Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism

A.J. Veal

BOOK

Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism

A.J. Veal

(2017)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-292-11531-3
Edition: 5
Language: English
Pages: 640
Subjects

Abstract

Now in its fifth edition, Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism has become the ultimate reference text for both students enrolled in undergraduate and postgraduate degrees and practising managers. This book combines comprehensive coverage of a wide variety of qualitative and quantitative research methods with step-by step guidance through research software including Excel, SPSS and NVivo.

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Cover	Cover
Title Page	iii
Copyright Page	iv
Summary contents	v
Detailed chapter contents	vii
List of figures	xxiii
List of tables	xxvi
List of case studies	xxix
Text website contents	xxx
Preface	xxxi
Acknowledgements	xxxiii
I Preparation	1
1 Introduction to research: what, why and who?	3
1. Introduction	4
2. What is research?	5
2.1 Research defined	5
2.2 Scientific research	6
2.3 Social science research	6
2.4 Descriptive, explanatory and evaluative research	6
3. Why study research?	9
3.1 In general	9
3.2 Research in policy-making, planning and management processes	10
4. Who does research?	15
4.1 Academics	16
4.2 Students	17
4.3 Government, commercial and non-profit organisations	17
4.4 Managers	18
4.5 Consultants	19
5. Who pays?	19
6. Research outputs	20
6.1 Academic journal articles	20
6.2 Professional journal articles	22
6.3 Conference papers/presentations	22
6.4 Books	23
6.5 Policy/planning/management reports	23
7. Terminology	25
8. Using this text	26
Summary	26
Test questions	27
Exercises	27
Resources	28
References	29
2 Approaches to leisure and tourism research	33
1. Introduction	33
2. Disciplinary traditions	34
3. Approaches, dimensions, issues, terminology	36
3.1 Ontology, epistemology, methodology	38
3.2 Positivist, post-positivist, interpretive and critical approaches/paradigms	39
3.3 Descriptive, explanatory, evaluative	41
3.4 Quantitative and qualitative research	42
3.5 Pragmatism	44
3.6 Participatory research	44
3.7 Theoretical and applied research	44
3.8 Reflexivity	45
3.9 Experimental and naturalistic methods	46
3.10 Empirical and non-empirical research	47
3.11 Induction and deduction	48
3.12 Objectivity and subjectivity	51
3.13 Primary and secondary data	52
3.14 Self-reported and observed data	52
4. Validity, reliability and trustworthiness	53
Summary	54
Test questions	55
Exercises	55
Resources	56
References	57
3 Starting out – research plans and proposals	63
Introduction: elements of the research process	64
1. Select a topic	65
1.1 Sources of topics	65
1.2 Processes for topic selection	70
1.3 Purpose of research	70
2. Review the literature	73
2.1 Introduction: purposes	73
2.2 Conducting the review	74
2.3 What discipline?	74
3. Devise conceptual framework	75
3.1 The idea	75
3.2 Explore/explain relationships	77
3.3 Identify/list concepts	78
3.4 Define concepts	79
3.5 Operationalise concepts	79
3.6 Modelling	82
4. Decide research question(s)	82
4.1 Research question, problem or hypothesis?	82
4.2 Specific starting point	84
4.3 Decision-making models	84
4.4 Area of interest	84
4.5 Research questions or objectives?	85
4.6 Primary and secondary questions	85
5. List information requirements	85
6. Decide research strategy	86
6.1 Project elements/stages	86
6.2 Information gathering techniques to be used	86
6.3 Approach to data analysis	87
6.4 Budget	88
6.5 Timetable	88
7. Obtain ethics clearance	89
8. Conduct the research	89
9. Communicate findings	90
10. Store data	90
11. The research process in the real world	91
12. Research proposals	92
12.1 Introduction	92
12.2 Self-generated research proposals	93
12.3 Responsive proposals – briefs and tenders	94
Summary	97
Test questions	98
Exercises	98
Resources	99
References	100
