BOOK
Recent Developments in Forward Osmosis Processes
Rodrigo Valladares Linares | Zhenyu Li | Menachem Elimelech | Gary Amy | Hans Vrouwenvelder
(2017)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Forward osmosis (FO) is an emerging membrane technology with a range of possible water treatment applications (desalination and wastewater treatment and recovery).
Recent Developments in Forward Osmosis Processes provides an overview of applications, advantages, challenges, costs and current knowledge gaps. Commercial technology, hybrid FO systems for both desalination and water recovery applications have shown to have higher capital cost compared to conventional technologies. Nevertheless, due to the demonstrated lower operational costs of hybrid FO systems, the unit cost for each m3 of fresh water produced with the FO system are lower than conventional desalination/water recovery technologies (i.e. ultrafiltration/RO systems).
There are key benefits of using FO hybrid systems compared to RO:
• chemical storage and feed systems may be reduced for capital, operational and maintenance cost savings,
• reduced process piping costs,
• more flexible treatment units,
• higher overall sustainability of the desalination process, while producing high quality water.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| Additional Image credits | xiii | ||
| List of Contributors | xv | ||
| Preface | xvii | ||
| Summary | xix | ||
| Part 1: Introduction | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1.1: Population distribution and water scarcity | 3 | ||
| 1.1.1 OSMOTIC MEMBRANE PROCESSES | 5 | ||
| 1.1.2 FORWARD OSMOSIS (FO) | 6 | ||
| 1.1.3 FO SYSTEM FOR WASTEWATER RECOVERY AND SEAWATER DESALINATION | 8 | ||
| 1.1.4 CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION IN FO MEMBRANES | 9 | ||
| 1.1.5 FO MEMBRANE FOULING | 10 | ||
| 1.1.6 ENERGY DEMAND IN DESALINATION AND WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES | 11 | ||
| 1.1.7 SCOPE AND OUTLINE | 11 | ||
| 1.1.8 REFERENCES | 13 | ||
| Part 2: Water Recovery | 17 | ||
| Chapter 2.1: The management of urban runoff in coastal regions | 19 | ||
| 2.1.1 INTRODUCTION | 19 | ||
| 2.1.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS | 22 | ||
| 2.1.2.1 Synthetic urban runoff and seawater | 22 | ||
| 2.1.2.2 FO membrane and simulated osmotic detention pond | 22 | ||
| 2.1.2.3 Analytical methods | 24 | ||
| 2.1.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 25 | ||
| 2.1.3.1 Effects of feed water condition on flux patterns | 25 | ||
| 2.1.3.2 Salt leakage and NOM fouling | 27 | ||
| 2.1.3.3 Rejection of trace metals and nutrients | 29 | ||
| 2.1.3.4 Environmental and economic implications | 31 | ||
| 2.1.4 SUMMARY | 32 | ||
| 2.1.5 REFERENCES | 33 | ||
| Chapter 2.2: Water harvesting from municipal wastewater | 37 | ||
| 2.2.1 INTRODUCTION | 37 | ||
| 2.2.2 EXPERIMENTAL | 39 | ||
| 2.2.2.1 Feed water and draw solution | 39 | ||
| 2.2.2.2 FO membrane and experimental set-up | 40 | ||
| 2.2.2.3 Analytical methods | 40 | ||
| 2.2.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 41 | ||
| 2.2.3.1 Flux patterns | 41 | ||
| 2.2.3.2 Salt leakage and retention of nutrients and trace metals | 42 | ||
