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Book Details
Abstract
Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) rely on the efficient generation of reactive radical species and are increasingly attractive options for water remediation from a wide variety of organic micropollutants of human health and/or environmental concern.
Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment covers the key advanced oxidation processes developed for chemical contaminant destruction in polluted water sources, some of which have been implemented successfully at water treatment plants around the world.
The book is structured in two sections; the first part is dedicated to the most relevant AOPs, whereas the topics covered in the second section include the photochemistry of chemical contaminants in the aquatic environment, advanced water treatment for water reuse, implementation of advanced treatment processes for drinking water production at a state-of-the art water treatment plant in Europe, advanced treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater, and green technologies for water remediation.
The advanced oxidation processes discussed in the book cover the following aspects:
- Process principles including the most recent scientific findings and interpretation.
- Classes of compounds suitable to AOP treatment and examples of reaction mechanisms.
- Chemical and photochemical degradation kinetics and modelling.
- Water quality impact on process performance and practical considerations on process parameter selection criteria.
- Process limitations and byproduct formation and strategies to mitigate any potential adverse effects on the treated water quality.
- AOP equipment design and economics considerations.
- Research studies and outcomes.
- Case studies relevant to process implementation to water treatment.
- Commercial applications.
- Future research needs.
Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment presents the most recent scientific and technological achievements in process understanding and implementation, and addresses to anyone interested in water remediation, including water industry professionals, consulting engineers, regulators, academics, students.
Editor: Mihaela I. Stefan - Trojan Technologies - Canada
Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment: Fundamentals and Applications, is an essential resource for water professionals around the globe who want to learn about solutions for effective water treatment. Whether the reader is an engineer, scientist, academic, student, water utility professional or work in the water treatment sector, this book has important and timely information on advanced methods for treatment of water in the area of advanced oxidation.
[...] I look forward to having this book on my bookshelf to use in my research and classes for many years to come.
Karl G. Linden, Ph.D.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | vii | ||
| About the Editor | xvii | ||
| List of Contributors | xix | ||
| Preface | xxiii | ||
| Chapter 1: A few words about Water | 1 | ||
| 1.1 REFERENCES | 4 | ||
| Chapter 2: UV/Hydrogen peroxide process | 7 | ||
| 2.1 INTRODUCTION | 7 | ||
| 2.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, PHOTOCHEMISTRY LAWS AND PHOTOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS | 8 | ||
| 2.2.1 Electromagnetic radiation | 8 | ||
| 2.2.2 Photochemistry laws | 9 | ||
| 2.2.3 Photochemical parameters | 11 | ||
| 2.2.3.1 Molar absorption coefficients | 11 | ||
| 2.2.3.2 Quantum yield | 12 | ||
| 2.3 UV RADIATION SOURCES | 15 | ||
| 2.3.1 Blackbody radiation | 15 | ||
| 2.3.2 Mercury vapor-based UV light sources for water treatment | 16 | ||
| 2.3.2.1 Low-pressure (LP) Hg vapor arc lamps | 17 | ||
| 2.3.2.2 Medium-pressure Hg vapor arc lamps | 19 | ||
| 2.3.2.3 Quartz sleeves | 20 | ||
| 2.3.3 Mercury-free UV lamps | 21 | ||
