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Abstract
The applications of ionic liquids can be enormously expanded by arranging the organic ions in the form of a polymer architecture. Polymerized ionic liquids (PILs), also known as poly(ionic liquid)s or polymeric ionic liquids, provide almost all features of ionic polymers plus a rare versatility in design. The mechanical properties of the solid or solid-like polymers can also be controlled by external stimuli, the basis for designing smart materials.
Known for over four decades, PILs are a member of the ionic polymers family. Although the previous forms of ionic polymers have a partial ionicity, PILs are entirely composed of ions. Therefore, they offer a better flexibility for designing a responsive architecture as smart materials. Despite the terminology, PILs can be synthesized from solid organic ionic salts since the monomer liquidity is not a requirement for the polymerization process. Ionicity can also be induced to a neutral polymer by post-polymerization treatments.
This is indeed an emerging field whose capabilities have been somehow overshadowed by the popularity of ionic liquids. However, recent reports in the literature have shown impressive potentials for the future. Written by leading authors, the present book provides a comprehensive overview of this exciting area, discussing various aspects of PILs and their applications as smart materials. Owing to the novelty of this area of research, the book will appeal to a broad readership including students and researchers from materials science, polymer science, chemistry, and physics.
A comprehensive overview of polymerized ionic liquids and their applications as smart materials.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Polymerized Ionic Liquids | i | ||
| Foreword | vii | ||
| Preface | xi | ||
| Contents | xiii | ||
| Chapter 1 - Polymerization in Ionic Liquids | 1 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1.2 ILs in Conventional Free Radical Polymerization | 2 | ||
| 1.3 ILs in Controlled Free Radical Polymerizations | 6 | ||
| 1.4 ILs in Ionic Polymerizations and Group Transfer Polymerizations | 9 | ||
| 1.5 Ring Opening Polymerization | 10 | ||
| 1.6 Transition Metal-catalyzed Polymerizations | 11 | ||
| 1.7 Electrochemical Polymerization | 12 | ||
| 1.8 Step-growth Polymerization | 12 | ||
| 1.9 Enzymatic Polymerization | 12 | ||
| 1.10 ILs as Solvents for Grafting from Biopolymers | 13 | ||
| 1.11 Other Applications of ILs in Polymerization | 13 | ||
| 1.12 Conclusions and Future Prospects | 14 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 15 | ||
| References | 15 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Porous Ionic Liquid Materials | 23 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 23 | ||
| 2.1.1 General Definition of Porosity | 24 | ||
| 2.2 Porosity and Ionic Liquids | 28 | ||
| 2.2.1 Porous Poly(Ionic Liquid)s | 30 | ||
| 2.2.1.1 Templating Methodologies | 30 | ||
| 2.2.1.1.1\rHard Templating.In hard templating methodologies, the selected templating structure is pre-formed and it is usually constituted ... | 32 | ||
| 2.2.1.1.2\rSoft Templating.Soft templating methodologies rely on the use of soft matter, mainly in the form of self-assembled block copolym... | 33 | ||
| 2.2.1.2 Templating-free Methodologies | 35 | ||
| 2.2.1.2.1\rFree Radical Polymerization.Free radical polymerization is one of the most common and versatile techniques to obtain polymers, a... | 36 | ||
| 2.2.1.2.2\rDirect Synthesis of Polymeric Networks.The direct synthesis of porous PILs is a flourishing method in the field of porous PIL sy... | 40 | ||
