BOOK
Visual Anatomy & Physiology, Global Edition
Frederic H. Martini | William C. Ober | Judi L. Nath | Edwin F. Bartholomew | Kevin Petti
(2017)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
For courses in Two-Semester A&P.
Using Art Effectively with the Most Visual Approach to A&P
Visual Anatomy & Physiology combines a one-of-a-kind visual approach with a modular organization that uniquely meets the needs of today’s students—without sacrificing the comprehensive coverage of A&P topics required for careers in nursing and other allied health professions.
The 3rd Edition presents key new features based on recent research about how students use and digest visual information. New modules in the first chapter emphasize how to use art effectively when studying; new Integrated Figure Questions increases the likelihood that students will spend time viewing the art and prompts them to consider what they have just learned; and new SmartArt Videos, accessible via QR code in the book, help students navigate key, complex pieces of art on some of the toughest topics.
New Interactive Physiology 2.0 tutorials, SmartArt Video Activities, and a mobile-friendly eText expand the options for students to use Mastering™ A&P as an effective practice and learning tool.
Also available with Mastering A&P
Mastering™ A&P is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment program designed to engage students and improve results. Instructors ensure that students arrive ready to learn by assigning educationally effective content before class, and encourage critical thinking and retention with in-class resources such as Learning Catalytics™. Students can further master concepts after class through assignments that provide hints and answer-specific feedback. With a wide range of activities available, students can actively learn, understand, and retain even the most difficult concepts.
Students, if interested in purchasing this title with Mastering A&P, ask your instructor for the correct package ISBN and Course ID. Instructors, contact your Pearson representative for more information.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Quick Reference Table of Contents | 1 | ||
| Get Ready for a Whole New Mastering Experience | 3 | ||
| Help Students Use Art More Effectively | 4 | ||
| Focus on Critical Reflection, Media Integration, and Practical Application | 6 | ||
| Continuous Learning Before, During, and After Class with MasteringA&P™ | 8 | ||
| MasteringA&P™ | 10 | ||
| More Practice, More Learning | 11 | ||
| MasteringA&P Lab Practice | 12 | ||
| Access the Complete Textbook Online with Pearson eText | 13 | ||
| Instructor and Student Support | 14 | ||
| Title Page | 17 | ||
| Copyright Page | 18 | ||
| About the Authors | 20 | ||
| Preface | 22 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 29 | ||
| Acknowledgments for the Global Edition | 30 | ||
| Contents | 31 | ||
| 1. An Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology | 44 | ||
| Section 1: an Introduction to Studying the Human Body | 45 | ||
| 1.1. Using Your Textbook Effectively is Key to Your Success | 45 | ||
| 1.2. Comprehending the Art is Essential to Understanding A&P | 46 | ||
| 1.3. Break Down the Art in Step-Wise Fashion to Learn the Topic | 48 | ||
| 1.4. Orient Yourself to All Art in the Same Way | 50 | ||
| 1.5. The Learning Outcomes Correspond by Number to the Chapter’s Modules and Indicate what you Should be Able to do After Completing the Chapter | 51 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 52 | ||
| Section 2: A&P in Perspective | 53 | ||
| 1.6. Focused Study is Important for Learning Anatomy and Physiology | 53 | ||
| 1.7. Organisms Share Common Characteristics and Processes | 54 | ||
| 1.8. Anatomy is the Study of Structure and Physiology is the Study of Function | 56 | ||
| 1.9. Structure and Function are Interrelated | 58 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 60 | ||
| Section 3: Levels of Organization | 61 | ||
| 1.10. The Human Body has Multiple Interdependent Levels of Organization | 61 | ||
| 1.11. Cells are the Smallest Units of Life | 62 | ||
| 1.12. Tissues are Specialized Groups of Cells and Cell Products | 64 | ||
| 1.13. Organs and Organ Systems Perform Vital Functions | 66 | ||
| 1.14. Organs of the Integumentary, Skeletal, and Muscular Systems Support and Move the Body and Organs of the Nervous System Provide Rapid Control and Regulation | 68 | ||
| 1.15. Organs of the Endocrine System Secrete Chemicals that are Carried by Organs of the Cardiovascular System, Organs of the Lymphatic System Defend the Body, and Organs of the Respiratory System Exchange Vital Gases | 70 | ||
| 1.16. Organs of the Digestive System Make Nutrients Available and, with the Urinary System, Excrete Wastes, and Organs of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems Provide for the Continuity of Life | 72 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 74 | ||
| Section 4: Homeostasis | 75 | ||
| 1.17. Homeostatic Regulation Relies on a Receptor, a Control Center, and an Effector | 75 | ||
| 1.18. Negative Feedback Provides Stability and Positive Feedback Accelerates a Process to Completion | 76 | ||
| Smartart Video: Homeostatic Regulation | 77 | ||
| Section 4: Review | 78 | ||
| Section 5: Anatomical Terms | 79 | ||
| 1.19. Anatomical Terms have a Long and Varied History | 79 | ||
| 1.20. Superficial Anatomy and Regional Anatomy Indicate Locations on or in the Body | 80 | ||
| 1.21. Directional Terms and Sectional Planes Describe Specific Points of Reference | 82 | ||
| 1.22. Body Cavities Protect Internal Organs and Allow Them to Change Shape | 84 | ||
| Section 5: Review | 86 | ||
| Chapter 1: Review | 87 | ||
| Study Outline | 87 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 89 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 91 | ||
| 2. Chemical Level of Organization | 92 | ||
| Section 1: Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds | 93 | ||
| 2.1. Atoms are the Basic Particles of Matter | 93 | ||
| 2.2. Typical Atoms Contain Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons | 94 | ||
| 2.3. Electrons Occupy Various Energy Levels | 96 | ||
| 2.4. The Most Common Chemical Bonds are Ionic Bonds and Covalent Bonds | 98 | ||
| 2.5. Matter May Exist as a Solid, a Liquid, or a Gas | 100 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 102 | ||
| Section 2: Chemical Reactions | 103 | ||
| 2.6. Chemical Reactions and Energy Transfer are Essential to Cellular Functions | 103 | ||
| 2.7. Chemical Notation is a Concise Method of Describing Chemical Reactions | 104 | ||
| 2.8. Three Basic Types of Chemical Reactions are Important for Understanding Physiology | 106 | ||
| 2.9. Enzymes Lower the Activation Energy Requirements of Chemical Reactions | 108 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 110 | ||
| Section 3: Water in the Body | 111 | ||
| 2.10. Water has Several Important Properties | 111 | ||
| 2.11. Physiological Systems Depend on Water | 112 | ||
| 2.12. Regulation of Body Fluid pH is Vital for Homeostasis | 114 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 116 | ||
| Section 4: Organic Compounds | 117 | ||
| 2.13. All Organic Compounds Contain Carbon and Hydrogen Atoms | 117 | ||
| 2.14. Carbohydrates Contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, Usually in a 1:2:1 Ratio | 118 | ||
| 2.15. Lipids Often have a Carbon-to-Hydrogen Ratio of 1:2 | 120 | ||
| 2.16. Eicosanoids, Steroids, Phospholipids, and Glycolipids have Diverse Functions | 122 | ||
| 2.17. Proteins are Formed from Amino Acids | 124 | ||
| 2.18. Enzymes are Proteins with Important Regulatory Functions | 126 | ||
| 2.19. High-Energy Compounds May Store and Transfer a Portion of Energy Released During Enzymatic Reactions | 127 | ||
| 2.20. DNA and RNA are Nucleic Acids | 128 | ||
| Section 4: Review | 130 | ||
| Chapter 2: Review | 131 | ||
| Study Outline | 131 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 133 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 135 | ||
| 3. Cellular Level of Organization | 136 | ||
| Section 1: Introduction to Cells | 137 | ||
| 3.1. Cellular Differentiation Produces Specialized Cells | 137 | ||
| 3.2. Cells are the Smallest Living Units of Life | 138 | ||