| 2.3.3.1 Excilamps | 21 | ||
| 2.3.3.2 Pulsed UV lamps | 22 | ||
| 2.3.3.3 Light-emitting diode (LED) lamps | 22 | ||
| 2.4 UV/H2O2 PROCESS FUNDAMENTALS | 23 | ||
| 2.4.1 Photolysis of hydrogen peroxide | 23 | ||
| 2.4.2 Hydroxyl radical | 27 | ||
| 2.4.2.1 Hydroxyl radical properties, detection and quantification in aqueous solutions | 27 | ||
| 2.4.2.2 Reactions of hydroxyl radical | 28 | ||
| 2.4.2.3 Reactions of C-centered radicals, oxyl- and peroxyl radicals | 32 | ||
| 2.4.3 Rate constants of •OH reactions with organic and inorganic compounds | 32 | ||
| 2.4.3.1 Brief review on k•OH literature data | 33 | ||
| 2.4.3.2 Temperature-dependence of •OH reactions | 35 | ||
| 2.4.3.3 Experimental and theoretical methods for k•OH determination | 36 | ||
| 2.5 KINETIC MODELING OF UV/H2O2 PROCESS | 39 | ||
| 2.5.1 Pseudo-steady-state approximation and dynamic kinetic models | 40 | ||
| 2.5.1.1 Modeling the UV/H2O2 process with the ROH,UV parameter | 44 | ||
| 2.5.1.2 Experimental determination of •OH water matrix background demand | 45 | ||
| 2.5.2 Computational fluid dynamics models for the UV/H2O2 process | 46 | ||
| 2.6 WATER QUALITY IMPACT ON UV/H2O2 PROCESS PERFORMANCE | 47 | ||
| 2.6.1 pH | 48 | ||
| 2.6.2 Temperature | 48 | ||
| 2.6.3 Water matrix composition | 48 | ||
| 2.6.3.1 Inorganic compounds | 48 | ||
| 2.6.3.2 Dissolved organic Matter (DOM) | 50 | ||
| 2.7 PERFORMANCE METRICS FOR UV LIGHT-BASED AOPs | 50 | ||
| 2.7.1 Electrical energy per order | 50 | ||
| 2.7.2 UV Fluence (UV dose) | 52 | ||
| 2.8 UV/H2O2 AOP EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION | 55 | ||
| 2.8.1 UV Reactor design concepts | 55 | ||
| 2.8.2 Sizing full-scale UV equipment from bench- and pilot-scale | 57 | ||
| 2.8.3 Incorporating the UV light-based processes into water treatment trains | 59 | ||
| 2.9 UV/H2O2 AOP FOR MICROPOLLUTANT TREATMENT IN WATER | 60 | ||
| 2.9.1 Laboratory-scale research studies | 61 | ||
| 2.9.1.1 N-Nitrosamines | 61 | ||
| 2.9.1.2 Pesticides | 63 | ||
| 2.9.1.3 Cyanotoxins | 66 | ||
| 2.9.1.4 Taste-and-odor (T&O) causing compounds | 68 | ||
| 2.9.1.5 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) | 68 | ||
| 2.9.1.6 Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) | 71 | ||
| 2.9.1.7 Pharmaceuticals | 73 | ||
| 2.9.1.8 Miscellaneous micropollutants | 74 | ||
| 2.9.2 Pilot-scale tests | 76 | ||
| 2.9.3 Full-scale UV/H2O2 AOP installations | 82 | ||
| 2.9.4 Process economics, sustainability and life-cycle assessment | 88 | ||
| 2.10 BYPRODUCT FORMATION AND MITIGATION STRATEGIES | 93 | ||
| 2.11 FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | 99 | ||
| 2.12 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS | 100 | ||
| 2.13 REFERENCES | 100 | ||
| Chapter 3: Application of ozone in water and wastewater treatment | 123 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 123 | ||
| 3.2 PROPERTIES OF OZONE | 123 | ||
| 3.3 DECOMPOSITION OF OZONE IN WATER | 124 | ||
| 3.4 OZONATION FOR CONTAMINANT REMOVAL | 126 | ||
| 3.4.1 Overview | 126 | ||
| 3.4.2 Direct reactions with ozone | 126 | ||
| 3.4.3 Impact of water quality on process performance | 129 | ||
| 3.4.4 Summary | 138 | ||
| 3.5 FORMATION OF BYPRODUCTS | 139 | ||
| 3.6 MICROBIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS | 140 | ||
| 3.6.1 Disinfection in drinking water and wastewater applications | 140 | ||
| 3.6.2 Microbial surrogates and indicators | 141 | ||
| 3.6.3 Ozone dosing frameworks for disinfection | 142 | ||
| 3.6.4 Vegetative bacteria | 144 | ||
| 3.6.5 Viruses | 146 | ||
| 3.6.6 Spore-forming microbes | 147 | ||
| 3.7 IMPLEMENTATION AT FULL SCALE FACILITIES | 149 | ||
| 3.7.1 Ozone systems | 149 | ||
| 3.7.2 Ozone contactor | 149 | ||
| 3.7.3 Mass transfer efficiency | 149 | ||
| 3.7.4 Cost estimates | 150 | ||
| 3.7.5 Process control | 152 | ||
| 3.8 CASE STUDIES AND REGULATORY DRIVERS | 153 | ||
