
Chapter 9 - Hybrid Solar Cells 298
9.1 Hybrid Solar Cells 298
9.1.1 What Is a Hybrid Solar Cell 298
9.1.2 DSSCs 299
9.1.2.1 Mechanisms of DSSCs 299
9.1.2.2 The Beginning of DSSCs 300
9.1.3 Materials and Architecture 301
9.1.3.1 Inorganic Layer 302
9.1.3.2 TiO2 302
9.1.3.3 Mesoporous TiO2 Nanostructures 303
9.1.3.4 TiO2 Nanowires 304
9.1.3.5 TiO2 Nanotubes 305
9.1.3.6 Other TiO2 Nanostructures 305
9.1.3.7 ZnO 306
9.1.3.8 Mesoporous ZnO 307
9.1.3.9 ZnO Nanowires 307
9.1.3.10 ZnO Nanotubes 308
9.1.3.11 Other ZnO Nanostructures 308
9.1.3.12 Other Inorganic Semiconductors 308
9.1.3.13 Sensitisers 309
9.1.3.14 Ruthenium Polypyridyl 310
9.1.3.15 Metal-free Organic Dyes 310
9.1.3.16 Porphyrin Dyes 311
9.1.3.17 Electrolytes 312
9.1.3.18 Liquid Electrolytes 312
9.1.3.19 Solid State Electrolytes 312
9.2 Organometal Halide Perovskites 313
9.2.1 Structure and Properties 313
9.2.1.1 Optical Absorption Properties 315
9.2.1.2 Bandgap 317
9.2.1.3 Charge Carriers in Halide Perovskites 318
9.2.1.4 Hysteresis 319
9.2.2 History of Organometal Halides 321
9.2.2.1 Halide Perovskites in DSSCs 321
9.2.2.2 Arrival of Solid State Cells 322
9.2.2.3 Planar Perovskites 323
9.2.2.4 Current State-of-the-art Mixed Perovskites 324
9.2.3 Stability Issues 324
9.2.3.1 Oxygen-induced Degradation 324
9.2.3.2 Moisture-induced Degradation 325
9.2.3.3 Light-induced Degradation 325
9.2.3.4 Thermal Decomposition 325
9.2.3.5 Chemical Stability 326
Compositional Influences on Stability.Pb-based perovskites mainly suffer from stability issues due to their high sensitivity to ... 326
Improving Stability.From the proposed mechanisms, it can be seen that degradation processes require moisture, oxygen and light. ... 326
9.2.4 Device Architectures 327
9.2.4.1 Mesoporous Scaffold Architectures 327
9.2.4.2 Mesoporous Modifications 327
9.2.4.3 MSSCs 329
9.2.4.4 Planar Heterojunctions 329
9.2.4.5 Hole Transporting Materials 330
9.2.4.6 Electron Transporting Materials 332
9.3 Processing Perovskite Films 333
9.3.1 Techniques Based on Solution Processing 333
9.3.2 Lead Acetate Perovskites 333
9.3.3 Vapour Deposition Techniques 334
9.4 Conclusions 335
References 335
Chapter 10 - Deposition Techniques for Perovskite Solar Cells 341
10.1 Introduction 341
10.2 Perovskite Solar Cells 342
10.3 Deposition Techniques for Perovskite Absorber Layers 346
10.3.1 One-step Deposition Techniques 347
10.3.2 Two-step Deposition Techniques 354
10.3.3 Three-step Deposition Techniques 362
10.4 Conclusions 362
References 363
Chapter 11 - CIGS and CIS Nanomaterials for Solar Cells 367
11.1 Introduction 367
11.2 Solar Cell Generations 369
11.2.1 First Generation Solar Cells 369
11.2.1.1 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 369
11.2.1.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 370
11.2.2 Second Generation Solar Cells 370
11.2.2.1 Amorphous Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells 370
11.2.2.2 CdTe Thin Film Solar Cells 371
11.2.2.3 CIGS Solar Cells 371
11.2.3 Third Generation Solar Cells 372
11.2.3.1 Nanocrystal-based Solar Cells 372
11.2.3.2 Polymer-based Solar Cells 372
11.2.3.3 Dye-sensitised Solar Cells 373
11.2.3.4 Concentrator Photovoltaics 373