| 3.3. The Plasma Membrane Isolates the Cell from Its Environment and Performs Varied Functions | 140 | ||
| 3.4. The Cytoskeleton Plays Both a Structural and a Functional Role | 142 | ||
| 3.5. Ribosomes are Responsible for Protein Synthesis and are Often Associated with the Endoplasmic Reticulum | 144 | ||
| 3.6. The Golgi Apparatus is a Packaging Center | 146 | ||
| 3.7. Mitochondria are the Powerhouses of the Cell | 148 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 150 | ||
| Section 2: Structures and Function of the Nucleus | 151 | ||
| 3.8. The Nucleus is the Control Center for Cellular Homeostasis | 151 | ||
| 3.9. The Nucleus Contains Dna, RNA, Organizing Proteins, and Enzymes | 152 | ||
| 3.10. Protein Synthesis Involves Dna, Enzymes, and Three Types of RNA | 154 | ||
| 3.11. Transcription Encodes Genetic Instructions on a Strand of RNA | 156 | ||
| Smartart Video: Transcription | 157 | ||
| 3.12. Translation Builds Polypeptides as Directed by an Mrna Strand | 158 | ||
| Smartart Video: Translation | 159 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 160 | ||
| Section 3: How Substances Enter and Leave the Cell | 161 | ||
| 3.13. The Plasma Membrane is a Selectively Permeable Membrane | 161 | ||
| 3.14. Diffusion is Passive Movement Driven by Concentration Differences | 162 | ||
| 3.15. Osmosis is the Diffusion of Water Molecules Across a Selectively Permeable Membrane | 164 | ||
| 3.16. in Carrier-Mediated Transport, Integral Proteins Facilitate Membrane Passage | 166 | ||
| 3.17. in Vesicular Transport, Vesicles Selectively Carry Materials into or Out of the Cell | 168 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 170 | ||
| Section 4: Cell Life Cycle | 171 | ||
| 3.18. Interphase and Cell Division Make Up the Life Cycle of a Cell | 171 | ||
| 3.19. During Interphase, the Cell Prepares for Cell Division | 172 | ||
| 3.20. Mitosis Distributes Chromosomes Before Cytokinesis Separates the Daughter Cells | 174 | ||
| 3.21. Clinical Module: Tumors and Cancer are Characterized by Abnormal Cell Growth and Division | 176 | ||
| Section 4: Review | 178 | ||
| Chapter 3: Review | 179 | ||
| Study Outline | 179 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 181 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 183 | ||
| 4. Tissue Level of Organization | 184 | ||
| Section 1: Epithelial Tissue | 185 | ||
| 4.1. Four Types of Tissue Make Up the Body | 185 | ||
| 4.2. Microscopes are Used to Study Cells and Tissues | 186 | ||
| 4.3. Epithelial Tissue Covers Surfaces, Lines Cavities, and Forms Secretory Glands | 188 | ||
| 4.4. Epithelial Cells are Extensively Interconnected, Both Structurally and Functionally | 190 | ||
| 4.5. The Cells in a Squamous Epithelium are Flat and Irregularly Shaped | 192 | ||
| 4.6. Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia Line Several Passageways and Chambers Connected to the Exterior | 194 | ||
| 4.7. Columnar Epithelia Absorb Substances and Protect the Body from Digestive Chemicals | 196 | ||
| 4.8. Glandular Epithelia are Specialized for Secretion | 198 | ||
| 4.9. Exocrine Glands can be Classified by Structure | 199 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 200 | ||
| Section 2: Connective Tissue | 201 | ||
| 4.10. A Matrix Surrounds Connective Tissue Cells | 201 | ||
| 4.11. Loose Connective Tissues Support Other Tissue Types | 202 | ||
| 4.12. Dense Connective Tissues are Dominated by Extracellular Fibers, Whereas Fluid Connective Tissues have a Aqueous Matrix | 204 | ||
| 4.13. Cartilage Provides a Flexible Support for Body Structures | 206 | ||
| 4.14. Bone Provides a Strong Framework for the Body | 208 | ||
| 4.15. Tissue Membranes are Physical Barriers, and Fasciae Support and Surround Organs | 210 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 212 | ||
| Section 3: Muscle Tissue and Nervous Tissue | 213 | ||
| 4.16. Muscle Tissue Outweighs Nervous Tissue by 25:1 | 213 | ||
| 4.17. Muscle Tissue is Specialized for Contraction and Nervous Tissue is Specialized for Communication | 214 | ||
| 4.18. Clinical Module: The Response to Tissue Injury Involves Inflammation and Regeneration | 216 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 218 | ||
| Chapter 4: Review | 219 | ||
| Study Outline | 219 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 221 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 223 | ||
| 5. The Integumentary System | 224 | ||
| Section 1: Functional Anatomy of the Skin | 225 | ||
| 5.1. The Integumentary System Consists of the Skin and Various Accessory Structures | 225 | ||
| 5.2. The Epidermis is Composed of Strata (Layers) that have Various Functions | 226 | ||
| 5.3. Factors Influencing Skin Color Include Epidermal Pigmentation and Dermal Circulation | 228 | ||
| 5.4. The Subcutaneous Layer Connects the Dermis to Underlying Tissues | 230 | ||
| 5.5. Clinical Module: Burns are Significant Injuries that Damage Skin Integrity | 232 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 234 | ||
| Section 2: Accessory Structures of the Skin | 235 | ||
| 5.6. Hair Follicles, Exocrine Glands, and Nails are Also Components of the Integumentary System | 235 | ||
| 5.7. Hair is Composed of Dead, Keratinized Cells Produced in a Specialized Hair Follicle | 236 | ||
| 5.8. Sebaceous Glands and Sweat Glands are Exocrine Glands in the Skin | 238 | ||
| 5.9. Nails are Thick Sheets of Keratinized Epidermal Cells that Protect the Tips of Fingers and Toes | 240 | ||
| 5.10. Clinical Module: Age-Related Changes Affect the Integument | 241 | ||
| 5.11. The Integument Responds to Circulating Hormones and has Endocrine Functions that are Stimulated by Ultraviolet Radiation | 242 | ||
| 5.12. Clinical Module: The Integument can Often Repair Itself, Even After Extensive Damage | 244 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 246 | ||
| Chapter 5: Review | 247 | ||
| Study Outline | 247 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 249 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 251 | ||
| 6. Bones and Bone Structure | 252 | ||
| Section 1: Introduction to the Structure and Growth of Bones | 253 | ||
| 6.1. The Skeletal System is Made Up of the Axial and Appendicular Divisions | 253 | ||
| 6.2. Bones are Classified According to Shape and Structure and have Varied Bone Markings | 254 | ||
| 6.3. Long Bones Transmit Forces Along the Shaft and have a Rich Blood Supply | 256 | ||
| 6.4. Bone has a Calcified Matrix Maintained and Altered by Osteogenic Cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, and Osteoclasts | 258 | ||
| 6.5. Compact Bone Consists of Parallel Osteons, and Spongy Bone Consists of a Network of Trabeculae | 260 | ||
| 6.6. Appositional Bone Growth Involves the Periosteum and the Endosteum | 262 | ||
| 6.7. Endochondral Ossification Replaces a Cartilage Model with Bone | 264 | ||
| Smartart Video: Endochondral Ossification | 265 | ||
| 6.8. Intramembranous Ossification Forms Bone Without a Prior Cartilage Model | 266 | ||
| 6.9. Clinical Module: Abnormalities of Bone Growth and Development Produce Recognizable Physical Signs | 268 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 270 | ||
| Section 2: Physiology of Bones | 271 | ||
| 6.10. Bones Play an Important Role as Mineral Reservoirs | 271 | ||
| 6.11. The Primary Hormones Regulating Calcium Ion Metabolism and Parathyroid Hormone, Calcitriol, and Calcitonin | 272 | ||
| Smartart Video: Calcium Ion Metabolism | 273 | ||
| 6.12. Clinical Module: A Fracture is a Crack or a Break in a Bone | 274 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 276 | ||
| Chapter 6: Review | 277 | ||
| Study Outline | 277 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 279 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 281 | ||
| 7. The Skeleton | 282 | ||
| Section 1: Axial Skeleton | 283 | ||
| 7.1. The Axial Skeleton Includes Bones of the Head, Vertebral Column, and Trunk | 283 | ||
| 7.2. The Skull has Cranial and Facial Components that are Usually Bound Together by Sutures | 284 | ||
| 7.3. Facial Bones Dominate the Anterior Aspect of the Skull, and Cranial Bones Dominate the Posterior Surface | 286 | ||
| 7.4. The Lateral and Medial Aspects of the Skull Share Many Bone Markings | 288 | ||