| 2.2.1.2.3\rPolyelectrolyte Complexation.Previously, we introduced several methods to create porous PILs exploiting free radical and condens... | 48 | ||
| 2.2.2 Supported Porous Ionic Liquids | 51 | ||
| 2.2.2.1 Ionic Liquids on Polymeric Supports | 55 | ||
| 2.2.2.2 Ionic Liquids on Metal Catalysts | 55 | ||
| 2.2.2.3 Ionic Liquids on Carbon-based Supports | 56 | ||
| 2.2.2.4 Ionic Liquids on Porous Metal–Organic Frameworks | 57 | ||
| 2.2.2.5 Ionic Liquids on Inorganic Oxide Supports | 59 | ||
| 2.2.2.6 Porous Liquids | 61 | ||
| 2.2.3 Hybrid Porous IL Materials | 63 | ||
| 2.2.3.1 MOF–ILs | 64 | ||
| 2.2.3.2 Silica–ILs | 70 | ||
| 2.2.3.2.1\rSilica–ILs from Co-condensation.The first step of the co-condensation technique to create PMOs is the synthesis of the mono- or ... | 72 | ||
| 2.2.3.2.2\rSilica–ILs from Self-condensation.The self-condensation methodology for the synthesis of PMOs avoids the use of TEOS in the synt... | 74 | ||
| 2.2.4 Supramolecular Ionic Liquids | 77 | ||
| References | 77 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Cationic and Anionic Polymerized Ionic Liquids: Properties for Applications | 83 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 83 | ||
| 3.2 Comparison of the Properties of Cationic vs. Anionic PILs | 84 | ||
| 3.2.1 Electroconductivity | 84 | ||
| 3.2.2 CO2 Sorption | 95 | ||
| 3.2.3 Sensors | 103 | ||
| 3.2.4 Thermoresponsive Materials | 105 | ||
| 3.3 Summary and Future Directions of Research | 109 | ||
| References | 109 | ||
| Chapter 4 - Switchable Hydrophobicity and Hydrophilicity | 117 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 117 | ||
| 4.2 Ionic Liquids with Switchable Hydrophobicity and Hydrophilicity Depending on the Temperature | 118 | ||
| 4.3 Thermoresponsive Poly(ionic liquid)s with Switchable Hydrophobicity/Hydrophilicity | 125 | ||
| 4.4 Potential Applications of Thermoresponsive Ionic Liquid-based Materials | 134 | ||
| 4.5 Conclusion | 139 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 140 | ||
| References | 140 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Switchable Polarity Liquids | 143 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 143 | ||
| 5.2 Preparation and Characterization | 145 | ||
| 5.2.1 Two-component Switchable Polarity Solvent/Ionic Liquids for CO2/SO2 Capture | 145 | ||
| 5.2.2 Switchable Ionic Liquids from DBU, Alcohols and CO2 | 146 | ||
| 5.2.3 Switchable Ionic Liquids from TMG, Alcohols and CO2 | 147 | ||
| 5.2.4 CO2 Release and Recyclability of SPSs | 149 | ||
| 5.2.4.1 CO2 Release | 149 | ||
| 5.2.4.2 Recyclability of SPSs | 150 | ||
| 5.2.4.3 Switchable Ionic Liquids from DBU, Glycerol, and Acid Gas (CO2 or SO2) | 151 | ||
| 5.2.5 DBU Bicarbonate | 153 | ||
| 5.2.6 One-component Switchable Polarity Solvents/Ionic Liquids for CO2 Capture | 155 | ||
| 5.2.6.1 (Trialkoxysilyl)propylamines and CO2 | 156 | ||
| 5.2.6.2 (Aminopropyl)trialkylsilane + CO2 | 157 | ||
| 5.2.6.3 ATR-FTIR Analysis | 157 | ||
| 5.2.6.4 Henry’s Constant (HCO2) Measurement | 158 | ||
| 5.2.6.5 NMR Analysis | 159 | ||
| 5.2.7 Regeneration of Silylamines from ILs | 161 | ||
| 5.2.8 Recyclability of Silylamine SPSs/ILs | 161 | ||
| 5.3 Applications | 162 | ||
| 5.3.1 CO2 Capture with Switchable Ionic Liquids | 162 | ||
| 5.3.2 Fractionation of Alga with Switchable Ionic Liquids | 166 | ||
| 5.3.3 Wood Fractionation | 167 | ||
| 5.3.3.1 Switchable Ionic Liquids for Selective Extraction of Hemicelluloses | 167 | ||
| 5.3.3.2 SO2 vs. CO2 Switched Ionic Liquids for Wood Treatment | 168 | ||