| 2.2.3.3 Fouling characterization and osmotic backwash | 46 | ||
| 2.2.4 SUMMARY | 48 | ||
| 2.2.5 REFERENCES | 48 | ||
| Chapter 2.3: Indirect desalination of seawater | 53 | ||
| 2.3.1 INTRODUCTION | 53 | ||
| 2.3.2 MATERIALS, METHODS AND EXPERIMENTAL | 54 | ||
| 2.3.2.1 Membranes and equipment | 54 | ||
| 2.3.2.2 Draw solution and feed water | 55 | ||
| 2.3.2.3 Experimental protocol | 55 | ||
| 2.3.3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND | 56 | ||
| 2.3.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 58 | ||
| 2.3.4.1 Feed water and draw solution characterization | 58 | ||
| 2.3.4.2 Long-term forward osmosis experiments | 60 | ||
| 2.3.5 ENERGY, COST AND WATER REUSE CONSIDERATIONS | 63 | ||
| 2.3.5.1 Comparison of energy use | 63 | ||
| 2.3.5.2 Cost analysis | 64 | ||
| 2.3.5.3 Alternative water reuse of diluted draw solutions | 66 | ||
| 2.3.6 SUMMARY | 66 | ||
| 2.3.7 REFERENCES | 67 | ||
| Part 3: Fouling | 69 | ||
| Chapter 3.1: Fouling propensity during desalination of seawater | 71 | ||
| 3.1.1 INTRODUCTION | 71 | ||
| 3.1.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS | 73 | ||
| 3.1.2.1 Feed and draw solution | 73 | ||
| 3.1.2.2 Forward osmosis set-up and fouling tests | 74 | ||
| 3.1.2.3 Analytical methods | 76 | ||
| 3.1.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 76 | ||
| 3.1.3.1 Flux patterns during FO | 76 | ||
| 3.1.3.2 Identification of major foulants | 80 | ||
| 3.1.3.3 Salt and foulant rejection | 85 | ||
| 3.1.4 SUMMARY | 86 | ||
| 3.1.5 REFERENCES | 87 | ||
| Chapter 3.2: NOM and TEP fouling | 91 | ||
| 3.2.1 INTRODUCTION | 91 | ||
| 3.2.2 EXPERIMENTAL | 92 | ||
| 3.2.2.1 FO membranes and cell configuration | 92 | ||
| 3.2.2.2 Water samples | 93 | ||
| 3.2.2.3 FO membrane fouling procedure | 93 | ||
| 3.2.2.4 NOM characterization | 95 | ||
| 3.2.2.5 FO membrane cleaning | 96 | ||
| 3.2.2.5.1 Air scouring cleaning | 96 | ||
| 3.2.2.5.2 Chemical cleaning | 96 | ||
| 3.2.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 97 | ||
| 3.2.3.1 FO membrane process | 97 | ||
| 3.2.3.2 Fouling of the active layer of FO membrane | 98 | ||
| 3.2.3.3 Fouling of the support layer of FO membrane | 101 | ||
| 3.2.3.4 Cleaning of the FO membrane – active layer | 103 | ||
| 3.2.3.5 Cleaning of the FO membrane – support layer | 104 | ||
| 3.2.4 SUMMARY | 104 | ||
| 3.2.5 REFERENCES | 105 | ||
| Chapter 3.3: Draw solute induced calcium carbonate scaling | 107 | ||
| 3.3.1 INTRODUCTION | 107 | ||
| 3.3.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS | 108 | ||
| 3.3.2.1 FS, DS and FO set-up | 108 | ||
| 3.3.2.2 FO membrane, and the measurement of intrinsic permeability and separation properties | 109 | ||
| 3.3.2.3 Experimental protocol for FO testing | 109 | ||
| 3.3.2.4 Analytical methods | 110 | ||
| 3.3.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 110 | ||
| 3.3.3.1 Characterization of FO membrane | 110 | ||
| 3.3.3.2 Water and reverse solute flux | 112 | ||
| 3.3.3.3 Characterization of scaling in seawater desalination using NH3/CO2 FO process | 114 | ||
| 3.3.3.4 Reversibility of scaling and recovery of permeate water flux by hydraulic flushing | 117 | ||