Appendix 3.1: Examples of conceptual frameworks	105
4 Research ethics	109
1. Introduction	109
2. Institutional oversight of research ethics	110
3. Ethics in the research process	111
4. Ethical issues in research	114
4.1 Social benefit	114
4.2 Researcher competence	115
4.3 Subjects’ freedom of choice	115
4.4 Subjects’ informed consent	117
4.5 Risk of harm to subjects	120
4.6 Honesty/rigour in analysis, interpretation and reporting	124
4.7 Conflict of interest	126
5. Access to research information	126
Summary	127
Test questions	127
Exercises	127
Resources	128
References	128
5 The range of research methods	131
1. Introduction – horses for courses	132
2. Major research methods	132
2.1 Scholarship	133
2.2 Just thinking	133
2.3 Existing sources – the literature	133
2.4 Existing sources – secondary data	134
2.5 Observation	134
2.6 Qualitative methods	135
2.7 Questionnaire-based surveys	136
2.8 Experimental method	138
2.9 Case study method	138
3. Subsidiary/cross-cutting techniques	138
3.1 Action research	141
3.2 Big data	142
3.3 Conjoint analysis	142
3.4 Content analysis	143
3.5 Coupon surveys/conversion studies	143
3.6 Cross-cultural research	144
3.7 Delphi technique	144
3.8 Discourse analysis	144
3.9 En route/intercept/cordon surveys	144
3.10 Experience sampling method (ESM)	145
3.11 Historical research	146
3.12 Longitudinal studies	146
3.13 Mapping techniques	147
3.14 Media reader/viewer/listener surveys	147
3.15 Meta-analysis	148
3.16 Multiple correspondence/latent class analysis	148
3.17 Netnography	148
3.18 Network analysis	148
3.19 Panel studies	149
3.20 People meters	150
3.21 Perceptual mapping	150
3.22 Projective techniques	150
3.23 Psychographic/lifestyle research	151
3.24 Q methodology	152
3.25 Quantitative modelling	152
3.26 Repertory grid/laddering	152
3.27 Scales	153
3.28 Scenarios	155
3.29 Time-use surveys	155
3.30 Visitor conversation research	156
3.31 Visual methods	156
3.32 Web-based research	156
4. Multiple methods	156
4.1 Triangulation/mixed methods	157
4.2 Counting heads	158
4.3 Community study as method	159
5. Policy/management-related methods	160
6. Choosing methods	161
6.1 The research question or hypothesis	162
6.2 Previous research	162
6.3 Data availability/access	162
6.4 Resources	163
6.5 Time and timing	163
6.6 Validity, reliability and generalisability	163
6.7 Ethics	163
6.8 Uses/users of the findings	163
Summary	164
Test questions	164
Exercises	165
Resources	165
References	169
6 Reviewing the literature	181
1. Introduction – an essential task	182
2. The value of bibliographies	183
3. Searching: sources of information	183
3.1 Library catalogues	184
3.2 Indexes and databases	185
3.3 Searching the internet	185
3.4 Google Scholar	186
3.5 Published bibliographies	186
3.6 General leisure and tourism publications	186
3.7 Reference lists	187
3.8 Beyond leisure and tourism	187
3.9 Unpublished research	188
4. Obtaining access to material	188
5. Compiling and maintaining a bibliography	189
6. Reviewing the literature	192
6.1 Types of literature review	192
6.2 Reading critically and creatively	197
6.3 Summarising	199
7. Referencing the literature	200
7.1 The purpose of referencing	200
7.2 Recording references	200
8. Referencing and referencing systems	202
8.1 The author/date or Harvard system	202
8.2 Footnote or endnote system	204
8.3 Comparing two systems	206
9. Referencing issues	207
9.1 Second-hand references	207
9.2 Excessive/ambivalent referencing	208
9.3 Latin abbreviations	208
Summary	209
Test questions	209
Exercises	210
Resources	210
References	212
II Data collection	217
7 Secondary data sources	219
1. Introduction – measurement	220
1.1 Measuring leisure and tourism activity	220
1.2 Counting heads	222
2. Introduction to secondary sources	225
2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data	226
2.2 Types of secondary data	227
3. Administrative/management data	227
3.1 Tourist arrivals and departures	227
3.2 Licensing and taxing	228
3.3 Management data	228