| 5.3.3.3 Influence of Treatment Time for Wood Treated with a SIL | 170 | ||
| 5.3.3.4 Selective Extraction of Components by SILs from Wood | 171 | ||
| 5.3.3.5 SILs for Fractionation of Fast Growing Biomass: Grass, Agricultural Residues and Eucalyptus Bark | 171 | ||
| 5.3.3.6 Toward Industrial Utilization of SILs as Fractionation Solvents for Biomass | 173 | ||
| 5.3.3.7 Deconstruction of Hardwood in SILs and Acylation of the Dissolved Cellulose | 174 | ||
| 5.3.4 Switchable Ionic Liquids as Reaction and Separation Media | 174 | ||
| 5.4 Conclusions | 176 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 176 | ||
| References | 176 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Stimuli Responsive Smart Fluids Based on Ionic Liquids and Poly(ionic liquid)s | 180 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 180 | ||
| 6.2 Electro/magneto-responsive Smart Fluids | 182 | ||
| 6.3 Electro-responsive Electrorheological Fluids | 184 | ||
| 6.3.1 Electrorheological Fluids Based on Ionic Liquids | 187 | ||
| 6.3.2 Electrorheological Fluids Based on Poly(ionic liquid)s | 191 | ||
| 6.4 Summary | 198 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 199 | ||
| References | 199 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Thermo-responsive Poly(ionic liquid) Nanogels Prepared via One-step Cross-linking Copolymerization | 202 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 202 | ||
| 7.2 Thermo-responsive Systems Comprising ILs | 204 | ||
| 7.3 Thermo-responsive PIL Nanogels Prepared via One-step Cross-linking Copolymerization | 206 | ||
| 7.4 Summary and Outlook | 222 | ||
| References | 222 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Redox-active Immobilized Ionic Liquids and Polymer Ionic Liquids | 225 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 225 | ||
| 8.2 Electrochemistry in Ionic Liquids | 226 | ||
| 8.2.1 Electrodeposition of Metals, Metal Alloys and Semiconductors | 226 | ||
| 8.2.2 Electropolymerization of Conducting Polymers | 227 | ||
| 8.3 Redox-active Ionic Liquid | 228 | ||
| 8.4 Immobilization of Ionic Liquids and Redox-active Ionic Liquids | 230 | ||
| 8.4.1 Introduction | 230 | ||
| 8.4.2 Approaches to form Thin Layers of Ionic Liquids | 231 | ||
| 8.5 Approaches for Polymer Ionic Liquids | 238 | ||
| 8.5.1 Synthetic Route and Structure of PILs | 238 | ||
| 8.5.2 Physicochemical Properties | 241 | ||
| 8.6 Applications of Poly(ionic liquid)s | 243 | ||
| 8.6.1 Nanostructuration | 243 | ||
| 8.6.2 Switchable Devices | 245 | ||
| 8.6.3 Energy Applications | 247 | ||
| 8.6.3.1 Supercapacitors | 247 | ||
| 8.6.3.2 Li-batteries | 248 | ||
| 8.6.3.3 Fuel Cells | 250 | ||
| 8.6.3.4 Solid State Dye-sensitized Solar Cells (SS-DSSCs) | 251 | ||
| 8.6.3.5 Actuators | 251 | ||
| 8.6.4 Sensors | 252 | ||
| 8.7 Concluding Remarks | 255 | ||
| References | 256 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Doping Polymers with Ionic Liquids to Manipulate Their Morphology and Membrane Gas Separation Properties | 262 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 262 | ||
| 9.2 Background | 264 | ||
| 9.3 Effect of IL Doping on the Tg of Blends | 265 | ||
| 9.3.1 Tg Depression and Modeling Using the Gordon–Taylor Equation | 265 | ||
| 9.3.2 Estimation of the Tg for ILs | 266 | ||
| 9.4 Effect of IL Doping on Polymer Crystallization | 267 | ||
| 9.4.1 Effect of IL Doping on Tm Depression | 267 | ||
| 9.4.2 Effect of IL Doping on Polymer Crystallinity | 268 | ||
| 9.4.3 Effect of ILs Doping on Dissolution of Cellulose Acetate | 268 | ||
| 9.5 Effect of IL Doping on Gas Permeation Properties | 270 | ||
