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Abstract
Driven both by real industrial needs and curiosity for fundamental research, edible oil structuring has emerged as a subject of growing interest with applications in real food systems. With contributions from leading research groups around the world, this book provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the field with special emphasis on the updates from the last 5 years. New insights into the mechanism of gelation in mono- and multicomponent gels are discussed for several categories of previously known structuring agents along with the potential food applications of some of these systems. In addition, use of alternative methods to explore structuring properties of hydrophilic biopolymers are presented with illustrative examples. Some new concepts such as bio-based synthesis of supergelators, foamed oleogels and use of innovative dispersion techniques give a broader picture of the current research in edible oil structuring.
This book will be of interest to students, academics and scientists involved in the research of edible oil structuring. It will be an important reference as it provides current information on the state-of-the-art of the field.
Prof. Ashok Patel is an Associate Professor in Biotechnology and Food Engineering at Guangdong Technion Israel Institute of Technology in Shantou, China where he is currently setting-up a state-of-the-art Food Innovation Lab. He prides himself in being an internationally mobile researcher who has been active in the field of food colloids within different sectors including industry (Unilever R and D Vlaardingen, Netherlands), University (Ghent University, Belgium) and research organization (International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Portugal). His past and current research is focused on using food-grade ingredients to create novel structured systems including oleogels, foams, colloidal particles and complex emulsions to solve formulation issues in food product development. He has published more than 50 ‘first-authored’ publications in the area of applied colloid science including original research papers, reviews, book chapters and patents. For his research in applied colloid science, he has received prestigious and highly competitive individual funding from the European Commission and other Young Scientist Awards and nominations. In 2015, he was selected for a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to participate at the Lindau Nobel Laureate meeting as a visiting scientist.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Edible Oil Structuring: Concepts, Methods and Applications | i | ||
| Foreword | v | ||
| Preface | ix | ||
| Contents | xi | ||
| Section I - Introduction | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1 - Oil Structuring: Concepts, Overview and Future Perspectives | 3 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 3 | ||
| 1.2 Oleogelation: Concepts | 4 | ||
| 1.2.1 Oleogelation from a Colloidal Gel Perspective | 5 | ||
| 1.2.1.1 Oleogelators and Monocomponent Gels | 5 | ||
| 1.2.1.2 Oleogelators and Multi-component Gels | 8 | ||
| 1.2.1.3 Oleogelators and Polymer Gels | 11 | ||
| 1.3 Oleogelation: Overview | 12 | ||
| 1.4 Oleogelation: Future Perspectives | 15 | ||
| 1.5 Conclusions | 17 | ||
| References | 18 | ||
| Section II - Structuring Units | 23 | ||
| Chapter 2 - Biobased Molecular Structuring Agents | 25 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 25 | ||