4. National leisure participation surveys	229
4.1 The national leisure survey phenomenon	229
4.2 Validity and reliability	233
4.3 Sample size	233
4.4 Key questions/specifications	234
4.5 National time-use surveys	236
5. Tourism surveys	237
5.1 International and domestic tourism surveys	237
5.2 Sample size	238
5.3 Definitions	238
6. Economic/industry data	240
6.1 Household expenditure	240
6.2 Satellite accounts	240
7. The population census	241
7.1 The modern population census	241
7.2 Uses of census data	241
8. Documentary sources	243
9. Opportunism	243
Summary	244
Test questions	244
Exercises	244
Resources	245
References	247
8 Observation	251
1. Introduction	252
2. Types and possibilities	253
2.1 Introduction	253
2.2 Children’s play	253
2.3 Informal spaces: counting heads	254
2.4 Informal spaces: spatial/functional patterns of use	254
2.5 Visitor profiles	255
2.6 Deviant behaviour	257
2.7 Mystery shopping	257
2.8 Complementary research	257
2.9 Everyday life	258
2.10 Social behaviour	258
3. Main elements of observational research	259
3.1 Choice of site(s)	259
3.2 Choice of observation point(s)	260
3.3 Choice of observation time-period(s)	260
3.4 Continuous observation or sampling?	260
3.5 Count frequency	261
3.6 What to observe	262
3.7 Division of site into zones	263
3.8 Recording information	263
3.9 Conducting the observation	264
3.10 Analysing data	265
4. Use of technology	268
4.1 Automatic counters	268
4.2 GPS	269
4.3 Aerial photography	270
4.4 Still photography	270
4.5 Video	270
4.6 Time-lapse photography	270
5. Just looking	271
Summary	271
Test questions	272
Exercises	272
Resources	273
References	274
9 Qualitative methods: introduction and data collection	277
1. Introduction	278
1.1 The nature of qualitative methods	278
1.2 History and development	279
2. Merits, functions, limitations	282
3. The qualitative research process	284
3.1 Sequential vs recursive	284
3.2 Grounded theory	285
4. The range of qualitative methods – introduction	286
5. In-depth interviews	287
5.1 Nature	287
5.2 Purposes and situations	288
5.3 Checklist	288
5.4 The interviewing process	290
5.5 Recording	292
6. Focus groups	292
6.1 Nature	292
6.2 Purposes	292
6.3 Methods	293
7. Participant observation	293
7.1 Nature	293
7.2 Purposes	293
7.3 Methods	294
8. Analysing texts	294
8.1 Nature	294
8.2 Novels and other literature	295
8.3 Mass media coverage	295
8.4 Film	295
8.5 Material culture	296
8.6 Digital sources	296
9. Biographical research	296
9.1 Nature	296
9.2 Biography/autobiography	296
9.3 Oral history	297
9.4 Memory work	297
9.5 Personal domain histories	297
10. Ethnography	297
11. Validity and reliability, trustworthiness	298
Summary	299
Test questions	299
Exercises	300
Resources	300
References	301
10 Questionnaire surveys: typology, design and coding	309
1. Introduction	310
1.1 Definitions and terminology	311
1.2 Roles	311
1.3 Merits	312
1.4 Limitations	313
1.5 Interviewer-completion or respondent-completion?	315
1.6 Types of questionnaire survey	316
2. The household questionnaire survey	316
2.1 Nature	316
2.2 Conduct	317
2.3 Omnibus surveys	318
2.4 Time-use surveys	319
2.5 National surveys	319
3. The street survey	320
3.1 Nature	320
3.2 Conduct	320
3.3 Quota sampling	321
4. The telephone survey	321
4.1 Nature	321
4.2 Conduct	322
4.3 Representativeness and response levels	323
4.4 National surveys	323
5. The mail survey	324
5.1 Nature	324
5.2 The problem of low response rates	324
5.3 Mail and user/site/visitor survey combos	328
6. E-surveys	328
6.1 Nature and conduct	328
6.2 Advantages and disadvantages	329
7. User/on-site/visitor surveys	330
7.1 Nature	330
7.2 Conduct	330
7.3 Uses of user surveys	331
7.4 User/site/visitor and mail/e-survey combo	334
8. Captive group surveys	334
8.1 Nature	334
8.2 Conduct	334
9. Questionnaire design	335
9.1 Introduction – research problems and information requirements	335
9.2 Example questionnaires	336
9.3 General design issues	340
9.4 Types of information	343