| 3.8.1 Drinking water applications | 153 | ||
| 3.8.2 Wastewater and potable reuse applications | 154 | ||
| 3.9 REFERENCES | 156 | ||
| Chapter 4: Ozone/H2O2 and ozone/UV processes | 163 | ||
| 4.1 INTRODUCTION | 163 | ||
| 4.2 O3/H2O2 (PEROXONE) PROCESS FUNDAMENTALS | 163 | ||
| 4.2.1 Mechanism of hydroxyl radical generation | 163 | ||
| 4.2.2 O3 and •OH exposures: the Rct concept | 165 | ||
| 4.2.3 Reaction kinetics and modeling | 167 | ||
| 4.2.4 Water quality impact on process performance: O3 and H2O2 dose selection criteria | 169 | ||
| 4.3 O3/H2O2 AOP FOR MICROPOLLUTANT REMOVAL | 170 | ||
| 4.3.1 Bench-scale research studies | 170 | ||
| 4.3.2 Pilot-scale studies | 172 | ||
| 4.3.3 Full-scale applications | 176 | ||
| 4.3.4 Process economics and limitations | 180 | ||
| 4.4 O3/UV PROCESS | 182 | ||
| 4.4.1 Process fundamentals | 182 | ||
| 4.4.2 Research studies and applications | 184 | ||
| 4.5 BYPRODUCT FORMATION AND MITIGATION STRATEGIES | 185 | ||
| 4.5.1 O3/H2O2 process | 185 | ||
| 4.5.2 O3/UV process | 187 | ||
| 4.6 DISINFECTION | 188 | ||
| 4.7 REFERENCES | 190 | ||
| Chapter 5: Vacuum UV radiation-driven processes | 195 | ||
| 5.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF VACUUM UV PROCESSES | 195 | ||
| 5.1.1 VUV radiation sources for water treatment | 195 | ||
| 5.1.2 VUV irradiation of water | 201 | ||
| 5.1.2.1 VUV photolysis of pure water | 201 | ||
| 5.1.2.2 Heterogeneity of the VUV-irradiated aqueous solutions | 204 | ||
| 5.2 KINETICS AND REACTION MODELING | 206 | ||
| 5.2.1 Reactions and role of primary and secondary formed reactive species | 206 | ||
| 5.2.2 Kinetics and mechanistic modeling of VUV AOP | 207 | ||
| 5.3 VACUUM UV RADIATION FOR WATER REMEDIATION | 208 | ||
| 5.3.1 VUV for removal of specific compounds | 208 | ||
| 5.3.1.1 Aliphatic and chlorinated volatile organic compounds | 208 | ||
| 5.3.1.2 Perfluorinated organic compounds | 210 | ||
| 5.3.1.3 Aromatic compounds | 211 | ||
| 5.3.1.4 Pesticides | 211 | ||
| 5.3.1.5 Pharmaceuticals | 212 | ||
| 5.3.1.6 Other water contaminants | 212 | ||
| 5.3.2 VUV in combination with other treatment technologies | 213 | ||
| 5.3.2.1 VUV and VUV/UV in combination with H2O2 | 213 | ||
| 5.3.2.2 VUV and VUV/UV in combination with photocatalysis | 214 | ||
| 5.3.2.3 VUV and VUV/UV in combination with ozone | 214 | ||
| 5.4 WATER QUALITY IMPACT ON VACUUM UV PROCESS PERFORMANCE AND BY-PRODUCT FORMATION | 215 | ||
| 5.4.1 The effect of inorganic ions | 215 | ||
| 5.4.2 The effect of dissolved natural organic matter (NOM) | 216 | ||
| 5.4.3 Effect of pH | 217 | ||
| 5.4.4 By-product formation during the VUV process and their removal through biological activated carbon filtration | 218 | ||
| 5.4.4.1 Chlorination disinfection by-products (DBPs) | 218 | ||
| 5.4.4.2 Aldehydes, nitrite and H2O2 | 218 | ||
| 5.4.4.3 Bromate | 219 | ||
| 5.5 WATER DISINFECTION | 219 | ||
| 5.6 REACTOR/EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS | 220 | ||
| 5.6.1 Actinometry for VUV photon flow measurements | 220 | ||
| 5.6.2 Reactor design | 221 | ||
| 5.6.3 Economics considerations | 224 | ||
| 5.7 APPLICATIONS OF VACUUM UV LIGHT SOURCES | 225 | ||
| 5.7.1 Applications in instrumental chemical analysis | 225 | ||
| 5.7.2 Ultrapure water production | 226 | ||
| 5.8 VACUUM UV AOP – GENERAL CONCLUSIONS | 229 | ||
| 5.9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 229 | ||
| 5.10 REFERENCES | 230 | ||
| Chapter 6: Gamma-ray and electron beam-based AOPs | 241 | ||
| 6.1 INTRODUCTION | 241 | ||
| 6.2 RADIOLYSIS AS A UNIVERSAL TOOL TO INVESTIGATE RADICAL REACTIONS AND AS A PROCESS FOR LARGE SCALE INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY | 242 | ||
| 6.2.1 Techniques in radiation chemistry for establishing reaction mechanisms | 242 | ||
| 6.2.2 Sources of ionizing radiation in water treatment | 244 | ||