| 2.2 Vegetable Oil Structuring: Chemical Methods | 28 | ||
| 2.2.1 Hydrogenation | 28 | ||
| 2.2.2 Interesterification | 29 | ||
| 2.2.3 Fractionation and Fat Blending | 30 | ||
| 2.3 Vegetable Oil Structuring: Biobased Methods | 33 | ||
| 2.3.1 Molecular Gelators or Low Molecular Weight Gelators (LMWGs) | 33 | ||
| 2.3.1.1 Oleogelators with Self-assembly Mechanism | 35 | ||
| 2.3.1.2 Oleogelators with Crystal Particles System | 39 | ||
| 2.3.2 Polymeric Gelators (Cellulose Derivatives) | 43 | ||
| 2.4 Multifunctional Molecular Gelators as Next-generation Oil Structuring Agents: Design, Synthesis and Self-assembly | 44 | ||
| 2.5 Conclusions | 48 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 48 | ||
| References | 48 | ||
| Chapter 3 - Biomimicry: An Approach for Oil Structuring | 53 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 53 | ||
| 3.2 The Stratum Corneum | 54 | ||
| 3.3 Ceramides | 55 | ||
| 3.3.1 Health Aspects of Ceramides | 56 | ||
| 3.3.2 Ceramide Oleogels | 57 | ||
| 3.4 Mimicking the Stratum Corneum Lipid Domains | 61 | ||
| 3.5 Conclusions | 65 | ||
| Acknowledgement | 65 | ||
| References | 65 | ||
| Section III - Structuring Units: Crystalline Particles and Self-assembled Structures | 69 | ||
| Chapter 4 - New Insights into Wax Crystal Networks in Oleogels | 71 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction | 71 | ||
| 4.2 Natural Waxes | 72 | ||
| 4.3 The Gelation of Oil by Waxes | 74 | ||
| 4.4 Wax Crystal Network Microstructure | 79 | ||
| 4.5 Types of Natural Wax Gelators | 82 | ||
| 4.5.1 Rice Bran Wax (RBX) | 82 | ||
| 4.5.2 Sunflower Wax (SFX) | 84 | ||
| 4.5.3 Candelilla Wax (CLX) | 84 | ||
| 4.5.4 Carnauba Wax (CRX) | 85 | ||
| 4.5.5 Other Natural Wax Gelators | 85 | ||
| 4.6 Oil Binding Capacity of Wax Crystal Networks | 86 | ||
| 4.7 Rheological Profiling of Wax Crystal Networks | 88 | ||
| 4.8 The Effect of Cooling Rate on the Properties of Wax Crystal Networks | 90 | ||
| 4.9 The Effect of Shear on the Properties of Wax Crystal Networks | 91 | ||
| 4.10 Conclusions | 92 | ||
| References | 92 | ||
| Chapter 5 - Structuring Edible Oil Phases with Fatty Acids and Alcohols | 95 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 95 | ||
| 5.2 Fatty Acids (FA) | 97 | ||
| 5.3 Fatty Alcohols | 98 | ||
| 5.4 Fatty Acids + Fatty Alcohols | 98 | ||
| 5.5 Potential Applications | 101 | ||
| 5.6 Conclusions | 104 | ||
| References | 104 | ||
| Chapter 6 - Gelation Properties of Gelator Molecules Derived from 12-Hydroxystearic Acid | 106 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction | 106 | ||
| 6.2 Molecular Structure and Mechanism for Self-assembly of HSA | 110 | ||
| 6.3 Shear Rate and Cooling Rate Effect on the Microstructure, Self-assembly, and Rheological Properties of Organogels | 112 | ||
| 6.3.1 Independent Effect of Shearing and Cooling Rate on the Formation of Organogels with Vegetable Oil | 112 | ||
| 6.3.2 Combined Effect of Shearing and Cooling Rate on the Formation of Organogels Developed with HSA, HOA, and OHOA in Vegetable ... | 116 | ||
| 6.4 Organogels Developed by “Polar” Gelator Molecules Derived from HSA | 123 | ||
| 6.4.1 The Self-assembly Mechanism of Ammonium Chloride Salt Derivatives of HSA | 124 | ||
| 6.4.2 Rheological Behavior of Organogels Developed with Ammonium Chloride Salt Derivatives of HSA | 124 | ||
| 6.5 Conclusions | 129 | ||
| References | 129 | ||
| Section IV - Structuring Units: Polymeric Strands and Network | 133 | ||