9.5 Activities/events/places questions	343
9.6 Respondent characteristics	348
9.7 Attitude/opinion questions	348
9.8 Market segments	350
9.9 Ordering of questions and layout of questionnaires	351
10. Coding	353
10.1 Pre-coded questions and open-ended questions	353
10.2 Open-ended questions	354
10.3 Recording coded data	355
11. Validity of questionnaire-based data	358
11.1 Threats to validity	358
11.2 Checking validity	359
12. Conducting questionnaire surveys	361
12.1 Planning fieldwork arrangements	361
12.2 Conducting a pilot survey	364
Summary	365
Test questions	365
Exercises	366
Resources	366
References	367
11 Experimental research	371
1. Introduction	372
2. Principles of experimental research	372
2.1 Components	372
2.2 The classic experimental design	373
3. Validity	374
3.1 Threats to validity	374
3.2 Field experiments versus laboratory experiments	375
4. Quasi-experimental designs	375
4.1 Types of quasi-experimental design	375
4.2 Experiments and projects	376
5. Experimental methods in leisure and tourism research	377
5.1 Discrete choice experiments (DCEs)	378
5.2 Policy/management experimental projects	380
5.3 Experimenting with research methods	383
5.4 Psychological/perceptual studies	385
5.5 Sport-related experiments	386
5.6 Children’s play	387
5.7 Other examples	389
Summary	391
Test questions	391
Exercises	391
Resources	392
References	392
12 Case study method	397
1. Introduction	398
2. Definitions	398
2.1 What is the case study method?	398
2.2 What the case study method is not	398
2.3 Scale	399
3. Validity and reliability	400
4. Merits of the case study approach	402
5. Design and conduct of case studies	402
5.1 Defining the unit of analysis	403
5.2 Selecting the case(s)	403
5.3 Data gathering	403
6. Analysis	404
7. Case studies in practice	405
7.1 Case study 12.1: English Life and Leisure	405
7.2 Case study 12.2: Euro Disneyland	406
7.3 Case study 12.3: Nike, advertising and women	407
7.4 Case study 12.4: Leisure, Lifestyle and the New Middle Class	408
Summary	409
Test questions	409
Exercises	409
Resources	410
References	410
13 Sampling: quantitative and qualitative	413
1. Introduction: the idea of sampling	414
2. Samples and populations	414
3. Representativeness	415
3.1 Random sampling	415
3.2 Sampling for household surveys	415
3.3 Sampling for telephone surveys	416
3.4 Sampling for site/user/visitor surveys	417
3.5 Sampling for street surveys and quota sampling	418
3.6 Sampling for mail surveys	419
3.7 Sampling for e-surveys	419
3.8 Sampling for complex events and destination studies	419
3.9 Sampling/random assignment in experimental research	420
4. Sample size	420
4.1 Level of precision – confidence intervals	421
4.2 Detail of proposed analysis	424
4.3 Budget	425
4.4 Reporting sample size issues	425
4.5 Confidence intervals applied to population estimates	426
4.6 Sample size and small populations	426
5. Weighting	428
6. Sampling for qualitative research	429
Summary	430
Test questions	431
Exercises	431
Resources	432
References	432
Appendix 13.1: Suggested appendix on sample size and confidence intervals	433
III Data analysis	435
14 Analysing secondary data	437
1. Introduction	437
2. Case studies of secondary data analysis	438
2.1 Income inequality and leisure participation	438
2.2 Estimating demand for a leisure facility	441
2.3 Tourism trend analysis	445
2.4 Facility utilisation	447
2.5 Facility catchment area	449
2.6 Meta-analysis	450
Summary	451
Exercises	451
Resources	452
References	452
15 Analysing qualitative data	455
1. Introduction	456
1.1 Data collection and analysis	456
1.2 Data storage and confidentiality	457
1.3 Case study example	457
2. Manual methods of analysis	461
2.1 Introduction	461
2.2 Reading	461
2.3 Emergent themes	461
2.4 Mechanics	463
2.5 Analysis	463
3. Qualitative analysis using computer software	465
3.1 Introduction	465
3.2 Interview transcripts	465
4. NVivo	466
4.1 Introduction	466
4.2 Creating a project	467
4.3 Saving	468
4.4 Classifications, attributes and values	468
