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Book Details
Abstract
Hazardous pollutants are a growing concern in treatment engineering. In the past, biological treatment was mainly used for the removal of bulk organic matter and the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. However, relatively recently the issue of hazardous pollutants, which are present at very low concentrations in wastewaters and waters but are very harmful to both ecosystems and humans, is becoming increasingly important. Today, treatment of hazardous pollutants in the water environment becomes a challenge as the water quality standards become stricter. Hazardous Pollutants in Biological Treatment Systems focuses entirely on the hazardous pollutants present in wastewater and water and gives an elaborate insight into their fate and effects during biological treatment.
Currently, in commercial and industrial products and processes, thousands of chemicals are used that reach water. Many of those chemicals are carcinogens, mutagens, endocrine disruptors and toxicants. Therefore, water containing hazardous pollutants should be treated before discharged to the environment or consumed by humans.
This book first addresses the characteristics, occurrence and origin of hazardous organic and inorganic pollutants. Then, it concentrates on the fate and effects of these pollutants in biological wastewater and drinking water treatment units. It also provides details about analysis of hazardous pollutants, experimental methodologies, computational tools used to assist experiments, evaluation of experimental data and examination of microbial ecology by molecular microbiology and genetic tools.
Hazardous Pollutants in Biological Treatment Systems is an essential resource to the researcher or the practitioner who is already involved with hazardous pollutants and biological processes or intending to do so. The text will also be useful for professionals working in the field of water and wastewater treatment.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| About the Editors | xi | ||
| Chapter 1: A guide book to studying the fate and effect of hazardous pollutants in biological treatment systems | 1 | ||
| 1.1 HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS AND BIOLOGICAL REMOVAL | 1 | ||
| 1.1.1 Emerging need to control hazardous pollutants | 2 | ||
| 1.1.2 Challenges in removal of hazardous pollutants | 3 | ||
| 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE BOOK | 4 | ||
| 1.3 CONTENT OF THE BOOK | 5 | ||
| Chapter 1: A guide book to studying the fate and effect of hazardous pollutants in biological treatment systems | 9 | ||
| Chapter 2: Hazardous pollutants in the water environment | 9 | ||
| Chapter 3: Quantification of hazardous pollutants in biological systems | 10 | ||
| Chapter 4: Removal and behavior of hazardous pollutants in biological treatment systems | 10 | ||
| Chapter 5: Experimental assessment of the inhibitory effect and biodegradation of hazardous pollutants | 11 | ||
| Chapter 6: Removal of hazardous pollutants in full-scale wastewater treatment plants | 12 | ||
| Chapter 7: Integrating microbial and molecular tools to determine the fate and impact of hazardous pollutants | 12 | ||
| Chapter 8: Biological removal of hazardous pollutants in drinking water treatment | 13 | ||
| Chapter 9: Future aspects of hazardous pollutants and their biological removal | 14 | ||
| 1.4 TARGETED READERSHIP | 14 | ||
| 1.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE READER | 15 | ||
| 1.6 REFERENCES | 16 | ||
| Chapter 2: Hazardous pollutants in the water environment | 17 | ||