| 7.5. The Foramina on the Inferior Surface of the Skull Mark the Passageways for Nerves and Blood Vessels | 290 | ||
| 7.6. The Shapes and Markings of the Sphenoid, Ethmoid, and Palatine Bones are the Best Seen in the Isolated Bones | 292 | ||
| 7.7. Each Orbital Complex Contains One Eye, and the Nasal Complex Encloses the Nasal Cavities | 294 | ||
| 7.8. The Mandible Forms the Lower Jaw and the Associated Bones of the Skull Perform Specialized Functions | 296 | ||
| 7.9. Fontanelles Permit Cranial Growth in Infants and Small Children | 298 | ||
| 7.10. The Vertebral Column has Four Spinal Curves, and Vertebrae Share a Basic Structure that Differs Regionally | 300 | ||
| 7.11. There are Seven Cervical Vertebrae and Twelve Thoracic Vertebrae | 302 | ||
| 7.12. There are Five Lumbar Vertebrae | 304 | ||
| 7.13. The Sacrum and Coccyx Consist of Fused Vertebrae | 305 | ||
| 7.14. The Thoracic Cage Protects Organs in the Chest and Provides Sites for Muscle Attachment | 306 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 308 | ||
| Section 2: Appendicular Skeleton | 309 | ||
| 7.15. The Appendicular Skeleton Includes the Limb Bones and the Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles | 309 | ||
| 7.16. The Pectoral Girdles—the Clavicles and Scapulae—Connect the Upper Limbs to the Axial Skeleton | 310 | ||
| 7.17. The Humerus of the Arm Articulates with the Radius and Ulna of the Forearm | 312 | ||
| 7.18. The Wrist Consists of Carpal Bones and the Hand Consists of Metacarpal Bones and Phalanges | 314 | ||
| 7.19. The Hip Bone Forms by the Fusion of the Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis | 316 | ||
| 7.20. The Pelvis Consists of the Two Hip Bones, the Sacrum, and the Coccyx | 318 | ||
| 7.21. The Adult Male and Female Skeletons have Significant Differences | 319 | ||
| 7.22. The Femur, Tibia, and Patella Meet at the Knee | 320 | ||
| 7.23. The Ankle and Foot Consist of Tarsal Bones, Metatarsal Bones, and Phalanges | 322 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 324 | ||
| Chapter 7: Review | 325 | ||
| Study Outline | 325 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 327 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 329 | ||
| 8. Joints | 330 | ||
| Section 1: Joint Structure and Movement | 331 | ||
| 8.1. Joints are Classified According to Structure and Movement | 331 | ||
| 8.2. Synovial Joints are Freely Movable and Lines with a Synovial Membrane | 332 | ||
| 8.3. Anatomical Organization Determines the Motion at Synovial Joints | 334 | ||
| 8.4. Specific Terms are Used to Describe Movements with Reference to the Anatomical Position | 336 | ||
| 8.5. Specific Terms Describe Rotation and Special Movements | 338 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 340 | ||
| Section 2: Axial and Appendicular Joints | 341 | ||
| 8.6. Axial Joints have Less Range of Motion than Appendicular Joints | 341 | ||
| 8.7. The Vertebral Column Includes Three Types of Joints | 342 | ||
| 8.8. Clinical Module: Intervertebral Disc Disease and Osteoporosis are Common Age-Related Health Problems | 343 | ||
| 8.9. The Shoulder and Hip are Ball-and-Socket Joints | 344 | ||
| 8.10. The Elbow and Knee are Hinge Joints | 346 | ||
| 8.11. Clinical Module: Arthritis can Disrupt Normal Joint Structure and Function | 348 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 350 | ||
| Chapter 8: Review | 351 | ||
| Study Outline | 351 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 353 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 355 | ||
| 9. Skeletal Muscle Tissue | 356 | ||
| Section 1: Functional Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle Tissue | 357 | ||
| 9.1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue Enables Body Movement and Other Vital Functions | 357 | ||
| 9.2. Skeletal Muscle Contains Muscle Tissue, Connective Tissues, Blood Vessels, and Nerves | 358 | ||
| 9.3. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Contain T Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticula that Surround Contractile Myofibrils Made Up of Sarcomeres | 360 | ||
| 9.4. The Sliding of Thin Filaments Past Thick Filaments Produces Muscle Contraction | 362 | ||
| 9.5. Skeletal Muscle Fibers and Neurons have Excitable Plasma Membranes that Produce and Carry Electrical Impulses Called Action Potentials | 364 | ||
| 9.6. A Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contracts when Stimulated by a Motor Neuron | 366 | ||
| 9.7. A Muscle Fiber Contraction Uses ATP in a Cycle that Repeats During the Contraction | 368 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 370 | ||
| Section 2: Functional Properties of Skeletal Muscle | 371 | ||
| 9.8. Muscle Tension Develops from the Events that Occur During Excitation-Contraction Coupling | 371 | ||
| 9.9. Tension is Greatest when Muscle Fibers are Stimulated at Optimal Length | 372 | ||
| 9.10. The Peak Tension Developed by a Skeletal Muscle Depends on the Frequency of Stimulation and the Number of Muscle Fibers Stimulated | 374 | ||
| Smartart Video: Motor Units and Recruitment | 375 | ||
| 9.11. Muscle Contractions May be Isotonic or Isometric; Isotonic Contractions May be Concentric or Eccentric | 376 | ||
| 9.12. Muscle Contraction Requires Large Amounts of ATP that May be Produced Anaerobically or Aerobically | 378 | ||
| Smartart Video: Anaerobic Vs. Aerobic Production of ATP | 379 | ||
| 9.13. Muscles Fatigue and May Need an Extended Recovery Period | 380 | ||
| 9.14. Fast, Slow, and Intermediate Skeletal Muscle Fibers Differ in Size, Internal Structure, Metabolism, and Resistance to Fatigue | 382 | ||
| 9.15. Clinical Module: Many Factors can Result in Muscle Hypertrophy, Atrophy, or Paralysis | 384 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 386 | ||
| Chapter 9: Review | 387 | ||
| Study Outline | 387 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 389 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 391 | ||
| 10. The Muscular System | 392 | ||
| Section 1: Functional Organization of the Muscular System | 393 | ||
| 10.1. The Axial and Appendicular Muscles have Different Functions | 393 | ||
| 10.2. Muscular Power and Range of Motion are Influenced by Fascicle Organization and Leverage | 394 | ||
| 10.3. The Origins and Insertions of Muscles Determine their Actions, While their Names can Provide Clues to Appearance And/Or Function | 396 | ||
| 10.4. The Skeletal Muscles can be Assigned to the Axial Division or the Appendicular Division Based on Origins and Functions | 398 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 400 | ||
| Section 2: Axial Muscles | 401 | ||
| 10.5. There are Four Groups of Axial Muscles | 401 | ||
| 10.6. The Muscles of Facial Expression are Important in Eating and Useful for Communication | 402 | ||
| 10.7. The Extrinsic Eye Muscles Position the Eye and the Muscles of Mastication Move the Lower Jaw | 404 | ||
| 10.8. The Muscles of the Tongue are Closely Associated with the Muscles of the Pharynx and Neck | 406 | ||
| 10.9. The Muscles of the Vertebral Column Support and Align the Axial Skeleton | 408 | ||
| 10.10. The Oblique and Rectus Muscles Form the Muscular Walls of the Trunk | 410 | ||
| 10.11. The Muscles of the Pelvic Floor Support the Organs of the Abdominopelvic Cavity | 412 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 414 | ||
| Section 3: Appendicular Muscles | 415 | ||
| 10.12. The Appendicular Muscles Stabilize, Position, and Support the Limbs | 415 | ||
| 10.13. The Largest Appendicular Muscles Originate on the Trunk | 416 | ||
| 10.14. Muscles that Position Each Pectoral Girdle Originate on the Occipital Bone, Superior Vertebrae, and Ribs | 418 | ||
| 10.15. Muscles that Move the Arm Originate on the Clavicle, Scapula, Thoracic Cage, and Vertebral Column | 420 | ||
| 10.16. Muscles that Move the Forearm and Hand Originate on the Scapula, Humerus, Radius, or Ulna | 422 | ||
| 10.17. Muscles that Move the Hand and Fingers Originate on the Humerus, Radius, Ulna, and Interosseous Membrane | 424 | ||
| 10.18. The Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand Originate on the Carpal and Metacarpal Bones and Associated Tendons and Ligaments | 426 | ||