4.5 Cases and their attributes	469
4.6 Importing documents	469
4.7 Linking individual interviewees/nodes and documents	470
4.8 Setting up a coding system	470
4.9 Maps	472
4.10 Coding text	472
4.11 Project summary	475
4.12 Analysis: coding query	475
4.13 Analysis: matrix coding query	477
Summary	477
Test questions	478
Exercises	478
Resources	479
References	480
16 Analysing quantitative data	481
1. Introduction	482
2. Quantitative data analysis and types of research	482
2.1 Descriptive research	483
2.2 Explanatory research	483
2.3 Evaluative research	484
2.4 Overlaps	484
2.5 Reliability	484
3. Spreadsheet analysis	485
4. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)	485
5. Preparation	489
5.1 Cases and variables	489
5.2 Specifying variables	489
5.3 Starting up	494
5.4 Entering information about variables – Variable View window	496
5.5 Saving work	496
5.6 Entering data – Data View window	496
6. Analysis procedures	497
6.1 Starting an analysis session	497
6.2 Descriptives	498
6.3 Frequencies	500
6.4 Checking for errors	501
6.5 Multiple response	501
6.6 Recode	503
6.7 Mean, median and mode – measures of central tendency	505
6.8 Presenting the results – statistical summary	507
6.9 Crosstabulation	508
6.10 Weighting	510
6.11 Graphics	510
7. The analysis process	515
Summary	515
Test questions	516
Exercises	516
Resources	516
References	517
17 Statistical analysis	519
1. Introduction	520
2. The statistics approach	520
2.1 Probabilistic statements	521
2.2 The normal distribution	521
2.3 Probabilistic statement formats	523
2.4 Significance	524
2.5 The null hypothesis	524
2.6 Dependent and independent variables	525
3. Data types and appropriate statistical tests	526
4. Chi-square	527
4.1 Introduction	527
4.2 Null hypothesis	528
4.3 Procedure	528
4.4 The value of Chi-square	528
4.5 Degrees of freedom	531
4.6 Reporting	531
5. Comparing two means: the t-test	532
5.1 Introduction	532
5.2 Paired samples test	533
5.3 Independent samples test	535
6. A number of means: one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)	536
6.1 Introduction	536
6.2 Variance	537
6.3 ANOVA: analysis of variance	538
7. Factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA)	539
7.1 Introduction	539
7.2 Procedure	540
8. Correlation	541
8.1 Introduction	541
8.2 Significance of r: null hypothesis	543
8.3 Procedure	544
9. Linear regression	545
9.1 Introduction	545
9.2 Regression model	545
9.3 Procedure	546
9.4 Non-linear regression	549
10. Multiple regression	550
10.1 Introduction	550
10.2 Procedure	550
10.3 Binary logistic regression analysis and odds ratios	552
10.4 Multi-dimensional scaling	553
11. Cluster, factor, multiple correspondence analysis	553
11.1 Introduction	553
11.2 Factor analysis	553
11.3 Cluster analysis	554
11.4 Multiple correspondence analysis	555
12. In conclusion	556
Summary	557
Test questions and exercises	558
Resources	558
References	559
Appendix 17.1: Details of example data used – variable deatails and data	560
Appendix 17.2: Statistical formulae	561
IV Communicating results	563
18 Preparing a research report	565
1. Introduction	565
2. Written research reports	566
2.1 Types/styles	566
2.2 Getting started	566
2.3 Report components	568
2.4 Main body of the report – technical aspects	571
2.5 Main body of the report – structure	576
2.6 Between methods and results	578
2.7 Audiences and style	579
2.8 Report functions: record and narrative	579
2.9 Research reports: conclusions	581
3. Other media	582
3.1 Oral presentations	582
3.2 Use of PowerPoint-type software	583
3.3 Poster presentations	584
4. A final comment	584
Summary	584
Test questions/exercises	585
Resources	585
References	585
Index	587
A	587
B	587
C	588
D	590
E	590
F	591
G	592
H	592
I	593
J	594
K	594
L	594
M	595
N	597
O	597
P	598
Q	599
R	600
S	601
T	604
U	605
V	605
W	605
X	606
Y	606
Z	606

Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism

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