| 9.5.1 Gas Solubility in ILs | 270 | ||
| 9.5.2 Effect of IL Doping on Gas Solubility in Polymer/IL Blends | 271 | ||
| 9.5.3 Effect of IL Doping on Gas Diffusivity in Polymer/IL Blends | 272 | ||
| 9.5.4 Effect of IL Doping on Gas Separation Properties | 274 | ||
| 9.6 Conclusion | 275 | ||
| Acknowledgements and Disclaimer | 276 | ||
| References | 276 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Ionic Liquid-modified Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride): from High Performance Anti-static Materials to Flexible Dielectric Materials | 280 | ||
| 10.1 Introduction | 280 | ||
| 10.2 Anti-static PVDF/IL Composites | 281 | ||
| 10.2.1 Anti-static Miscible PVDF/IL Films | 281 | ||
| 10.2.2 Anti-static PVDF/IL Nanofibrous Films | 284 | ||
| 10.2.3 Anti-static PVDF/IL–CNT Nanocomposites | 286 | ||
| 10.3 Dielectric PVDF/IL Composites | 288 | ||
| 10.3.1 Formation of PVDF-g-IL Films | 288 | ||
| 10.3.2 Dielectric PVDF/IL Nanostructured Composites | 290 | ||
| 10.3.3 Block-like Copolymers of PVDF-g-IL Chains and Their Microphase Separation Behaviours | 291 | ||
| 10.3.4 Dielectric PVDF/IL–CB Nanocomposites | 296 | ||
| 10.4 Conclusion and Outlook | 300 | ||
| References | 300 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Ionic Liquids as Tools in the Production of Smart Polymeric Hydrogels | 304 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 304 | ||
| 11.2 Polymeric Hydrogels Using Ionic Liquids | 305 | ||
| 11.2.1 Agarose | 306 | ||
| 11.2.2 Cellulose | 307 | ||
| 11.2.3 Chitin and Chitosan | 308 | ||
| 11.2.4 Silk Fibroin | 310 | ||
| 11.2.5 Xanthan Gum | 311 | ||
| 11.3 Smart Polymeric Hydrogels | 311 | ||
| 11.4 Conclusions | 314 | ||
| List of Abbreviations | 315 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 315 | ||
| References | 315 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Preparation of Functional Polysaccharides and Related Materials Combined with Ionic Liquids | 319 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 319 | ||
| 12.2 Polysaccharide Ion Gels | 321 | ||
| 12.2.1 Ion Gels of Abundant Polysaccharides with Ionic Liquids | 321 | ||
| 12.2.2 Ion Gels of Hydrocolloid Polysaccharides with Ionic Liquids | 327 | ||
| 12.3 Polysaccharide–Polymeric Ionic Liquid Composite Materials | 332 | ||
| 12.3.1 Polymeric Ionic Liquids | 332 | ||
| 12.3.2 Preparation of Polysaccharide Films Reinforced by Polymeric Ionic Liquids | 334 | ||
| 12.3.3 Preparation of Polysaccharide–Polymeric Ionic Liquid Composites | 335 | ||
| 12.4 Conclusion | 338 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 338 | ||
| References | 339 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Tailoring Transport Properties Aiming for Versatile Ionic Liquids and Poly(Ionic Liquids) for Electrochromic and Gas Capture Applications | 342 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction | 342 | ||
| 13.2 Physicochemical Properties of ILs and PILs and the Effect on Transport | 346 | ||
| 13.2.1 Density of ILs | 347 | ||
| 13.2.2 Transport Properties of ILs and PILs | 348 | ||
| 13.3 Ionic Liquids, Polymeric Ionic Liquids and Electrochromism | 357 | ||
| 13.4 Transport of Gases by Ionic Liquids and Poly(ionic liquid)s: CO2 Separation | 363 | ||
| 13.4.1 Why Can Ionic Liquids Selectively Dissolve CO2 | 364 | ||
| 13.4.2 Factors Affecting CO2 Solubility in Ionic Liquids | 365 | ||
| 13.4.3 Supported Ionic Liquids for CO2 Separation | 368 | ||
| 13.4.3.1 Poly(ionic liquid)s as Active Solid Supports | 371 | ||
| 13.5 Concluding Remarks | 372 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 373 | ||