| 6.2.3 G-value, dosimetric quantities, penetration depth | 245 | ||
| 6.3 WATER RADIOLYSIS | 246 | ||
| 6.3.1 Process fundamentals, yields and reactions of reactive intermediates | 246 | ||
| 6.3.1.1 Hydroxyl radical | 248 | ||
| 6.3.1.2 Hydrated electron | 251 | ||
| 6.3.1.3 Hydrogen atom | 252 | ||
| 6.3.2 Reactions of primary species with common inorganic ions | 253 | ||
| 6.3.2.1 Reactions of carbonate radical anion | 253 | ||
| 6.3.2.2 Reactions of dichloride radical anion | 254 | ||
| 6.3.2.3 Reactions of sulfate radical anion | 254 | ||
| 6.3.2.4 Reactions in the presence of ozone | 255 | ||
| 6.3.3 Kinetics and modeling of ionizing radiation-induced processes | 256 | ||
| 6.3.4 Toxicity of ionizing radiation-treated water | 258 | ||
| 6.4 RESEARCH STUDIES ON WATER RADIOLYSIS-MEDIATED DEGRADATION OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS | 259 | ||
| 6.4.1 Aromatic compounds | 259 | ||
| 6.4.2 Endocrine disrupting compounds | 262 | ||
| 6.4.3 Pesticides | 264 | ||
| 6.4.4 Pharmaceutical compounds | 266 | ||
| 6.4.4.1 Antibiotics | 267 | ||
| 6.4.4.2 Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs | 271 | ||
| 6.4.4.2.1 Aspirin | 271 | ||
| 6.4.4.2.2 Paracetamol | 271 | ||
| 6.4.4.2.3 Diclofenac | 272 | ||
| 6.4.4.2.4 Ketoprofen and ibuprofen | 273 | ||
| 6.4.5 Organic dyes | 274 | ||
| 6.4.5.1 Azo dyes | 274 | ||
| 6.4.5.2 Anthraquinone dyes | 274 | ||
| 6.4.6 Naphthalene sulfonic acid derivatives | 275 | ||
| 6.5 IONIZING RADIATION FOR WATER TREATMENT: PILOT- AND INDUSTRIAL SCALE APPLICATIONS | 276 | ||
| 6.5.1 General considerations | 276 | ||
| 6.5.2 Ionizing radiation reactors for water treatment | 277 | ||
| 6.5.3 Ionizing radiation for water treatment: pilot studies | 279 | ||
| 6.5.3.1 The Miami (USA) electron beam research facility (EBRF) | 279 | ||
| 6.5.3.2 Removal of organic and petrochemical pollutants in Brazil | 279 | ||
| 6.5.3.3 Austrian drinking water treatment plant using e-beam combined with ozone | 279 | ||
| 6.5.3.4 Irradiation of wastewater aerosols in Russia | 279 | ||
| 6.5.3.5 Pilot plant installation in China to remove HCN dissolved in water | 280 | ||
| 6.5.4 Industrial scale installations using radiation-based AOP | 280 | ||
| 6.5.4.1 Voronezh (Russia) electron beam-biological filtration wastewater facility | 280 | ||
| 6.5.4.2 Daegu (Republic of Korea) electron beam – biological filtration wastewater facility | 280 | ||
| 6.5.5 Economics | 281 | ||
| 6.6 CONCLUSIONS | 283 | ||
| 6.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 284 | ||
| 6.8 REFERENCES | 284 | ||
| Chapter 7: Fenton, photo-Fenton and Fenton-like processes | 297 | ||
| 7.1 INTRODUCTION | 297 | ||
| 7.2 TYPES OF FENTON PROCESSES | 298 | ||
| 7.2.1 Fenton processes | 298 | ||
| 7.2.1.1 Homogeneous Fenton processes | 298 | ||
| 7.2.1.2 Heterogeneous Fenton processes | 301 | ||
| 7.2.2 Extended Fenton processes | 302 | ||
| 7.2.2.1 Homogeneous photo-Fenton processes | 302 | ||
| 7.2.2.2 Heterogeneous photo-Fenton processes | 304 | ||
| 7.2.2.3 Electro-Fenton processes | 304 | ||
| 7.2.2.4 Sono-Fenton processes | 306 | ||
| 7.2.3 Fenton-like processes | 307 | ||
| 7.2.3.1 Fenton-like homogeneous reagents | 307 | ||
| 7.2.3.2 Fenton-like heterogeneous reagents | 307 | ||
| 7.3 REACTION KINETICS AND PROCESS MODELLING | 307 | ||
| 7.4 APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS | 313 | ||
| 7.4.1 Treatment objectives | 313 | ||
| 7.4.2 Types of compounds suited to treatment | 314 | ||
| 7.4.3 Process advantages | 314 | ||
| 7.4.4 Process limitations | 315 | ||
| 7.4.5 Laboratory and pilot plant scale studies | 316 | ||
| 7.4.5.1 Homogeneous dark (thermal) Fenton processes | 316 | ||
| 7.4.5.2 Heterogeneous dark (thermal) Fenton processes | 316 | ||
| 7.4.5.3 Homogeneous photo-Fenton processes | 317 | ||
| 7.4.5.4 Heterogeneous photo-Fenton processes | 317 | ||
| 7.4.5.5 Electro-Fenton processes | 318 | ||