| 10.19. The Muscles that Move the Thigh Originate on the Pelvis and Associated Ligaments and Fasciae | 428 | ||
| 10.20. The Muscles that Move the Leg Originate on the Pelvis and Femur | 430 | ||
| 10.21. The Extrinsic Muscles that Move the Foot and Toes Originate on the Tibia and Fibula | 432 | ||
| 10.22. The Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot Originate on the Tarsal and Metatarsal Bones and Associated Tendons and Ligaments | 434 | ||
| 10.23. The Deep Fascia Divides the Limb Muscles into Separate Compartments | 436 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 438 | ||
| Chapter 10: Review | 439 | ||
| Study Outline | 439 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 441 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 443 | ||
| 11. Nervous Tissue | 444 | ||
| Section 1: Cellular Organization of the Nervous System | 445 | ||
| 11.1. The Nervous System has Three Divisions: The CNS, Pns, and Ens | 445 | ||
| 11.2. Neurons are Nerve Cells Specialized for Intercellular Communication | 446 | ||
| 11.3. Neurons are Classified on the Basis of Structure and Function | 448 | ||
| 11.4. Oligodendrocytes, Astrocytes, Ependymal Cells, and Microglia are Neuroglia of the CNS | 450 | ||
| 11.5. Schwann Cells and Satellite Cells are the Neuroglia of the Pns | 452 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 454 | ||
| Section 2: Neurophysiology | 455 | ||
| 11.6. Neuronal Activity Depends on Changes in Membrane Potential | 455 | ||
| 11.7. Differences in Electrochemical Gradients Determine the Resting Membrane Potential | 456 | ||
| 11.8. Three Types of Gated Ion Channels Change the Permeability of the Plasma Membrane | 458 | ||
| 11.9. Graded Potentials are Localized Changes in the Membrane Potential | 460 | ||
| 11.10. Action Potentials are All-Or-None Events for Communication that Begin with Membrane Potential Reversal | 462 | ||
| 11.11. Action Potentials May Affect Adjacent Portions of the Plasma Membrane Through Continuous Propagation or Saltatory Propagation | 464 | ||
| 11.12. At a Synapse, Information Travels from the Presynaptic Cell to the Postsynaptic Cell | 466 | ||
| 11.13. Postsynaptic Potentials are Responsible for Information Processing in a Neuron | 468 | ||
| 11.14. Information Processing Involves Interacting Groups of Neurons and Various Neurotransmitters that Encode Information as Action Potential Frequency | 470 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 472 | ||
| Chapter 11: Review | 473 | ||
| Study Outline | 473 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 475 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 477 | ||
| 12. The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes | 478 | ||
| Section 1: Functional Organization of the Spinal Cord | 479 | ||
| 12.1. The Spinal Cord can Function Independently from the Brain | 479 | ||
| 12.2. The Spinal Cord has 31 Segments with 31 Pairs of Nerves | 480 | ||
| 12.3. The Spinal Meninges, Consisting of the Dura Mater, Arachnoid Mater, and Pia Mater, Surround the Spinal Cord | 482 | ||
| 12.4. Gray Matter Integrates Sensory and Motor Functions, and White Matter Carries Information | 484 | ||
| 12.5. Spinal Nerves have a Similar Anatomical Structure and Distribution Pattern | 486 | ||
| 12.6. Each Ramus of a Spinal Nerve Provides Sensory and Motor Innervation to a Specific Region | 488 | ||
| 12.7. Spinal Nerves Form Nerve Plexuses that Innervate the Skin and Skeletal Muscles | 490 | ||
| 12.8. The Cervical Plexus Innervates the Muscles of the Neck and Diaphragm | 491 | ||
| 12.9. The Brachial Plexus Innervates the Pectoral Girdles and Upper Limbs | 492 | ||
| 12.10. The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses Innervate the Skin and Skeletal Muscles of the Trunk and Lower Limbs | 494 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 496 | ||
| Section 2: Introduction to Reflexes | 497 | ||
| 12.11. CNS Neurons are Grouped into Neuronal Pools, Which Form Neural Circuits | 497 | ||
| 12.12. Reflexes are Vital to Homeostasis | 498 | ||
| Smartart Video: The Reflex Arc | 499 | ||
| 12.13. The Stretch Reflex is a Monosynaptic Reflex Involving Muscle Spindles | 500 | ||
| 12.14. Withdrawal Reflexes and Crossed Extensor Reflexes are Polysynaptic Reflexes | 502 | ||
| 12.15. Clinical Module: The Brain can Inhibit or Facilitate Spinal Reflexes, and Reflexes can be Used to Determine the Location and Severity of Damage to the CNS | 504 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 506 | ||
| Chapter 12: Review | 507 | ||
| Study Outline | 507 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 509 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 511 | ||
| 13. The Brain, Cranial Nerves, and Sensory and Motor Pathways | 512 | ||
| Section 1: Functional Anatomy of the Brain and Cranial Nerves | 513 | ||
| 13.1. The Brain Develops from a Hollow Neural Tube | 513 | ||
| 13.2. Each Region of the Brain has Distinct Structural and Functional Characteristics | 514 | ||
| 13.3. The Cranial Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Protect and Support the Brain | 516 | ||
| 13.4. The Medulla Oblongata Contains Autonomic Reflex Centers, Relay Stations, and Ascending and Descending Tracts | 518 | ||
| 13.5. The Pons Links the Cerebellum to the Brain and Spinal Cord and has Vital Autonomic Reflex Centers | 519 | ||
| 13.6. The Cerebellum Coordinates Learned and Reflexive Patterns of Muscular Activity at the Subconscious Level | 520 | ||
| 13.7. The Midbrain Regulates Auditory and Visual Reflexes and Controls Alertness | 522 | ||
| 13.8. The Diencephalon Consists of the Epithalamus, Thalamus, and Hypothalamus | 524 | ||
| 13.9. The Limbic System is a Functional Group of Tracts and Nuclei Located in the Cerebrum and Diencephalon | 526 | ||
| 13.10. The Basal Nuclei of the Cerebrum Adjust and Refine Ongoing Voluntary Movements | 528 | ||
| 13.11. Superficial Landmarks Divide the Cerebral Hemispheres into Lobes | 530 | ||
| 13.12. The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex have Regions with Specific Functions | 532 | ||
| 13.13. White Matter Connects the Cerebral Hemispheres and the Lobes of Each Hemisphere and Links the Cerebrum to the Rest of the Brain | 534 | ||
| 13.14. Clinical Module: Brain Activity can be Monitored Using External Electrodes; the Record is Called an Electroencephalogram, or Eeg | 535 | ||
| 13.15. The Twelve Pairs of Cranial Nerves are Classified as Sensory, Special Sensory, Motor, or Mixed Nerves | 536 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 538 | ||
| Section 2: Sensory and Motor Pathways | 539 | ||
| 13.16. Sensations Carried by Sensory Pathways to the CNS Begin with Transduction at a Sensory Receptor | 539 | ||
| 13.17. Receptors are Classified by Function or Response to the Stimulus | 540 | ||
| 13.18. Tactile Receptors have a Simple Structure and are Abundant in the Skin | 542 | ||
| 13.19. Three Major Somatic Sensory Pathways Carry Information from the Skin and Muscles to the CNS | 544 | ||
| 13.20. The Somatic Nervous System Controls Skeletal Muscles Through Upper and Lower Motor Neurons | 546 | ||
| 13.21. There are Multiple Levels of Somatic Motor Control | 548 | ||
| 13.22. Clinical Module: Nervous System Disorders May Result from Problems with Neurons, Pathways, or a Combination of the Two | 550 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 552 | ||
| Chapter 13: Review | 553 | ||
| Study Outline | 553 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 556 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 557 | ||
| 14. The Autonomic Nervous System | 558 | ||
| Section 1: Functional Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System | 559 | ||
| 14.1. Ganglionic Neurons of the Ans Control Visceral Effectors | 559 | ||
| 14.2. The Ans Consists of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions | 560 | ||
| 14.3. The Sympathetic Division has Chain Ganglia, Collateral Ganglia, and the Adrenal Medullae, Whereas the Parasympathetic Division has Terminal or Intramural Ganglia | 562 | ||
| 14.4. The Two Ans Divisions Innervate Many of the Same Structures, But the Innervation Patterns are Different | 564 | ||
| 14.5. The Functional Differences Between the Two Ans Divisions Reflect their Divergent Anatomical and Physiological Characteristics | 566 | ||