| 2.1 WHAT MAKES A POLLUTANT “HAZARDOUS” IN THE WATER ENVIRONMENT? | 17 | ||
| 2.2 PROPERTIES OF HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS | 20 | ||
| 2.2.1 Physicochemical properties | 20 | ||
| 2.2.2 Toxicity hazard | 24 | ||
| 2.2.3 Exposure hazard | 26 | ||
| 2.2.4 Tools for estimating the physicochemical properties, exposure and toxicity hazard of pollutants | 31 | ||
| 2.3 ORIGINS AND OCCURRENCE OF HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS IN WATER ENVIRONMENT | 35 | ||
| 2.3.1 Persistent organic pollutants | 37 | ||
| 2.3.2 Pesticides | 39 | ||
| 2.3.3 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products | 41 | ||
| 2.4 REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS | 45 | ||
| 2.4.1 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) of the United States | 46 | ||
| 2.4.2 Toxic Substances Management Policy (TSMP) of Canada | 49 | ||
| 2.4.3 Regulation for Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) of the European Union | 51 | ||
| 2.5 SELECTED GROUPS OF HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS | 54 | ||
| 2.6 REFERENCES | 58 | ||
| Chapter 3: Quantification of hazardous pollutants in biological systems | 69 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 69 | ||
| 3.1.1 Environmental quantitative analysis | 69 | ||
| 3.1.2 Hazardous pollutants in biological systems | 73 | ||
| 3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS FOR BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS | 76 | ||
| 3.2.1 Good laboratory practices | 76 | ||
| 3.2.2 Sampling | 80 | ||
| 3.2.3 Sample preparation | 82 | ||
| 3.2.4 Quantification | 85 | ||
| 3.3 QUANTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS | 87 | ||
| 3.3.1 Perfluorinated compounds | 87 | ||
| 3.3.1.1 Sample preparation for perfluorinated compounds | 87 | ||
| 3.3.1.2 Instrumental determination of perfluorinated compounds | 89 | ||
| 3.3.2 Polybrominated diphenylethers | 90 | ||
| 3.3.2.1 Sample preparation for polybrominated diphenylethers | 91 | ||
| 3.3.2.2 Instrumental determination of polybrominated diphenylethers | 91 | ||
| 3.3.3 Polychlorinated compounds | 93 | ||
| 3.3.3.1 Sample preparation for polychlorinated compounds | 93 | ||
| 3.3.3.2 Instrumental determination of polychlorinated compounds | 96 | ||
| 3.3.4 Alkyl phenols | 97 | ||
| 3.3.4.1 Sample preparation for alkyl phenols | 97 | ||
| 3.3.4.2 Instrumental determination of alkyl phenols | 98 | ||
| 3.3.5 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products | 98 | ||
| 3.3.5.1 Sample preparation for pharmaceuticals and personal care products | 99 | ||
| 3.3.5.2 Instrumental determination of pharmaceuticals and personal care products | 100 | ||
| 3.3.6 Estrogens | 101 | ||
| 3.3.6.1 Sample preparation for estrogens | 103 | ||
| 3.3.6.2 Instrumental determination of estrogens | 103 | ||
| 3.3.7 Disinfection by-products | 105 | ||
| 3.3.7.1 Sample preparation for disinfection by-products | 105 | ||
| 3.3.7.2 Instrumental determination of disinfection by-products | 106 | ||
| 3.3.8 Nanomaterials | 107 | ||
| 3.3.8.1 Sample preparation for nanomaterials | 107 | ||
| 3.3.8.2 Instrumental determination of nanomaterials | 108 | ||
| 3.3.9 Metals | 109 | ||
| 3.3.9.1 Sample preparation for metals | 109 | ||
| 3.3.9.2 Instrumental determination of metals | 110 | ||
| 3.3.10 Pathogens | 111 | ||
| 3.3.10.1 Sample preparation for pathogens | 111 | ||
| 3.3.10.2 Instrumental determination of pathogens | 112 | ||
| 3.4 CONCLUSIONS | 112 | ||
| 3.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 113 | ||