| 7.4.5.6 Fenton-like processes | 318 | ||
| 7.4.6 Commercial Applications | 319 | ||
| 7.4.6.1 Industrial wastewater treatment plants | 319 | ||
| 7.4.6.2 In-situ soil and groundwater remediation | 319 | ||
| 7.4.7 Equipment design and economic considerations | 320 | ||
| 7.4.8 Process integration | 321 | ||
| 7.4.8.1 Integration with coagulation and settling | 321 | ||
| 7.4.8.2 Integration with biodegradation | 321 | ||
| 7.4.8.3 Integration with membrane processes | 322 | ||
| 7.4.8.4 Co-treatment of wastes | 323 | ||
| 7.5 FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | 323 | ||
| 7.6 REFERENCES | 323 | ||
| Chapter 8: Photocatalysis as an effective advanced oxidation process | 333 | ||
| 8.1 INTRODUCTION | 333 | ||
| 8.2 PROCESS PRINCIPLES INCLUDING THE MOST RECENT SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION | 334 | ||
| 8.2.1 Nanotubular titania-based materials for photocatalytic water and air purification | 334 | ||
| 8.2.2 Magnetically separable photocatalysts | 337 | ||
| 8.2.3 Improving the photocatalytic activity | 339 | ||
| 8.2.3.1 Metal and non-metal doped TiO2 | 339 | ||
| 8.2.3.2 Nano-heterojunctions | 341 | ||
| 8.2.3.3 Metal-inorganic hetero-structures | 342 | ||
| 8.2.3.4 Graphene composites | 343 | ||
| 8.2.3.5 Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) | 344 | ||
| 8.3 CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS SUITABLE TO TREATMENT AND EXAMPLES OF REACTION MECHANISMS | 345 | ||
| 8.4 KINETIC ASPECTS, REACTION MODELLING, QUANTITATIVE STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIP (QSAR) | 351 | ||
| 8.5 WATER QUALITY IMPACT ON PROCESS PREFORMANCE, PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON PROCESS PARAMETER SELECTION CRITERIA | 356 | ||
| 8.6 PROCESS LIMITATIONS AND BYPRODUCT FORMATION; STRATEGIES TO MITIGATE THE ADVERSE EFFECTS ON THE TREATED WATER QUALITY | 358 | ||
| 8.7 REACTOR/EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS, FIGURES-OF-MERIT | 362 | ||
| 8.8 CASE STUDIES RELEVANT TO PROCESS IMPLEMENTATION TO WATER TREATMENT | 363 | ||
| 8.8.1 Contaminated groundwater with 1,4-dioxane and volatile organic solvents, Sarasota, Florida, USA (2013) | 364 | ||
| 8.8.2 1,4-Dioxane and VOCs destruction in drinking water, Southern US water district (2013) | 364 | ||
| 8.8.3 Removal of chromium (Cr6+) in groundwater, Superfund site in Odessa, Texas, USA (2013) | 364 | ||
| 8.9 COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS | 365 | ||
| 8.9.1 Global market and standards | 365 | ||
| 8.9.2 Drinking water regulations driving the process implementation | 365 | ||
| 8.9.3 Commercialization technologies | 366 | ||
| 8.9.4 Companies and products | 368 | ||
| 8.10 FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | 368 | ||
| 8.11 DISCLAIMER | 369 | ||
| 8.12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 370 | ||
| 8.13 REFERENCES | 370 | ||
| Chapter 9: UV/Chlorine process | 383 | ||
| 9.1 INTRODUCTION | 383 | ||
| 9.2 PHOTODECOMPOSITION OF FREE CHLORINE BY UV LIGHT | 384 | ||
| 9.2.1 Distribution of free chlorine species | 384 | ||
| 9.2.2 Absorption spectra of free chlorine species in water | 384 | ||
| 9.2.3 Radical species, quantum yields and degradation mechanisms of free chlorine | 385 | ||
| 9.2.3.1 Primary quantum yields of photolysis of hypochlorite ion and hypochlorous acid | 386 | ||
| 9.2.3.2 Degradation pathways of hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid in organic-free water | 388 | ||
| 9.2.3.3 Reaction quantum yields of chlorine photodecomposition in the absence of organic compounds | 391 | ||
| 9.2.3.4 Reaction quantum yields of chlorine photodecomposition in the presence of organic compounds | 394 | ||
| 9.3 REACTIVITY AND FATE OF CHLORINE RADICALS | 396 | ||
| 9.3.1 Equilibria involving the Cl•, Cl2•- and •OH species | 396 | ||
| 9.3.2 Termination reactions of •OH, Cl• and Cl2•- in water | 397 | ||