| 14.6. Membrane Receptors at Target Organs Mediate the Effects of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Stimulation | 568 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 570 | ||
| Section 2: Autonomic Regulation and Control Mechanisms | 571 | ||
| 14.7. The Ans Adjusts Visceral Motor Responses to Maintain Homeostasis | 571 | ||
| 14.8. The Ans Provides Precise Control Over Visceral Functions | 572 | ||
| 14.9. Most Visceral Functions are Controlled by Visceral Reflexes | 574 | ||
| 14.10. Baroreceptors and Chemoreceptors Initiate Important Autonomic Reflexes Involving Visceral Sensory Pathways | 576 | ||
| 14.11. The Autonomic Nervous System has Multiple Levels of Motor Control | 578 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 580 | ||
| Chapter 14: Review | 581 | ||
| Study Outline | 581 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 583 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 585 | ||
| 15. The Special Senses | 586 | ||
| Section 1: Olfaction and Gustation | 587 | ||
| 15.1. A Generator Potential is a Depolarization of the Membrane | 587 | ||
| 15.2. Olfaction Involves Specialized Chemoreceptive Neurons and Delivers Sensations Directly to the Cerebrum | 588 | ||
| 15.3. Gustation Involves Epithelial Chemoreceptor Cells Located in Taste Buds | 590 | ||
| 15.4. Gustatory Reception Relies on Membrane Receptors and Ion Channels, and Sensations are Carried by Facial, Glossopharyngeal, and Vagus Nerves | 592 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 594 | ||
| Section 2: Vision | 595 | ||
| 15.5. The Eyes Form Early in Embryonic Development | 595 | ||
| 15.6. Accessory Structures of the Eye Provide Protection While Allowing Light to Reach the Interior of the Eye | 596 | ||
| 15.7. The Hollow Eyeball has a Layered Wall and Fluid-Filled Anterior and Posterior Cavities | 598 | ||
| 15.8. The Structures of the Eye Direct Light Along a Visual Axis to the Fovea Centralis of the Retina | 600 | ||
| 15.9. Focusing of Light Produces a Sharp Image on the Retina | 602 | ||
| 15.10. The Neural Layer of the Retina Contains Multiple Layers of Specialized Photoreceptors, Neurons, and Supporting Cells | 604 | ||
| 15.11. Photoreception Occurs in the Outer Segment of Rod and Cone Cells | 606 | ||
| 15.12. Photoreception Involves Activation, Bleaching, and Reassembly of Visual Pigments | 608 | ||
| 15.13. The Visual Pathways Distribute Visual Information from Each Eye to Both Cerebral Hemispheres | 610 | ||
| 15.14. Clinical Module: Refractive Problems Result from Abnormalities in the Cornea or Lens or in the Shape of the Eye | 611 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 612 | ||
| Section 3: Equilibrium and Hearing | 613 | ||
| 15.15. Equilibrium and Hearing Involve the Internal Ear | 613 | ||
| 15.16. The Ear is Divided into the External Ear, the Middle Ear, and the Internal Ear | 614 | ||
| 15.17. in the Internal Ear, the Bony Labyrinth Protects the Membranous Labyrinth and Its Receptors | 616 | ||
| 15.18. Hair Cells in the Semicircular Ducts Respond to Rotation; Hair Cells in the Utricle and Saccule Respond to Gravity and Linear Acceleration | 618 | ||
| 15.19. The Cochlear Duct Contains the Hair Cells of the Spiral Organ that Function in Hearing | 620 | ||
| 15.20. Sound Waves Lead to Movement of the Basilar Membrane in the Process of Hearing | 622 | ||
| 15.21. The Vestibulocochlear Nerve Carries Equilibrium and Hearing Sensations to the Brainstem | 624 | ||
| 15.22. Clinical Module: Aging is Associated with Many Disorders of the Special Senses; Trauma, Infection, and Abnormal Stimuli May Cause Problems at Any Age | 626 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 628 | ||
| Chapter 15: Review | 629 | ||
| Study Outline | 629 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 633 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 635 | ||
| 16. The Endocrine System | 636 | ||
| Section 1: Hormones and Intercellular Communication | 637 | ||
| 16.1. The Nervous and Endocrine Systems Release Chemical Messengers that Bind to Target Cells | 637 | ||
| 16.2. Hormones May be Amino Acid Derivatives, Peptides, or Lipid Derivatives | 638 | ||
| 16.3. The Endocrine System Includes Organs and Tissues with Primary and Secondary Hormone-Secreting Roles | 639 | ||
| 16.4. Hormones Affect Target Cells After Binding to Receptors in the Plasma Membrane, Cytoplasm, or Nucleus | 640 | ||
| 16.5. The Hypothalamus Exerts Direct or Indirect Control Over the Activities of Many Endocrine Organs | 642 | ||
| 16.6. The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland Produces and Releases 7 Tropic Hormones, While the Posterior Lobe Releases 2 Hormones | 644 | ||
| 16.7. Negative Feedback Mechanisms Control the Secretion Rates of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland | 646 | ||
| 16.8. The Thyroid Gland Contains Follicles and Requires Iodine to Produce Hormones that Stimulate Tissue Metabolism | 648 | ||
| 16.9. Parathyroid Hormone, Produced by the Parathyroid Glands, is the Primary Regulator of Blood Calcium Ion Levels | 650 | ||
| 16.10. The Adrenal Hormones are Involved in Metabolic Regulation, Electrolyte Balance, and Stress Responses | 652 | ||
| 16.11. The Pancreatic Islets Secrete Insulin and Glucagon, Which Regulate Glucose Use by Most Cells | 654 | ||
| Smartart Video: The Pancreas and Regulation of Blood Glucose | 655 | ||
| 16.12. The Pineal Gland of the Epithalamus Secretes Melatonin, Which Affects the Circadian Rhythm | 656 | ||
| 16.13. Clinical Module: Diabetes Mellitus is an Endocrine Disorder Characterized by an Excessively High Blood Glucose Level | 657 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 658 | ||
| Section 2: Hormones and System Integration | 659 | ||
| 16.14. Hormones Interact to Produce Coordinated Physiological Responses | 659 | ||
| 16.15. Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Volume Involves Hormones from Primary Endocrine Organs and from Endocrine Tissues in the Heart and Kidneys | 660 | ||
| 16.16. Normal Growth Requires the Cooperation of Many Endocrine Organs | 661 | ||
| 16.17. The Stress Response is a Predictable Response to Any Significant Threat to Homeostasis | 662 | ||
| 16.18. Clinical Module: Overproduction or Underproduction of Hormones can Cause Endocrine Disorders | 664 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 666 | ||
| Chapter 16: Review | 667 | ||
| Study Outline | 667 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 669 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 671 | ||
| 17. Blood | 672 | ||
| Section 1: Plasma and Formed Elements | 673 | ||
| 17.1. Blood is the Fluid Portion of the Cardiovascular System | 673 | ||
| 17.2. Blood is a Fluid Connective Tissue Containing Plasma and Formed Elements | 674 | ||
| 17.3. Formed Elements are Produced by Stem Cells in Red Bone Marrow | 676 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 678 | ||
| Section 2: Structure and Function of Formed Elements | 679 | ||
| 17.4. Hematology is the Study of Blood and Blood-Forming Tissues | 679 | ||
| 17.5. Red Blood Cells, the Most Common Formed Elements, Contain Hemoglobin that Transports Respiratory Gases | 680 | ||
| 17.6. Red Blood Cells are Continually Produced and their Components Recycled or Eliminated | 682 | ||
| 17.7. Blood Type is Determined by the Presence or Absence of Specific Surface Antigens on RBCs | 684 | ||
| 17.8. Clinical Module: Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn is an Rbc-Related Disorder Caused by a Cross-Reaction Between Fetal and Maternal Blood Types | 686 | ||
| 17.9. The Various Types of White Blood Cells Contribute to the Body’s Defenses | 688 | ||
| 17.10. The Clotting Response is a Complex Cascade of Events that Reduces Blood Loss | 690 | ||
| 17.11. Clinical Module: Blood Disorders can be Classified by their Origins and the Changes in Blood Characteristics | 692 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 694 | ||
| Chapter 17: Review | 695 | ||
| Study Outline | 695 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 697 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 699 | ||
| 18. The Heart and Cardiovascular Function | 700 | ||
| Section 1: Structure of the Heart | 701 | ||