| References | 373 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Wearable Energy Storage Based on Ionic Liquid Gels | 381 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 381 | ||
| 14.1.1 Wearable Technology | 381 | ||
| 14.1.2 Energy Storage for Wearable Applications | 382 | ||
| 14.2 Ionic Liquid Gels for Energy Storage | 384 | ||
| 14.2.1 Ionic Liquid Gels Overview | 384 | ||
| 14.2.1.1 Formulations and Synthesis Methods | 385 | ||
| 14.2.1.1.1\rMacromolecular Scaffolds (Polymers) | 385 | ||
| Linear or Chemically Cross-linked Polymers. Polymers represent a highly versatile set of scaffold materials from which to create... | 385 | ||
| Triblock Copolymers. ABA triblock copolymer scaffolds have also been employed to created ionic liquid gels; this approach has la... | 386 | ||
| Other Polymer Scaffolds and Lithium Ion-containing Electrolytes. Fujii et al. utilized a mixture of two different tetrafunctiona... | 386 | ||
| 14.2.1.1.2\rColloidal Scaffolds.In contrast to polymer supporting scaffolds, colloidal (nanoparticle)-based scaffolds are typically inorgani... | 387 | ||
| 14.2.1.1.3\rMolecular Scaffolds.The addition and self-assembly of low molecular weight gelators (LMWGs) to ionic liquids has been used to cr... | 388 | ||
| 14.2.1.2 Gel Properties | 388 | ||
| 14.2.1.2.1\rIonic Liquid Gel Deposition Methods.In order to measure their material properties, ionic liquid gel samples or thin gel films ca... | 388 | ||
| 14.2.1.2.2\rIonic Conductivity.The ionic conductivity of ionic liquid gels is typically measured via electrical impedance spectroscopy, with... | 388 | ||
| 14.2.1.2.3\rMechanical Properties/Gel Rheology.Ionic liquid gel mechanical responses are generally probed using either tensile42,66 or compr... | 389 | ||
| 14.2.1.2.4\rElectrochemical Stability Window.For both supercapacitor and battery applications, a wide potential window of electrochemical st... | 389 | ||
| 14.2.2 Ionic Liquid Gel Electrolytes for Battery Applications | 389 | ||
| 14.2.2.1 Physically Cross-linked Polymer Scaffolds | 390 | ||
| 14.2.2.2 Chemically Cross-linked Polymer Scaffolds | 392 | ||
| 14.2.2.3 Inorganic Colloidal Scaffolds | 393 | ||
| 14.2.3 Ionic Liquid Gel Electrolytes for Supercapacitors | 394 | ||
| 14.3 Fabrication Techniques for Ionic Liquid Gel Integration into Wearable Systems | 395 | ||
| 14.3.1 Device Assembly Techniques | 395 | ||
| 14.3.1.1 Polymer-supported Ionic Liquid Gels Integrated into Wearable Energy Storage Devices | 395 | ||
| 14.3.1.2 Colloidal Ionic Liquid Gels Integrated into Potential Wearable Energy Storage Devices | 400 | ||
| 14.3.1.3 Ionic Liquid Gels in Textile Energy Storage | 402 | ||
| 14.3.1.3.1\rFiber and Yarn Production.Examples of fiber and yarn energy storage devices have been reported in the literature (ref. 126 inclu... | 402 | ||
| 14.3.1.3.2\rTextile Printing.Printing onto textiles involves incorporating inks physically adsorbed onto the surface and into the bulk of th... | 403 | ||
| 14.3.1.3.3\rFreestanding Device Incorporation.Lastly, as outlined in this section, researchers have developed freestanding ionic liquid gel-... | 404 | ||
| 14.3.2 Considerations for Integrating Ionic Liquid Gel-based Energy Storage into Wearable Systems | 404 | ||
| 14.3.2.1 Device Selection Based on Electrical Properties | 405 | ||
| 14.3.2.2 Device Development Towards Wearability | 405 | ||
| 14.3.2.2.1\rDurability and Comfort.When making electronics wearable, durability and comfort are two properties to be maintained.133 Body wor... | 405 | ||