| 3.6 REFERENCES | 113 | ||
| Chapter 4: Removal and behavior of hazardous pollutants in biological treatment systems | 123 | ||
| 4.1 INTRODUCTION | 123 | ||
| 4.2 IMPORTANCE OF HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS IN BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT | 124 | ||
| 4.3 HAZARDOUS ORGANIC POLLUTANTS: BASIC REMOVAL MECHANISMS | 125 | ||
| 4.3.1 Biodegradation and biotransformation | 127 | ||
| 4.3.1.1 Primary, acceptable and ultimate biodegradation | 127 | ||
| 4.3.1.2 Effect of substrate properties on biodegradation | 128 | ||
| 4.3.1.3 Hazardous organics: Elimination as primary, secondary or cometabolic substrates | 130 | ||
| 4.3.2 Removal of hazardous organic pollutants by biosorption | 136 | ||
| 4.3.2.1 Relative rates of biosorption and biodegradation | 136 | ||
| 4.3.2.2 Expression of biosorption | 136 | ||
| 4.3.2.3 Importance of speciation in sorption of hazardous organics | 139 | ||
| 4.3.2.4 Impact of sorption on biodegradation | 140 | ||
| 4.3.2.5 Sorption of hazardous organics to different solids | 140 | ||
| 4.3.2.6 Fate of hazardous organics in anaerobic sludge digestion | 141 | ||
| 4.3.3 Other abiotic mechanisms leading to removal of hazardous organics | 142 | ||
| 4.4 IMPACT OF PROCESS CONFIGURATION ON REMOVAL OF HAZARDOUS ORGANICS | 143 | ||
| 4.4.1 Biomass configuration: suspended- versus attached-growth (biofilm) operation | 143 | ||
| 4.4.2 Importance of hydraulic regime in bioreactors | 145 | ||
| 4.4.3 Impact of different treatment units | 146 | ||
| 4.4.4 Conventional biological treatment and Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) | 146 | ||
| 4.4.5 Combination of biological treatment with advanced physicochemical treatment | 148 | ||
| 4.4.5.1 Combination of biological treatment with activated carbon adsorption | 148 | ||
| 4.4.5.2 Combination of biological treatment with oxidative treatment | 149 | ||
| 4.5 HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS AND THEIR INHIBITORY EFFECTS | 149 | ||
| 4.5.1 Brief review of inhibition | 149 | ||
| 4.5.2 Inhibition models | 150 | ||
| 4.5.2.1 Competitive inhibition | 151 | ||
| 4.5.2.2 Uncompetitive inhibition | 153 | ||
| 4.5.2.3 Mixed inhibition | 153 | ||
| 4.5.2.4 Non-competitive inhibition | 154 | ||
| 4.5.2.5 Substrate inhibition | 154 | ||
| 4.5.2.6 Product inhibition | 155 | ||
| 4.6 IMPACT OF NITRIFICATION ON REMOVAL OF HAZARDOUS ORGANICS BY COMETABOLISM | 155 | ||
| 4.6.1 Role of nitrifiers in cometabolism | 155 | ||
| 4.6.2 Occurrence of cometabolism in nitrifying sludges | 157 | ||
| 4.6.3 Factors affecting cometabolic removal of hazardous organics in nitrification | 158 | ||
| 4.7 IMPACT OF REDOX CONDITIONS ON BIODEGRADATION OF HAZARDOUS ORGANIC POLLUTANTS | 161 | ||
| 4.7.1 Expression of biodegradation rates | 161 | ||
| 4.7.2 Biodegradation rates at different redox conditions | 162 | ||
| 4.8 BRIEF LOOK AT MODELING OF HAZARDOUS ORGANICS REMOVAL | 168 | ||
| 4.8.1 Basic mass balance describing removal of pollutants | 168 | ||
| 4.8.2 Extension of biodegradation models to include hazardous organics | 169 | ||
| 4.9 BEHAVIOR OF HAZARDOUS INORGANIC POLLUTANTS | 171 | ||
| 4.9.1 Metals in biological treatment systems | 171 | ||
| 4.9.1.1 Speciation of metals | 171 | ||
| 4.9.1.2 Consequences of metal speciation for biological treatment | 172 | ||
| 4.9.1.3 Biotransformation of metals | 172 | ||
| 4.9.1.4 Biosorption of metals | 173 | ||
| 4.9.1.5 Inhibitory effects of metals on biological treatment | 174 | ||
| 4.9.1.6 Nanometals in biological treatment: Speciation, fate and effects | 174 | ||
| 4.9.2 Hazardous ions in biological treatment | 176 | ||