| 18.1. The Heart has Four Chambers that Pump and Circulate Blood Through the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits | 701 | ||
| 18.2. The Heart is Located in the Mediastinum and is Enclosed by the Pericardial Cavity | 702 | ||
| 18.3. The Heart Wall Contains Concentric Layers of Cardiac Muscle Tissue | 704 | ||
| 18.4. The Boundaries Between the Four Chambers of the Heart can be Identified on Its External Surface | 706 | ||
| 18.5. The Heart has an Extensive Blood Supply | 708 | ||
| 18.6. Internal Valves Control the Direction of Blood Flow Between the Heart Chambers and Great Vessels | 710 | ||
| 18.7. when the Heart Beats, the AV Valves Close Before the Semilunar Valves Open, and the Semilunar Valves Close Before the AV Valves Open | 712 | ||
| 18.8. Clinical Module: Arteriosclerosis can Lead to Coronary Artery Disease | 714 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 716 | ||
| Section 2: Cardiac Cycle | 717 | ||
| 18.9. The Cardiac Cycle is a Complete Round of Systole and Diastole | 717 | ||
| 18.10. The Cardiac Cycle Creates Pressure Gradients that Maintain Blood Flow | 718 | ||
| Smartart Video: The Cardiac Cycle | 719 | ||
| 18.11. Cardiac Muscle Cell Contractions Last Longer than Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contractions Primarily Because of Differences in Calcium Ion Membrane Permeability | 720 | ||
| Smartart Video: The Conducting System of the Heart | 721 | ||
| 18.12. Electrical Events of Pacemaker Cells and Conducting Cells Establish the Heart Rate | 722 | ||
| 18.13. Clinical Module: Normal and Abnormal Cardiac Activity can be Detected in an Electrocardiogram | 724 | ||
| 18.14. The Intrinsic Heart Rate can be Altered by Autonomic Activity | 726 | ||
| 18.15. Stroke Volume Depends on the Relationship Between End-Diastolic Volume and End-Systolic Volume | 728 | ||
| 18.16. Cardiac Output is Regulated by Adjustments in Heart Rate and Stroke Volume | 730 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 732 | ||
| Chapter 18: Review | 733 | ||
| Study Outline | 733 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 736 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 737 | ||
| 19. Blood Vessels and Circulation | 738 | ||
| Section 1: Functional Anatomy of Blood Vessels | 739 | ||
| 19.1. The Heart Pumps Blood, in Sequence, Through the Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins of the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits | 739 | ||
| 19.2. Arteries and Veins Differ in the Structure and Thickness of their Walls | 740 | ||
| 19.3. Capillary Structure and Capillary Blood Flow Affect the Rates of Exchange Between the Blood and Interstitial Fluid | 742 | ||
| 19.4. The Venous System has Low Pressures and Contains Almost Two-Thirds of the Body’s Blood Volume | 744 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 746 | ||
| Section 2: Coordination of Cardiac Output and Blood Flow | 747 | ||
| 19.5. Pressure, Resistance, and Venous Return Affect Cardiac Output | 747 | ||
| 19.6. Vessel Luminal Diameter is the Main Source of Resistance Within the Cardiovascular System | 748 | ||
| 19.7. Blood Flow is Determined by the Interplay Between Arterial Pressure and Peripheral Resistance | 750 | ||
| 19.8. Capillary Exchange is a Dynamic Process that Includes Diffusion, Filtration, and Reabsorption | 752 | ||
| 19.9. Cardiovascular Regulatory Mechanisms Respond to Changes in Blood Pressure or Blood Chemistry | 754 | ||
| 19.10. Endocrine Responses to Low Blood Pressure and Low Blood Volume are Very Different from Those to High Blood Pressure and High Blood Volume | 756 | ||
| 19.11. Chemoreceptors Monitor the Chemical Composition of the Blood and Cerebrospinal Fluid | 758 | ||
| 19.12. The Cardiovascular Center Makes Extensive Adjustments to Cardiac Output and Blood Distribution During Exercise | 759 | ||
| 19.13. Clinical Module: Short-Term and Long-Term Mechanisms Compensate for a Reduction in Blood Volume | 760 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 762 | ||
| Section 3: Patterns of Blood Flow | 763 | ||
| 19.14. New Blood Vessels Form Through Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis | 763 | ||
| 19.15. The Pulmonary Circuit Carries Deoxygenated Blood from the Right Ventricle to the Lungs and Returns Oxygenated Blood to the Left Atrium | 764 | ||
| 19.16. The Arteries and Veins of the Systemic Circuit Operate in Parallel, and the Major Vessels Often have Similar Names | 766 | ||
| 19.17. The Branches of the Aortic Arch Supply Structures that are Drained by the Superior Vena Cava | 768 | ||
| 19.18. The External Carotid Arteries Supply the Neck, Lower Jaw, and Face, and the Internal Carotid and Vertebral Arteries Supply the Brain While the External Jugular Veins Drain the Regions Supplied by the External Carotid Arteries, and the Internal Jugula | 770 | ||
| 19.19. The Internal Carotid Arteries and the Vertebral Arteries Supply the Brain Which is Drained by the Dural Sinuses and the Internal Jugular Veins | 772 | ||
| 19.20. The Regions Supplied by the Descending Aorta are Drained by the Superior and Inferior Venae Cavae | 774 | ||
| 19.21. The Viscera Supplied by the Celiac Trunk and Mesenteric Arteries are Drained by the Branches of the Hepatic Portal Vein | 776 | ||
| 19.22. The Pelvis and Lower Limbs are Supplied by Branches of the Common Iliac Arteries and Drained by Branches of the Common Iliac Veins | 778 | ||
| 19.23. The Arteries of the Systemic Circuit Deliver Oxygenated Blood Throughout the Body and the Veins of the Systemic Circuit Return Deoxygenated Blood Back to the Heart | 780 | ||
| 19.24. Clinical Module: The Pattern of Blood Flow Through the Fetal Heart and the Systemic Circuit Must Change at Birth | 782 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 784 | ||
| Chapter 19: Review | 785 | ||
| Study Outline | 785 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 790 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 791 | ||
| 20. The Lymphatic System and Immunity | 792 | ||
| Section 1: Anatomy of the Lymphatic System | 793 | ||
| 20.1. The Lymphatic System Consists of Lymphatic Vessels, Nodes, and Lymphoid Tissue | 793 | ||
| 20.2. Interstitial Fluid Flows Continuously into Lymphatic Capillaries and Exits Tissues as Lymph in Lymphatic Vessels | 794 | ||
| 20.3. Small Lymphatic Vessels Converge to Form Lymphatic Ducts that Empty into the Subclavian Veins | 796 | ||
| 20.4. Lymphocytes are Responsible for the Immune Functions of the Lymphatic System | 798 | ||
| 20.5. Lymphocytes Aggregate Within Lymphoid Tissues and Lymphoid Organs | 800 | ||
| 20.6. The Thymus is a Lymphoid Organ that Produces Functional T Cells | 802 | ||
| 20.7. The Spleen, the Largest Lymphoid Organ, Responds to Antigens in the Bloodstream | 804 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 806 | ||
| Section 2: Innate Immunity | 807 | ||
| 20.8. Innate Immunity is Nonspecific and is not Stimulated by Specific Antigens | 807 | ||
| 20.9. Physical Barriers Prevent Pathogens and Toxins from Entering Body Tissues | 808 | ||
| 20.10. Phagocytes Respond to Pathogen Invasion | 809 | ||
| 20.11. NK Cells Perform Immune Surveillance, Detecting and Destroying Abnormal Cells | 810 | ||
| 20.12. Interferons and the Complement System are Distributed Widely in Body Fluids | 812 | ||
| 20.13. Inflammation is a Localized Tissue Response to Injury; Fever is a Generalized Response to Tissue Damage and Infection | 814 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 816 | ||
| Section 3: Adaptive Immunity | 817 | ||
| 20.14. Adaptive Immunity Provides the Body’s Specific Defenses | 817 | ||
| 20.15. Adaptive Immunity is Triggered by Exposure of T Cells and B Cells to Specific Antigens | 818 | ||
| Smartart Video: The Immune Response | 819 | ||
| 20.16. Infected Cells Stimulate the Formation and Division of Cytotoxic T Cells, Memory Tc Cells, and Regulatory T Cells | 820 | ||
| 20.17. Antigen-Presenting Cells can Stimulate Activation of Cd4 T Cells, Producing Helper T Cells that Promote B Cell Activation and Antibody Production | 822 | ||
| 20.18. Antibodies are Small Soluble Proteins that Bind to Specific Antigens and Whose Abundance Increases Upon Later Antigen Exposure | 824 | ||