| 9.3.3 Reactivity of Cl• and Cl2•- towards organic and inorganic compounds | 398 | ||
| 9.3.3.1 Methods for determination of Cl• and Cl2•- rate constants | 398 | ||
| 9.3.3.2 Reactions of Cl• with organic compounds | 399 | ||
| 9.3.3.3 Reactions of Cl2•- with organic compounds | 401 | ||
| 9.3.3.4 Reactions of Cl• and Cl2•- with inorganic compounds present in natural waters | 402 | ||
| 9.4 UV/CL2 PROCESS FOR CONTAMINANT REMOVAL FROM WATER | 404 | ||
| 9.4.1 Degradation pathways of organic compounds | 404 | ||
| 9.4.2 Kinetic modeling of UV/Cl2 AOP | 407 | ||
| 9.4.3 The impact of selected parameters on UV/Cl2 process performance | 408 | ||
| 9.4.3.1 Effect of pH | 409 | ||
| 9.4.3.2 Effect of free chlorine dose | 410 | ||
| 9.4.3.3 Effect of chloride ion concentration | 411 | ||
| 9.4.3.4 Effect of alkalinity | 411 | ||
| 9.4.3.5 Effect of natural organic matter (NOM) | 411 | ||
| 9.4.4 UV/Cl2 versus UV/H2O2 | 412 | ||
| 9.4.4.1 Oxidation of nitrobenzene | 412 | ||
| 9.4.4.2 Removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) | 412 | ||
| 9.4.4.3 Removal of emerging contaminants | 414 | ||
| 9.4.4.4 Removal of taste and odor-causing compounds (T&O) from drinking water sources | 416 | ||
| 9.4.4.5 UV/Chlorine AOP for Water Reuse: Terminal Island Water Reclamation Plant (TIWRP) Case Study | 416 | ||
| 9.4.4.6 Solar radiation-based UV/Cl2 for remediation of oil sands process-affected water | 419 | ||
| 9.4.5 Byproduct formation in the UV/Cl2 AOP | 420 | ||
| 9.4.5.1 NOM oxidation and Disinfection byproducts | 420 | ||
| 9.4.5.2 Chlorite, chlorate, and perchlorate | 422 | ||
| 9.4.5.3 Bromate | 422 | ||
| 9.5 RESEARCH NEEDS | 423 | ||
| 9.6 CONCLUSIONS | 423 | ||
| 9.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 424 | ||
| 9.8 REFERENCES | 424 | ||
| Chapter 10: Sulfate radical ion – based AOPs | 429 | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION | 429 | ||
| 10.2 METHODS FOR SULFATE RADICAL GENERATION | 429 | ||
| 10.2.1 Mild-thermal and base activation of persulfate | 430 | ||
| 10.2.2 Photochemical processes | 430 | ||
| 10.2.2.1 Persulfate photolysis | 430 | ||
| 10.2.2.2 Peroxomonosulfate photolysis | 431 | ||
| 10.2.3 Transition metal-activated decomposition of persulfate salts | 431 | ||
| 10.2.4 Miscellaneous processes | 432 | ||
| 10.2.4.1 Peroxymonosulfate/ozone combination | 432 | ||
| 10.2.4.2 Photocatalysis in presence of persulfate | 433 | ||
| 10.2.4.3 Persulfate activation by reaction with species from water molecules | 433 | ||
| 10.3 PROPERTIES AND STABILITY OF SULFATE RADICAL IN PURE WATER | 434 | ||
| 10.3.1 Oxidation-reduction potential | 434 | ||
| 10.3.2 pH dependence | 435 | ||
| 10.4 REACTION MECHANISMS WITH ORGANIC MOLECULES IN PURE WATER | 436 | ||
| 10.4.1 Hydrogen-abstraction reactions | 437 | ||
| 10.4.1.1 Alkanes and alcohols | 437 | ||
| 10.4.2 Electron transfer reactions | 438 | ||
| 10.4.2.1 Carboxylic acids | 438 | ||
| 10.4.2.2 Aminoacids and amines | 439 | ||
| 10.4.2.3 Aromatics | 439 | ||
| 10.4.3 Addition to unsaturated bonds | 441 | ||
| 10.5 SULFATE RADICAL-BASED TREATMENT OF WATER MICROPOLLUTANTS | 442 | ||
| 10.5.1 Pesticides | 444 | ||
| 10.5.2 Pharmaceuticals | 444 | ||
| 10.5.3 Algal toxins and taste-and-odor (T&O) causing compounds | 444 | ||
| 10.5.4 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) | 445 | ||
| 10.5.5 Perfluorinated compounds | 446 | ||
| 10.6 REACTIONS WITH WATER MATRIX CONSTITUENTS IN SULFATE RADICAL-DRIVEN OXIDATIONS | 447 | ||
| 10.6.1 Reactions with inorganic compounds | 447 | ||
| 10.6.1.1 Carbonate / bicarbonate ions | 447 | ||
| 10.6.1.2 Reaction with chloride ion | 448 | ||
| 10.6.1.3 Reaction with bromide ion | 449 | ||
| 10.6.2 Reactions in natural waters | 450 | ||
| 10.6.2.1 Reactions with dissolved organic matter | 450 | ||
| 10.6.2.2 Chlorinated transformation byproducts | 450 | ||