| 4.10 REFERENCES | 176 | ||
| Chapter 5: Experimental assessment of the inhibitory effect and biodegradation of hazardous pollutants | 183 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 183 | ||
| 5.2 DECIDING ON EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEMS | 185 | ||
| 5.2.1 Closed versus open bioreactors | 185 | ||
| 5.2.2 Batch versus continuous-flow bioreactors | 185 | ||
| 5.2.3 Suspended- versus attached-growth (biofilm) reactors | 187 | ||
| 5.2.4 Evaluation of abiotic removal | 187 | ||
| 5.3 INHIBITION EXPERIMENTS | 187 | ||
| 5.3.1 Why do we need inhibition tests? | 188 | ||
| 5.3.2 Strategies for the design of inhibition experiments | 189 | ||
| 5.3.3 Monitoring methods in inhibition experiments | 191 | ||
| 5.3.3.1 Utilization of terminal electron acceptor | 191 | ||
| 5.3.3.2 Product formation | 192 | ||
| 5.3.3.3 Degradation of growth-substrate | 193 | ||
| 5.3.3.4 Degradation of inhibitory and biodegradable pollutants | 195 | ||
| 5.3.3.5 Enzyme activity | 195 | ||
| 5.3.3.6 Bacterial luminescence | 195 | ||
| 5.3.3.7 Response of microbial population to an inhibitor | 196 | ||
| 5.3.4 Inhibition kinetics and data analysis | 196 | ||
| 5.3.4.1 Estimation of the kinetic parameters in degradation of growth-substrate | 197 | ||
| 5.3.4.2 Determination of inhibition kinetics and inhibition type | 198 | ||
| 5.3.5 Critical appraisal of standard inhibition tests and suggestions | 199 | ||
| 5.4 BIODEGRADATION EXPERIMENTS | 204 | ||
| 5.4.1 Why do we need biodegradation experiments? | 204 | ||
| 5.4.2 Types of biodegradation experiments | 205 | ||
| 5.4.3 Prior information on biodegradability of a test substance | 206 | ||
| 5.4.4 Screening (ready biodegradability) tests | 214 | ||
| 5.4.4.1 Aerobic biodegradability of a test substance | 215 | ||
| 5.4.4.2 Anoxic biodegradability of a test substance | 221 | ||
| 5.4.4.3 Anaerobic biodegradability of a test substance | 222 | ||
| 5.4.4.4 Shortcomings of screening (ready biodegradability) tests | 225 | ||
| 5.4.5 Inherent biodegradability tests | 231 | ||
| 5.4.6 Simulation tests | 231 | ||
| 5.4.6.1 Simulation tests in suspended-growth systems | 231 | ||
| 5.4.6.2 Simulation tests in attached-growth (biofilm) systems | 232 | ||
| 5.5 REFERENCES | 233 | ||
| Chapter 6: Removal of hazardous pollutants in full-scale wastewater treatment plants | 239 | ||
| 6.1 INTRODUCTION | 239 | ||
| 6.2 PHARMACEUTICALS AND PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS | 240 | ||
| 6.2.1 Estrogens and other endocrine disrupting compounds | 240 | ||
| 6.2.2 Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance | 244 | ||
| 6.2.3 Antimicrobial agents and sunscreens | 247 | ||
| 6.3 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS | 248 | ||
| 6.4 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTANTS | 251 | ||
| 6.5 SURFACTANTS | 253 | ||
| 6.6 OTHERS | 256 | ||
| 6.7 REFERENCES | 257 | ||
| Chapter 7: Integrating microbial and molecular tools to determine the fate and impact of hazardous pollutants | 265 | ||
| 7.1 INTRODUCTION | 265 | ||
| 7.2 IDENTIFICATION OF THE “DEGRADER” | 267 | ||
| 7.2.1 Culture-dependent methods | 268 | ||
| 7.2.1.1 Enrichment and isolation | 269 | ||
| 7.2.1.2 iChip | 279 | ||
| 7.2.1.3 Phylogenetic classification of the degrader isolates | 281 | ||
| 7.2.2 Culture-independent methods | 283 | ||
| 7.2.2.1 Stable isotope probing (SIP) | 283 | ||
| 7.2.2.2 Isotope microarray | 284 | ||
| 7.2.2.3 Fluorescent in situ hybridization – microautoradiography (FISH-MAR) | 285 | ||
| 7.2.2.4 Single cell probing | 285 | ||