| Chapter 7 - Thermo-gelation of Ethyl-cellulose Oleogels | 135 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 135 | ||
| 7.2 Ethyl-cellulose Characteristics | 136 | ||
| 7.3 Thermo-gelation of Ethyl-cellulose Oleogels | 138 | ||
| 7.4 Ethyl-cellulose Gelation Mechanism | 140 | ||
| 7.5 Ethyl-cellulose Gel Properties | 141 | ||
| 7.5.1 The Effect of Polymer Concentration and Molecular Weight on the Gel Properties | 142 | ||
| 7.5.2 The Effect of Oil Type on the Gel Properties | 142 | ||
| 7.5.3 The Effect of Surface-active Molecule Addition on Gel Properties | 144 | ||
| 7.5.4 The Effect of Thermal Treatment on Gel Properties | 145 | ||
| 7.5.5 Ethyl-cellulose Oleogel Fractionation | 146 | ||
| 7.6 Summary and Conclusion | 146 | ||
| References | 147 | ||
| Chapter 8 - Proteins as Building Blocks for Oil Structuring | 150 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 150 | ||
| 8.2 Solvent Exchange Route | 152 | ||
| 8.3 Protein Oleogels Prepared from Protein Hydrogels | 153 | ||
| 8.4 Protein Oleogels Prepared from Protein Aggregates | 156 | ||
| 8.5 Effect of Oil Type | 160 | ||
| 8.6 Suitable Protein Building Blocks | 164 | ||
| 8.7 Role of Capillary Interactions | 165 | ||
| 8.8 Potential Applications: First Trials | 169 | ||
| 8.9 Conclusion | 171 | ||
| References | 172 | ||
| Chapter 9 - Oleogels from Emulsion (HIPE) Templates Stabilized by Protein–Polysaccharide Complexes | 175 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 175 | ||
| 9.2 Formation of Biopolymer Complexes | 178 | ||
| 9.2.1 Preparation of Complexes: Effect of pH and Concentration | 178 | ||
| 9.2.2 Properties of Complexes | 179 | ||
| 9.3 HIPEs Stabilized by Biopolymer Complexes | 181 | ||
| 9.3.1 Preparation and Microstructure of HIPE | 181 | ||
| 9.3.2 Properties of HIPEs | 182 | ||
| 9.3.2.1 Particle Size Distribution | 182 | ||
| 9.3.2.2 Rheology | 183 | ||
| 9.4 HIPE-templated Oleogels | 186 | ||
| 9.4.1 Preparation of Oleogels | 186 | ||
| 9.4.2 Properties of Oleogels | 188 | ||
| 9.4.2.1 Oleogels of WPI–LMP and SC–LMP | 188 | ||
| 9.4.2.2 Oleogels of SC–ALG | 189 | ||
| 9.5 Potential Food Applications of Biopolymer-based Oleogels: Where Can We Use Them | 191 | ||
| 9.6 Conclusion | 193 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 194 | ||
| References | 194 | ||
| Chapter 10 - Cereal Protein-based Emulsion Gels for Edible Oil Structuring | 198 | ||
| 10.1 Introduction | 198 | ||
| 10.2 Zein | 200 | ||
| 10.3 Kafirin | 205 | ||
| 10.4 Gliadin | 206 | ||
| 10.5 Wheat Gluten | 208 | ||
| 10.6 Conclusions and Outlook | 210 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 211 | ||
| References | 211 | ||
| Section V - Edible Applications | 215 | ||
| Chapter 11 - Edible Applications of Wax-based Oleogels | 217 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 217 | ||
| 11.2 Wax Oleogels in Margarine and Spread Production | 218 | ||
| 11.3 Wax Oleogels in Bakery Products | 225 | ||
| 11.4 Wax Oleogels in Chocolate and Confectionery Products | 233 | ||
| 11.5 Wax Oleogels in Dairy Products | 237 | ||
| 11.6 Wax Oleogels in Comminuted Meat Products | 242 | ||
| 11.7 Wax Oleogels in Other Food Applications | 244 | ||
| 11.8 Conclusions and Recommendations | 246 | ||
| References | 247 | ||
| Chapter 12 - Edible Applications of Ethylcellulose Oleogels | 250 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 250 | ||
| 12.2 Ethylcellulose Oleogels | 251 | ||