| 14.3.2.2.2\rSafety.Protection for flexible energy storage is also crucial not only for electrical insulation, but also for preventing the we... | 407 | ||
| 14.4 Conclusions | 408 | ||
| References | 410 | ||
| Chapter 15 - Ionic Liquids in Wearable Chemical Sensors† | 416 | ||
| 15.1 Introduction | 416 | ||
| 15.2 Sensing with Wearable Technologies | 417 | ||
| 15.3 The Benefits of Ionic Liquids for Use in Wearable Chemical Sensors | 418 | ||
| 15.4 Exploiting the Selective Solvation of Ionic Liquids in Sensor Systems | 419 | ||
| 15.4.1 Towards Selective Sampling Using Ionic Liquid Solvents | 420 | ||
| 15.4.2 Improved Selectivity and Specificity of Sensing Strategies Achieved Using Ionic Liquids | 423 | ||
| 15.5 Progression of Ionic Liquid Sensors Towards Viable Wearable Sensor Options | 427 | ||
| 15.5.1 Optical Systems | 428 | ||
| 15.5.2 Electrochemical Sensors | 430 | ||
| 15.5.2.1 Integration of Ionic Liquids into Miniaturised Electrochemical Devices | 431 | ||
| 15.5.2.2 Integration of Ionic Liquids with Flexible Substrates | 434 | ||
| 15.5.3 Skin-worn Chemical Sensors | 438 | ||
| 15.5.4 In situ Environmental Detection Using Paper-based Sensors | 443 | ||
| 15.5.5 Environmental Detection of Vapours | 446 | ||
| 15.6 Prospects for the Future of Ionic Liquids in Smart Chemical Sensors | 446 | ||
| References | 448 | ||
| Chapter 16 - Ionic Electrochemical Actuators | 456 | ||
| 16.1 Introduction | 456 | ||
| 16.1.1 Ionic Gels | 457 | ||
| 16.1.2 Ionic Polymer–Metal Composites | 458 | ||
| 16.1.3 Carbon Nanotubes | 460 | ||
| 16.1.4 Conducting Polymers | 461 | ||
| 16.2 Volume Change in Ionic Conducting Polymers | 461 | ||
| 16.3 Synthesis of Conducting Polymers | 462 | ||
| 16.4 Ionic Electromechanical Actuators Based on Conducting Polymers | 465 | ||
| 16.4.1 Actuators Immersed in an Electrolyte: Linear Deformation | 466 | ||
| 16.4.2 Bilayer Bending Actuators | 468 | ||
| 16.4.3 Trilayer Bending Actuators: Use of Ionic Liquids as Electrolytes for Air Working Actuators | 468 | ||
| 16.4.4 Creeping Effects | 473 | ||
| 16.5 Interfacing and Actuation | 474 | ||
| 16.6 Applications | 475 | ||
| 16.7 Conclusions and Challenges | 479 | ||
| References | 481 | ||
| Chapter 17 - Capturing CO2 with Poly(Ionic Liquid)s | 489 | ||
| 17.1 Introduction | 489 | ||
| 17.2 Carbon Capture Technologies | 490 | ||
| 17.3 Ionic Liquids (ILs) | 492 | ||
| 17.4 Poly(Ionic Liquid)s | 493 | ||
| 17.4.1 Poly(Ionic Liquid) Syntheses | 493 | ||
| 17.4.1.1 Via IL Monomer Radical Polymerization | 493 | ||
| 17.4.1.2 Via Condensation Polymerization and Polymer Modification | 495 | ||
| 17.5 Performance of PILs Synthesized by Direct Radical Polymerization of IL Monomers in CO2 Capture and Separation | 498 | ||
| 17.5.1 The Effect of the Cation, Anion and Backbone Structure on CO2 Sorption | 499 | ||
| 17.6 Performance of PILs Synthesized by Condensation Polymerization and Polymer Modification in CO2 Capture and Separation | 505 | ||
| 17.7 Composites (PIL–ILs) | 509 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 511 | ||
| References | 512 | ||
| Chapter 18 - Ionic Liquid-based Polymers and Crystals for Dye-sensitized Solar Cells | 515 | ||
| 18.1 Introduction to Solar Energy & Dye-sensitized Solar Cells | 515 | ||
| 18.2 Toward All/Quasi-solid-state Dye-sensitized Solar Cells via Ionic Liquid Electrolytes | 517 | ||
| 18.2.1 Polymeric Ionic Liquids for Solid-state Dye-sensitized Solar Cells | 518 | ||
| 18.2.2 Ionic Liquid Crystals for Solid-state Dye-sensitized Solar Cells | 522 | ||
| 18.3 Summary | 527 | ||
| Acknowledgement | 528 | ||
| References | 528 | ||
| Subject Index | 531 |