| 10.6.2.3 Brominated by-products | 452 | ||
| 10.6.2.4 Sulfate ion as a byproduct | 453 | ||
| 10.7 COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS | 453 | ||
| 10.7.1 Total organic carbon (TOC) analyzers | 453 | ||
| 10.7.2 In Situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) | 453 | ||
| 10.7.3 Other applications | 454 | ||
| 10.8 FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | 454 | ||
| 10.9 CONCLUSIONS | 455 | ||
| 10.10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 455 | ||
| 10.11 REFERENCES | 455 | ||
| Chapter 11: Ultrasound wave-based AOPs | 461 | ||
| 11.1 INTRODUCTION | 461 | ||
| 11.2 PRINCIPLES OF SONOCHEMISTRY | 461 | ||
| 11.3 ACOUSTIC CAVITATION, THE DRIVING FORCE FOR SONOCHEMISTRY | 463 | ||
| 11.3.1 Homogeneous liquid-phase systems | 464 | ||
| 11.3.2 Heterogeneous solid surface-liquid systems | 465 | ||
| 11.3.3 Heterogeneous particle-liquid systems | 466 | ||
| 11.3.4 Heterogeneous liquid-liquid systems | 466 | ||
| 11.4 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION ON THE OXIDATIVE PROPERTIES OF ULTRASOUND IN WATER | 466 | ||
| 11.5 SONOCHEMICAL DECONTAMINATION OF AQUEOUS SYSTEMS | 468 | ||
| 11.5.1 AOP involving ultrasound alone | 468 | ||
| 11.5.2 AOP involving ultrasound combined with ozone | 473 | ||
| 11.5.3 AOP involving ultrasound combined with ultraviolet light | 477 | ||
| 11.5.4 AOP involving ultrasound combined with electrochemistry | 479 | ||
| 11.6 ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT AND PROSPECTS FOR SCALE UP | 480 | ||
| 11.7 CONCLUSIONS | 485 | ||
| 11.8 REFERENCES | 485 | ||
| Chapter 12: Electrical discharge plasma for water treatment | 493 | ||
| 12.1 INTRODUCTION – PLASMA PROCESSES FOR WATER TREATMENT | 493 | ||
| 12.2 INDIRECT PLASMA – OZONE GENERATION | 495 | ||
| 12.3 DIRECT PLASMA – PLASMA DIRECTLY CONTACTS LIQUID SOLUTION | 498 | ||
| 12.3.1 Chemical species formed | 500 | ||
| 12.3.2 H2O2 generation | 501 | ||
| 12.3.3 OH radical generation | 502 | ||
| 12.3.4 Data on model compounds | 503 | ||
| 12.3.4.1 Oxidation reactions | 503 | ||
| 12.3.4.1.1 Phenol and derivatives of phenol | 504 | ||
| 12.3.4.1.2 Organic dyes | 506 | ||
| 12.3.4.1.3 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products | 509 | ||
| 12.3.4.1.4 Bisphenol A | 509 | ||
| 12.3.4.2 Reduction reactions | 513 | ||
| 12.3.4.3 Other compounds | 515 | ||
| 12.3.5 Thermal plasma chemistry in direct water discharges | 515 | ||
| 12.3.6 Plasma process scale-up | 516 | ||
| 12.3.7 Inactivation of biological species | 519 | ||
| 12.4 CONCLUSIONS | 520 | ||
| 12.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 521 | ||
| 12.6 REFERENCES | 521 | ||
| Chapter 13: The role of photochemistry in the transformation of pollutants in surface waters | 535 | ||
| 13.1 INTRODUCTION | 535 | ||
| 13.2 SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE | 535 | ||
| 13.2.1 The solar spectrum | 535 | ||
| 13.2.2 Diurnal, seasonal, and latitudinal variations | 536 | ||
| 13.2.3 Light attenuation and depth dependence of photochemical reactions | 537 | ||
| 13.3 TYPES OF PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS IN SURFACE WATERS | 537 | ||
| 13.3.1 Direct photochemistry | 537 | ||
| 13.3.2 Indirect photochemistry | 540 | ||
| 13.4 LABORATORY METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING POLLUTANT PHOTOCHEMISTRY | 542 | ||
| 13.5 PHOTOCHEMICALLY PRODUCED REACTIVE INTERMEDIATES (PPRIS) AND THE ROLE OF ORGANIC MATTER IN INDIRECT PHOTOCHEMISTRY | 546 | ||
| 13.5.1 Hydroxyl radical (•OH) | 546 | ||
| 13.5.2 Excited state triplet organic matter (3OM) | 547 | ||
| 13.5.3 Singlet oxygen (1O2) | 549 | ||
| 13.5.4 Hydrated electron (eaq–), superoxide radical anion (O2•–), and hydrogen peroxide | 549 | ||
| 13.5.5 Carbonate radical (CO3•–) | 550 | ||
| 13.5.6 Organoperoxyl radicals (•OOR) | 550 | ||