| 12.3 Physical Properties of Ethylcellulose Oleogels | 252 | ||
| 12.3.1 Techniques for the Analysis of Oleogel Physical Properties | 253 | ||
| 12.3.2 Parameters Affecting the Physical Properties of Oleogels | 254 | ||
| 12.4 Health Implications of Ethylcellulose Oleogel Consumption | 255 | ||
| 12.4.1 In Vitro and In Vivo Digestion of Ethylcellulose Oleogels | 255 | ||
| 12.4.2 Ethylcellulose Oleogels for the Controlled Release of Bioactive Molecules | 258 | ||
| 12.4.3 In Vitro Bioaccessibility of β-carotene in Ethylcellulose Oleogels | 259 | ||
| 12.5 Considerations and Practicality of Ethylcellulose Oleogels in Food Systems | 260 | ||
| 12.6 Edible Applications of Ethylcellulose Oleogels | 263 | ||
| 12.6.1 Cream Cheese | 263 | ||
| 12.6.2 Frankfurters or Comminuted Meats | 264 | ||
| 12.6.3 Sausages | 265 | ||
| 12.6.4 Laminating Shortenings | 267 | ||
| 12.6.5 Ethylcellulose for the Reduction of Oil Migration | 268 | ||
| 12.6.6 Heat-resistant Chocolate | 270 | ||
| 12.7 Conclusion | 271 | ||
| References | 272 | ||
| Section VI - Functional Colloids from Structured Oils | 275 | ||
| Chapter 13 - Non-aqueous Foams Based on Edible Oils | 277 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction | 277 | ||
| 13.2 Aqueous Foam | 278 | ||
| 13.2.1 Formation of Aqueous Foam | 278 | ||
| 13.2.2 Classification of Aqueous Foams | 278 | ||
| 13.2.3 Aqueous Foam: A Multiscale System | 279 | ||
| 13.2.4 Methods of Aqueous Foam Production | 279 | ||
| 13.2.5 Mechanisms of Aqueous Foam Destabilization | 280 | ||
| 13.2.6 Mechanisms of Aqueous Foam Stabilization | 280 | ||
| 13.2.7 Importance of the Surface Tension and Viscoelastic Properties | 281 | ||
| 13.2.8 Main Differences Between Aqueous and Non-aqueous Foams | 282 | ||
| 13.3 Non-aqueous Foams Based on Surfactants | 283 | ||
| 13.3.1 Non-aqueous Foams Based on Hydrocarbon-type Surfactants | 283 | ||
| 13.3.2 Non-aqueous Foams Based on Polymethylsiloxane-type Surfactants | 284 | ||
| 13.3.3 Non-aqueous Foams Based on Fluoroalkyl-type Surfactants | 284 | ||
| 13.3.4 Non-aqueous Foams Based on Asphaltenes and Resins | 285 | ||
| 13.4 Non-aqueous Foams Based on Solid Particles | 285 | ||
| 13.4.1 Wettability of Solid Particles | 285 | ||
| 13.4.2 Formation and Properties of Non-aqueous Foams Obtained from Solid Particles | 287 | ||
| 13.4.3 Modification of the Contact Angle by the Non-aqueous Liquid Surface Tension | 289 | ||
| 13.4.4 Modification of the Contact Angle by the Surface Chemistry | 291 | ||
| 13.5 Non-aqueous Foams Based on Oleogels | 293 | ||
| 13.5.1 Formation of Oleogel Systems to Produce Non-aqueous Foams | 293 | ||
| 13.5.2 Production of Non-aqueous Foams Based on Oleogels | 294 | ||
| 13.5.3 Properties of Non-aqueous Foams Based on Oleogels | 297 | ||
| 13.5.4 Foamability and Solubility Boundary of Oleogel Systems | 298 | ||
| 13.5.5 Foam Stability and Solubility Boundary of Oleogel Systems | 299 | ||
| 13.5.6 Rheological Properties of Non-aqueous Foams Based on Oleogels | 301 | ||
| 13.5.7 Responsive Non-aqueous Foams Based on Oleogels | 301 | ||
| 13.6 Conclusion and Outlook | 303 | ||
| References | 305 | ||
| Chapter 14 - Innovative Dispersion Strategies for Creating Structured Oil Systems | 308 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 308 | ||
| 14.2 Structured O/W/O Double Emulsions | 309 | ||
| 14.3 ‘Arrested’ Oil Foams | 316 | ||
| 14.4 Polymer-coated Crystalline Microcapsules | 321 | ||
| 14.5 Conclusion | 326 | ||
| References | 327 | ||
| Subject Index | 331 |