| 20.19. Antibodies Use Many Different Mechanisms to Destroy Target Antigens | 826 | ||
| 20.20. Clinical Module: Hypersensitivities are Abnormal Reactions to Antigens | 827 | ||
| 20.21. Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity Work Together to Defeat Pathogens | 828 | ||
| 20.22. Clinical Module: Immune Disorders Involving Either Overactivity or Underactivity can be Harmful | 830 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 832 | ||
| Chapter 20: Review | 833 | ||
| Study Outline | 833 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 836 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 837 | ||
| 21. The Respiratory System | 838 | ||
| Section 1: Anatomy of the Respiratory System | 839 | ||
| 21.1. The Respiratory System has an Upper and Lower Respiratory Tract with Different Functions | 839 | ||
| 21.2. The Respiratory Defense System Protects the Respiratory Mucosa | 840 | ||
| 21.3. The Upper Respiratory System Includes the Nose, Nasal Cavity, Paranasal Sinuses, and Pharynx | 842 | ||
| 21.4. The Larynx Protects the Glottis that Produces Sounds | 844 | ||
| 21.5. The Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchial Branches Convey Air to and from Lung Gas Exchange Surfaces | 846 | ||
| 21.6. The Lungs have Lobes that are Subdivided into Bronchopulmonary Segments | 848 | ||
| 21.7. Pulmonary Lobules Contain Alveoli, Where Gas Exchange Occurs | 850 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 852 | ||
| Section 2: Respiratory Physiology | 853 | ||
| 21.8. Respiratory Physiology Involves External and Internal Respiration | 853 | ||
| 21.9. Pulmonary Ventilation is Driven by Pressure Changes Within the Pleural Cavities | 854 | ||
| 21.10. Respiratory Muscles are Involved with Breathing, and Pulmonary Function Tests Determine Lung Performance | 856 | ||
| 21.11. Pulmonary Ventilation Must be Closely Regulated to Meet Tissue Oxygen Demands | 858 | ||
| 21.12. Gas Diffusion Depends on the Partial Pressures and Solubilities of Gases | 860 | ||
| Smartart Video: Partial Pressures and Gas Diffusion | 861 | ||
| 21.13. Almost All the Oxygen in Blood is Transported Bound to Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cells | 862 | ||
| 21.14. Carbon Dioxide is Transported Three Ways in the Bloodstream | 864 | ||
| 21.15. Clinical Module: Pulmonary Disease can Affect Both Lung Elasticity and Airflow | 866 | ||
| 21.16. Respiratory Control Mechanisms Involve Interacting Centers in the Brainstem | 868 | ||
| 21.17. Respiratory Reflexes Provide Rapid Automatic Adustments in Pulmonary Ventilation | 870 | ||
| 21.18. Clinical Module: Respiratory Function Decreases with Age; Smoking Makes Matters Worse | 872 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 874 | ||
| Chapter 21: Review | 875 | ||
| Study Outline | 875 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 878 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 879 | ||
| 22. The Digestive System | 880 | ||
| Section 1: Organization of the Digestive System | 881 | ||
| 22.1. The Digestive System Consists of the Digestive Tract and Accessory Organs | 881 | ||
| 22.2. The Digestive Tract is a Muscular Tube Lined by a Mucous Epithelium | 882 | ||
| 22.3. Smooth Muscle Tissue is Found Throughout the Body, But It Plays a Particularly Prominent Role in the Digestive Tract | 884 | ||
| 22.4. Smooth Muscle Contractions Produce Motility of the Digestive Tract and Local Factors Interact with Neural and Hormonal Mechanisms to Regulate Digestive Activities | 886 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 888 | ||
| Section 2: Digestive Tract | 889 | ||
| 22.5. The Digestive Tract Begins with the Mouth and Ends with the Anus | 889 | ||
| 22.6. The Oral Cavity is a Space that Contains the Tongue, Teeth, and Gums | 890 | ||
| 22.7. Teeth in Different Regions of the Jaws Vary in Size, Shape, and Function | 892 | ||
| 22.8. The Muscular Walls of the Pharynx and Esophagus Play a Key Role in Swallowing | 894 | ||
| 22.9. The Stomach and Most of the Intestinal Tract are Suspended by Mesenteries and Covered by the Peritoneum | 896 | ||
| 22.10. The Stomach is a Muscular, Expandable, J-Shaped Organ with Three Layers in the Muscular Layer | 898 | ||
| 22.11. The Stomach Receives Food and Liquids from the Esophagus and Aids in Mechanical and Chemical Digestion | 900 | ||
| 22.12. The Intestinal Tract is Specialized to Absorb Nutrients | 902 | ||
| 22.13. The Small Intestine is Divided into the Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum | 904 | ||
| 22.14. Several Hormones Regulate Digestion | 906 | ||
| 22.15. Central and Local Mechanisms Coordinate Gastric and Intestinal Activities | 908 | ||
| 22.16. The Large Intestine Stores and Concentrates Fecal Material | 910 | ||
| 22.17. The Large Intestine Compacts Fecal Material; the Defecation Reflex Coordinates the Elimination of Feces | 912 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 914 | ||
| Section 3: Accessory Digestive Organs | 915 | ||
| 22.18. Some Accessory Digestive Organs have Secretory Functions | 915 | ||
| 22.19. Saliva Lubricates, Moistens, and Protects the Mouth and Begins Carbohydrate Digestion | 916 | ||
| 22.20. The Liver, the Largest Visceral Organ, is Divided into Left, Right, Caudate, and Quadrate Lobes | 918 | ||
| 22.21. The Liver Tissues have an Extensive and Complex Blood Supply | 920 | ||
| Smartart Video: Structure and Function of the Liver Lobule | 921 | ||
| 22.22. The Gallbladder Stores and Concentrates Bile | 922 | ||
| 22.23. The Pancreas has Vital Endocrine and Exocrine Functions | 923 | ||
| 22.24. Clinical Module: Disorders of the Digestive System are Diverse and Relatively Common | 924 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 926 | ||
| Chapter 22: Review | 927 | ||
| Study Outline | 927 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 931 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 933 | ||
| 23. Metabolism, Nutrition, and Energetics | 934 | ||
| Section 1: Introduction to Cellular Metabolism | 935 | ||
| 23.1. Metabolism is the Sum of Catabolic and Anabolic Reactions | 935 | ||
| 23.2. Cells Use Nutrients from the Nutrient Pool for Metabolism | 936 | ||
| 23.3. Glycolysis is the First Step in Glucose Catabolism | 937 | ||
| 23.4. The Citric Acid Cycle Transfers Hydrogen Atoms to Coenzymes | 938 | ||
| 23.5. The Electron Transport Chain Establishes a Proton Gradient Used to Make ATP | 940 | ||
| 23.6. Glucose Catabolism Yields 30–32 ATP | 942 | ||
| 23.7. Nutrient Metabolism Follows Several Pathways | 943 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 944 | ||
| Section 2: Digestion and Metabolism of Organic Nutrients | 945 | ||
| 23.8. Digestion Involves a Series of Steps to Make Nutrients Available to the Body | 945 | ||
| 23.9. Carbohydrates are Usually the Preferred Substrates for Catabolism and ATP Production Under Resting Conditions | 946 | ||
| 23.10. Lipids Reach the Bloodstream in Chylomicrons; the Cholesterol is then Extracted and Released as Lipoproteins | 948 | ||
| 23.11. Fatty Acids can be Broken Down to Provide Energy or Converted to Other Lipids | 950 | ||
| 23.12. An Amino Acid not Needed for Protein Synthesis May be Broken Down or Converted to a Different Amino Acid | 952 | ||
| 23.13. There are Two General Patterns of Metabolic Activity: The Absorptive and Postabsorptive States | 954 | ||
| 23.14. Vitamins are Essential to the Function of Many Metabolic Pathways | 956 | ||
| 23.15. Proper Nutrition Depends on Eating a Balanced Diet | 958 | ||
| 23.16. Clinical Module: Metabolic Disorders May Result from Nutritional or Biochemical Problems | 960 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 962 | ||
| Section 3: Energetics and Thermoregulation | 963 | ||
| 23.17. Energetics is the Study of Energy Changes, and Thermoregulation Involves Heat Balance | 963 | ||
| 23.18. The Control of Appetite is Complex and Involves Both Short-Term and Long-Term Mechanisms | 964 | ||
| 23.19. to Maintain a Constant Body Temperature, Heat Gain and Heat Loss Must be in Balance | 965 | ||
| 23.20. Thermoregulatory Centers in the Hypothalamus Adjust Heat Loss and Heat Gain | 966 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 968 | ||
| Chapter 23: Review | 969 | ||