| 7.3 ASSESSMENT OF POLLUTANT IMPACT | 287 | ||
| 7.3.1 Microbial community structure | 287 | ||
| 7.3.1.1 16 S rRNA gene cloning | 287 | ||
| 7.3.1.2 DGGE and TGGE | 288 | ||
| 7.3.1.3 T-RFLP and ARISA | 291 | ||
| 7.3.1.4 Microarrays: GeoChip and Phylochip | 294 | ||
| 7.3.1.5 Metagenomics: targeted and non-targeted | 295 | ||
| 7.3.2 Mutations, gene transfer and antibiotic resistance | 297 | ||
| 7.4 GENETIC INSIGHTS INTO BIODEGRADATION | 298 | ||
| 7.4.1 Metatranscriptomics | 298 | ||
| 7.4.2 Metaproteomics | 299 | ||
| 7.4.3 Comparative genomics | 300 | ||
| 7.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 301 | ||
| 7.6 REFERENCES | 301 | ||
| Chapter 8: Biological removal of hazardous pollutants in drinking water treatment | 313 | ||
| 8.1 BIOLOGICAL DRINKING WATER TREATMENT BACKGROUND | 313 | ||
| 8.2 SURFACE WATER | 315 | ||
| 8.2.1 Biodegradable organic compounds | 316 | ||
| 8.2.2 Process configurations | 316 | ||
| 8.2.3 Factors affecting performance | 319 | ||
| 8.3 GROUNDWATER – AEROBIC TREATMENT | 322 | ||
| 8.3.1 Process configurations | 322 | ||
| 8.3.1.1 Pressure vessel reactors | 323 | ||
| 8.3.1.2 Open basin reactors | 323 | ||
| 8.3.1.3 Single-stage versus multi-stage reactors | 324 | ||
| 8.3.2 Factors affecting aerobic treatment of groundwater | 324 | ||
| 8.3.2.1 DO concentration | 325 | ||
| 8.3.2.2 Empty bed contact time (EBCT) | 326 | ||
| 8.3.2.3 Pollutant concentration | 326 | ||
| 8.3.2.4 Presence of co-pollutants | 326 | ||
| 8.3.2.5 Temperature | 327 | ||
| 8.3.2.6 Nutrient availability | 328 | ||
| 8.3.2.7 Media selection | 329 | ||
| 8.3.2.8 Biomass maintenance | 329 | ||
| 8.3.3 Pollutant removal performance | 330 | ||
| 8.4 GROUNDWATER – ANOXIC/ANAEROBIC TREATMENT | 330 | ||
| 8.4.1 Process configurations | 334 | ||
| 8.4.1.1 Fixed-bed bioreactor | 334 | ||
| 8.4.1.2 Fluidized-bed bioreactor | 334 | ||
| 8.4.1.3 Membrane biofilm reactors | 334 | ||
| 8.4.1.4 Ion exchange membrane bioreactors | 334 | ||
| 8.4.1.5 CSTR-based bioreactors | 335 | ||
| 8.4.2 Process considerations | 335 | ||
| 8.4.2.1 Media selection | 335 | ||
| 8.4.2.2 Substrate selection and dose | 335 | ||
| 8.4.2.3 Nutrient availability | 335 | ||
| 8.4.2.4 Contact time | 337 | ||
| 8.4.2.5 Post-treatment | 337 | ||
| 8.4.2.6 Biomass control | 337 | ||
| 8.4.2.7 Biomass waste handling | 337 | ||
| 8.4.2.8 Monitoring and control | 338 | ||
| 8.4.2.9 Operator training | 338 | ||
| 8.4.2.10 Pilot testing | 339 | ||
| 8.4.3 Pollutant removal performance | 339 | ||
| 8.5 TESTING BIOTREATMENT PROCESSES | 339 | ||
| 8.5.1 Scale | 339 | ||
| 8.5.2 Budgeting | 345 | ||
| 8.5.3 Experimental design | 345 | ||
| 8.5.3.1 Water source | 345 | ||
| 8.5.3.2 Process configuration and biogrowth support medium | 346 | ||
| 8.5.3.3 Biological acclimation | 346 | ||
| 8.5.3.4 Pre-oxidation | 346 | ||
| 8.5.3.5 Biomass control strategy | 347 | ||
| 8.5.3.6 Influent water quality and seasonal variability | 347 | ||
| 8.5.3.7 Performance enhancement strategies | 350 | ||
| 8.5.4 Monitoring | 350 | ||
| 8.6 REFERENCES | 350 | ||
| Chapter 9: Future aspects of hazardous pollutants and their biological removal | 359 | ||
| 9.1 NEW CHEMICALS, NEW REGULATIONS | 359 | ||
| 9.2 BARRIER OF “LIMIT OF QUANTIFICATION” AND STANDARDIZATION OF INSTRUMENTAL METHODS | 361 | ||
| 9.3 BIODEGRADATION TESTING NEEDS STANDARDIZATION AND HIGH THROUGHPUT | 362 | ||
| 9.4 ENGINEERS CANNOT UNDERESTIMATE “OMICS” NOW | 363 | ||
| 9.5 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR ADVANCED TREATMENT OF HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS | 363 | ||
| 9.6 REFERENCES | 365 | ||
| Index | 367 |