| 13.6 SALINITY EFFECTS ON PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS IN NATURAL WATERS | 550 | ||
| 13.7 RANITIDINE AND CIMETIDINE: AN ILLUSTRATIVE SURFACE WATER PHOTOCHEMISTRY EXAMPLE | 551 | ||
| 13.8 SELECT PHOTOCHEMICALLY ACTIVE AQUATIC POLLUTANTS | 553 | ||
| 13.8.1 Pharmaceuticals | 554 | ||
| 13.8.1.1 Antibiotics | 555 | ||
| 13.8.1.2 Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and other analgesics | 556 | ||
| 13.9 NOTABLE EXAMPLES OF AQUATIC POLLUTANTS TRANSFORMED THROUGH PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS | 561 | ||
| 13.9.1 Triclosan | 561 | ||
| 13.9.2 Steroid hormones and related EDCs | 564 | ||
| 13.9.3 Waterborne viruses and similar model pathogens | 566 | ||
| 13.10 FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS | 567 | ||
| 13.11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 567 | ||
| 13.12 REFERENCES | 568 | ||
| Chapter 14: Advanced treatment for potable water reuse | 581 | ||
| 14.1 PLANNED POTABLE WATER REUSE | 581 | ||
| 14.2 TREATMENT OBJECTIVES AND DRIVERS FOR THE ADOPTION OF AOPS IN POTABLE REUSE | 583 | ||
| 14.2.1 Pathogen inactivation | 585 | ||
| 14.2.2 Trace chemical contaminants | 586 | ||
| 14.2.2.1 N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) | 586 | ||
| 14.2.2.2 1,4-Dioxane | 588 | ||
| 14.3 VALIDATION AND PROCESS CONTROL | 589 | ||
| 14.4 PROCESS PERFORMANCE | 590 | ||
| 14.5 INTERNATIONAL EXAMPLES OF AOP USE IN POTABLE REUSE PROJECTS | 592 | ||
| 14.5.1 Groundwater Replenishment System, Orange County, CA, USA (2008) | 592 | ||
| 14.5.2 Western Corridor Recycled Water Project, Queensland, Australia (2008) | 594 | ||
| 14.5.3 Prairie Waters Project, Aurora, CO, USA (2010) | 597 | ||
| 14.5.4 Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant (South Africa) | 598 | ||
| 14.5.5 Terminal Island Water Reclamation Plant, Los Angeles, CA, USA (2016) | 598 | ||
| 14.6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS | 601 | ||
| 14.7 REFERENCES | 602 | ||
| Chapter 15: Advanced treatment for drinking water production | 607 | ||
| 15.1 INTRODUCTION | 607 | ||
| 15.2 UV/H2O2 PROCESS: ANDIJK WATER TREATMENT PLANT (WTP) CASE STUDY | 608 | ||
| 15.3 PRETREATMENT STRATEGIES FOR AOP IN DRINKING WATER TREATMENT | 611 | ||
| 15.3.1 Enhanced coagulation | 612 | ||
| 15.3.2 Ion exchange | 613 | ||
| 15.3.2.1 Ion exchange technologies and related-challenges | 615 | ||
| 15.3.2.2 Case studies on IX in combination with AOPs | 617 | ||
| 15.3.3 Ceramic membranes and hybrid combinations | 618 | ||
| 15.4 THE EFFECT OF PRETREATMENT ON MP UV/H2O2 AOP | 621 | ||
| 15.5 SIDE EFFECTS OF MP UV/H2O2 AOP AND MITIGATION STRATEGIES | 623 | ||
| 15.6 REFERENCES | 627 | ||
| Chapter 16: AOPs for municipal and industrial wastewater treatment | 631 | ||
| 16.1 INTRODUCTION | 631 | ||
| 16.2 MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT | 632 | ||
| 16.3 INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT | 634 | ||
| 16.3.1 Textile wastewater | 635 | ||
| 16.3.2 Pharmaceutical wastewater | 637 | ||
| 16.3.3 Pesticide wastewater | 640 | ||
| 16.3.4 Paper mill wastewater | 645 | ||
| 16.3.5 Petrochemical wastewater | 648 | ||
| 16.3.6 Landfill leachate | 651 | ||
| 16.3.7 Other pollutants | 654 | ||
| 16.4 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS | 658 | ||
| 16.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND PROSPECTS | 659 | ||
| 16.6 REFERENCES | 660 | ||
| Chapter 17: Iron-based green technologies for water remediation | 667 | ||
| 17.1 INTRODUCTION | 667 | ||
| 17.2 ZEROVALENT IRON NANOPARTICLES | 668 | ||
| 17.3 IRON(III) OXIDE NANOPARTICLES | 669 | ||
| 17.4 FERRATES | 670 | ||
| 17.4.1 Disinfection | 672 | ||
| 17.4.2 Oxidation | 672 | ||
| 17.4.3 Coagulation | 675 | ||
| 17.5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE OUTLOOK | 675 | ||
| 17.6 ACKNOWLEDGMENT | 676 | ||
| 17.7 REFERENCES | 676 | ||
| Index | 681 |