| Study Outline | 969 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 972 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 973 | ||
| 24. The Urinary System | 974 | ||
| Section 1: Anatomy of the Urinary System | 975 | ||
| 24.1. The Urinary System Organs are the Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra | 975 | ||
| 24.2. The Kidneys are Paired Retroperitoneal Organs | 976 | ||
| 24.3. The Kidneys are Complex at the Gross and Microscopic Levels | 978 | ||
| 24.4. A Nephron is Divided into Segments; Each Segment has Specific Functions | 980 | ||
| Smartart Video: Structure of the Nephron | 981 | ||
| 24.5. The Kidneys are Highly Vascular, and the Circulation Patterns are Complex | 982 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 984 | ||
| Section 2: Overview of Renal Physiology | 985 | ||
| 24.6. The Kidneys Maintain Homeostasis by Removing Wastes and Producing Urine | 985 | ||
| 24.7. Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion Occur in Specific Segments of the Nephron and Collecting System | 986 | ||
| 24.8. Filtration Occurs at the Renal Corpuscle | 988 | ||
| 24.9. The Glomerular Filtration Rate is the Amount of Filtrate Produced Each Minute | 990 | ||
| 24.10. Reabsorption Predominates Along the Proximal Convoluted Tubule, Whereas Reabsorption and Secretion are Often Linked Along the Distal Convoluted Tubule | 992 | ||
| 24.11. Exchange Between the Limbs of the Nephron Loop Creates an Osmotic Concentration Gradient in the Renal Medulla | 994 | ||
| 24.12. Urine Volume and Concentration are Hormonally Regulated | 996 | ||
| 24.13. Renal Function is an Integrative Process Involving Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion | 998 | ||
| 24.14. Clinical Module: Renal Failure is a Life-Threatening Condition | 1000 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 1002 | ||
| Section 3: Urine Storage and Elimination | 1003 | ||
| 24.15. The Urinary Tract Transports, Stores, and Eliminates Urine | 1003 | ||
| 24.16. The Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra are Specialized to Conduct Urine | 1004 | ||
| 24.17. Urinary Reflexes Coordinate Urine Storage and Voiding | 1006 | ||
| 24.18. Clinical Module: Urinary Disorders can Often be Detected by Physical Examinations and Laboratory Test | 1007 | ||
| Section 3: Review | 1008 | ||
| Chapter 24: Review | 1009 | ||
| Study Outline | 1009 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 1012 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 1013 | ||
| 25. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance | 1014 | ||
| Section 1: Fluid and Electrolyte Balance | 1015 | ||
| 25.1. Body Composition May be Viewed in Terms of Solids and Two Fluid Compartments | 1015 | ||
| 25.2. Fluid Balance Exists when Water Gain Equals Water Loss | 1016 | ||
| 24.3. Mineral Balance Involves Balancing Electrolyte Gain and Loss | 1018 | ||
| 25.4. Water Balance Depends on Sodium Balance, and the Two are Regulated Simultaneously | 1020 | ||
| 25.5. Clinical Module: Disturbances of Potassium Balance are Uncommon But Extremely Dangerous | 1022 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 1024 | ||
| Section 2: Acid-Base Balance | 1025 | ||
| 25.6. There are Three Categories of Acids in the Body | 1025 | ||
| 25.7. Potentially Dangerous Disturbances in Acid-Base Balance are Opposed by Buffer Systems | 1026 | ||
| 25.8. Buffer Systems can Delay, But not Prevent, pH Shifts in the ICF and ECF | 1028 | ||
| 25.9. The Homeostatic Responses to Metabolic Acidosis and Alkalosis Involve Respiratory and Renal Mechanisms as Well as Buffer Systems | 1030 | ||
| 25.10. Clinical Module: Respiratory Acid-Base Disorders are the Most Common Challenges to Acid-Base Balance | 1032 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 1034 | ||
| Chapter 25: Review | 1035 | ||
| Study Outline | 1035 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 1037 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 1039 | ||
| 26. The Reproductive System | 1040 | ||
| Section 1: Male Reproductive System | 1041 | ||
| 26.1. Male Reproductive Structures Include the External Genitalia and Internal Genitalia | 1041 | ||
| 26.2. Sperm Transport Relies on Ducts, Glands, and Related Structures of the Scrotum and Testes | 1042 | ||
| 26.3. Spermatogenesis Occurs in the Testes and Produces Mature Sperm | 1044 | ||
| 26.4. Meiosis and Early Spermiogenesis Occur Within the Seminiferous Tubules | 1046 | ||
| 26.5. The Male Reproductive Tract Receives Secretions from the Seminal, Prostate, and Bulbo-Urethral Glands | 1048 | ||
| 26.6. The Penis Conducts Urine and Semen to the Exterior | 1050 | ||
| 26.7. Testosterone Plays a Key Role in Establishing and Maintaining Male Sexual Function | 1052 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 1054 | ||
| Section 2: Female Reproductive System | 1055 | ||
| 26.8. Female Reproductive Structures Include the External Genitalia and Internal Genitalia | 1055 | ||
| 26.9. Major Female Reproductive Organs are the Ovaries, Uterus, and their Associated Structures | 1056 | ||
| 26.10. Oogenesis Occurs in the Ovaries, and Ovulation Occurs During the 28-Day Ovarian Cycle | 1058 | ||
| 26.11. The Uterine Tubes are Connected to the Uterus, a Hollow Organ with Thick Muscular Walls | 1060 | ||
| 26.12. The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle Involves Changes in the Functional Layer of the Endometrium | 1062 | ||
| 26.13. The Vagina Opens into the Vestibule | 1064 | ||
| 26.14. Each Breast Contains a Mammary Gland that Secretes Milk | 1065 | ||
| 26.15. The Ovarian and Uterine Cycles are Regulated by Hormones of the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and Ovaries | 1066 | ||
| 26.16. Clinical Module: Birth Control Strategies Vary in Effectiveness and Associated Risks | 1068 | ||
| 26.17. Clinical Module: Reproductive System Disorders are Relatively Common and Often Deadly | 1070 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 1072 | ||
| Chapter 26: Review | 1073 | ||
| Study Outline | 1073 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 1076 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 1077 | ||
| 27. Development and Inheritance | 1078 | ||
| Section 1: Overview of Development | 1079 | ||
| 27.1. Gestation and Development are Marked by Various Stages | 1079 | ||
| 27.2. At Fertilization, an Ovum and a Sperm Form a Zygote that Prepares for Cell Division | 1080 | ||
| 27.3. Cleavage Continues Until the Blastocyst Implants in the Uterine Wall | 1082 | ||
| 27.4. Gastrulation Produces Three Germ Layers: Ectoderm, Endoderm, and Mesoderm | 1084 | ||
| 27.5. The Extra-Embryonic Membranes Form the Placenta that Supports Fetal Growth and Development | 1086 | ||
| 27.6. The Formation of Extra-Embryonic Membranes is Associated with Major Changes in the Shape and Complexity of the Embryo | 1088 | ||
| 27.7. The Placenta Performs Many Vital Functions During Prenatal Development | 1090 | ||
| 27.8. Organ Systems Form in the First Trimester and Become Functional in the Second and Third Trimesters | 1092 | ||
| 27.9. Pregnancy Places Anatomical and Physiological Stresses on Maternal Systems | 1094 | ||
| 27.10. Multiple Factors Initiate and Accelerate Labor and Delivery | 1096 | ||
| 27.11. After Delivery, Development Initially Requires Nourishment by Maternal Systems | 1098 | ||
| 27.12. Postnatal Development Includes Five Life Stages | 1099 | ||
| 27.13. At Puberty, Male and Female Sex Hormones have Differing Effects on Most Body Systems | 1100 | ||
| Section 1: Review | 1102 | ||
| Section 2: Genetics and Inheritance | 1103 | ||
| 27.14. A Person May be Described in Terms of Genotype and Phenotype | 1103 | ||
| 27.15. Genes and Chromosomes Determine Patterns of Inheritance | 1104 | ||
| 27.16. There are Several Different Patterns of Inheritance | 1106 | ||
| 27.17. Clinical Module: Many Clinical Disorders are Linked to Individual Chromosomes or their Genes | 1108 | ||
| Section 2: Review | 1110 | ||
| Chapter 27: Review | 1111 | ||
| Study Outline | 1111 | ||
| Chapter Review Questions | 1114 | ||
| Chapter Integration | 1115 | ||
| Appendix | 1117 | ||
| Answers | 1121 | ||
| Glossary | 1175 | ||
| Credits | 1191 | ||
| Index | 1195 | ||
| Back Cover | Back Cover |