11.2.4 Perovskite-based Solar Cells 374
11.3 Third Generation CIGS Solar Cells 374
11.3.1 Construction of CIGS Solar Cells 374
11.3.2 Crystal Structure of CIGS Tetragonal Unit Cell 376
11.3.3 Efficiency of CIGS Solar Cells 378
11.3.4 Advantages of CIGS Solar Cells 378
11.3.5 Disadvantages of CIGS Solar Cells 378
11.3.6 Methods of Preparation of Nanostructured CIGS Solar Cells 379
11.3.7 CIGS Materials 380
11.4 Third Generation CIS Solar Cells 381
11.5 Conclusions 387
References 387
Chapter 12 - Copper-based Multinary Materials for Solar Cells 393
12.1 Introduction 393
12.2 CZTS Nanocrystals and Thin Films 395
12.3 Cu2ZnSnSe4 Nanocrystals and Thin Films 415
12.4 Cu2ZnSn(SSe)4 Nanocrystals and Thin Films 418
12.5 Cu2FeSnS4 Nanocrystals and Thin Films 422
12.6 Cu2FeSnSe4 Nanocrystals and Thin Films 425
12.7 Conclusions 427
Acknowledgements 428
References 428
Chapter 13 - Quantum Dots for Type III Photovoltaics 436
13.1 Introduction 436
13.2 Historical Background of Photovoltaics 437
13.3 Quantum Dots 438
13.4 Classification of Photovoltaics 441
13.4.1 Dye-sensitised Solar Cells 443
13.4.2 Organic Photovoltaics 444
13.4.3 Quantum Dot Solar Cells 447
13.4.4 Hybrid Solar Cells 448
13.5 Synthesis and Characterisation of Quantum Dots 448
13.5.1 Synthesis of Binary Semiconducting Quantum Dots 451
13.5.1.1 Group I–VI Quantum Dots 451
13.5.1.2 Group II–VI Quantum Dots 452
13.5.1.3 Group III–VI Quantum Dots 453
13.5.1.4 Group IV–VI Quantum Dots 454
13.5.2 Ternary and Quaternary Semiconductor Quantum Dots 455
13.6 Quantum Dot Based Solar Cells 456
13.6.1 Quantum Dot Solar Cells Within the Shockley–Queisser Limit 457
13.6.1.1 Quantum Dot Sensitised Solar Cells 457
13.6.1.2 Schottky Junction Solar Cells 458
13.6.1.3 Heterojunction Quantum Dot Solar Cells 459
13.6.1.4 Bulk Heterojunction and Bulk Nanoheterojunction Quantum Dot Solar Cells 460
13.6.1.5 Quantum Junction Quantum Dot Solar Cells 462
13.6.1.6 Quantum Funnels 462
13.6.2 Quantum Dot Solar Cells Beyond the Shockley–Queisser Limit 462
13.6.2.1 Multiple Junction or Tandem Quantum Dot Solar Cells 463
13.6.2.2 Hot Carrier and Multi-exciton Generation Solar Cells 463
13.7 Summary 464
References 464
Chapter 14 - Charge Dynamics in Colloidal Quantum Dots: Recombination, Trapping and Multiple Exciton Generation 472
14.1 Introduction 472
14.2 Synthesis of Colloidal Quantum Dots 475
14.2.1 Cores 475
14.2.1.1 CdX, Where X = S/Te/Se 475
14.2.1.2 PbX, Where X = S/Te/Se 476
14.2.1.3 InAs, InP and GaAs 476
14.2.1.4 CuInSe2 and CuInS2 477
14.2.2 Shelling Techniques 477
14.2.3 Passivation and Ligands 480
14.3 Experimental Techniques 481
14.3.1 Transient Photoluminescence Spectroscopy 482
14.3.2 Ultrafast Transient Absorption Spectroscopy 483
14.4 Multiple Exciton Generation and Other Cooling Processes 485
14.5 Trapping 489
14.5.1 Dangling Bonds and Surface States 489
14.5.2 Effects of Trap States on Ultrafast Charge Dynamics: Cooling and Recombination 490
14.5.3 Effect of Passivation on Trapping Dynamics 495
14.5.4 Auger-mediated Trapping Model 496
14.6 Recombination Dynamics 497
14.7 Summary 501
Acknowledgements 501
References 502
Subject Index 508

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