| 3.3.3.5 Mechanism of scaling formation in seawater desalination using NH3/CO2 FO process | 117 | ||
| 3.3.4 SUMMARY | 121 | ||
| 3.3.5 REFERENCES | 122 | ||
| Chapter 3.4: Impact of spacer thickness on biofouling in forward osmosis | 125 | ||
| 3.4.1 INTRODUCTION | 125 | ||
| 3.4.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS | 126 | ||
| 3.4.2.1 Membrane, spacers and cell configuration | 126 | ||
| 3.4.2.2 Water sources | 127 | ||
| 3.4.2.3 Biofilm formation | 129 | ||
| 3.4.2.4 Analytical methods | 129 | ||
| 3.4.3 RESULTS | 130 | ||
| 3.4.3.1 Effect of spacer thickness on performance | 130 | ||
| 3.4.3.2 Effect of spacer thickness on biomass accumulation | 132 | ||
| 3.4.3.3 Effect of spacer thickness on fouling localization | 134 | ||
| 3.4.3.4 Effect of spacer thickness on fouling composition | 134 | ||
| 3.4.4 DISCUSSION | 136 | ||
| 3.4.4.1 Thickest spacer provides the best performance | 136 | ||
| 3.4.4.2 FO and RO show similar biofouling patterns | 137 | ||
| 3.4.4.3 Future studies | 138 | ||
| 3.4.5 SUMMARY | 138 | ||
| 3.4.6 REFERENCES | 139 | ||
| Chapter 3.5: Effect of cleaning methods to remove organic fouling | 143 | ||
| 3.5.1 INTRODUCTION | 143 | ||
| 3.5.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS | 143 | ||
| 3.5.3 RESULTS | 145 | ||
| 3.5.4 SUMMARY | 146 | ||
| 3.5.5 REFERENCES | 147 | ||
| Part 4: Rejection of Pollutants | 149 | ||
| Chapter 4.1: Rejection of micropollutants by FO membranes | 151 | ||
| 4.1.1 INTRODUCTION | 151 | ||
| 4.1.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS | 152 | ||
| 4.1.2.1 FO membrane | 152 | ||
| 4.1.2.2 RO membrane | 153 | ||
| 4.1.2.3 Source waters | 153 | ||
| 4.1.2.4 Experimental setup and procedure | 153 | ||
| 4.1.2.5 Micropollutants stock preparation and analyses | 154 | ||
| 4.1.2.6 FO membrane characterization | 156 | ||
| 4.1.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 156 | ||
| 4.1.3.1 Zeta potential and contact angle | 156 | ||
| 4.1.3.2 Rejection of micropollutants by FO | 157 | ||
| 4.1.4 SUMMARY | 162 | ||
| 4.1.5 REFERENCES | 162 | ||
| Chapter 4.2: Rejection of boron | 165 | ||
| 4.2.1 INTRODUCTION | 165 | ||
| 4.2.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS | 166 | ||
| 4.2.2.1 FO membranes | 166 | ||
| 4.2.2.2 Experimental setup and procedure | 167 | ||
| 4.2.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 167 | ||
| 4.2.3.1 Membrane characterization | 168 | ||
| 4.2.3.2 Membrane performance | 169 | ||
| 4.2.3.2.1 Water flux | 169 | ||
| 4.2.3.2.2 Draw solute rejection | 170 | ||
| 4.2.3.3 Boron flux | 171 | ||
| 4.2.4 SUMMARY | 173 | ||
| 4.2.5 REFERENCES | 173 | ||
| Part 5: Draw Solution and Membranes | 175 | ||
| Chapter 5.1: Draw solution | 177 | ||
| 5.1.1 INTRODUCTION | 177 | ||
| 5.1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF FO PROCESSES | 179 | ||
| 5.1.3 IDEAL DRAW SOLUTION FOR THE FO PROCESS | 182 | ||
| 5.1.4 LITERATURE REVIEW ABOUT DRAW SOLUTIONS | 184 | ||
| 5.1.4.1 Commercially available compounds as draw solutes | 184 | ||
| 5.1.4.1.1 Volatile compounds | 184 | ||
| 5.1.4.1.2 Nutrient compounds | 190 | ||
| 5.1.4.1.3 Inorganic salts | 191 | ||
| 5.1.4.1.4 Organic salts | 194 | ||
| 5.1.4.2 Synthetic materials as draw solutes | 195 | ||
| 5.1.5 APPLICATIONS OF TYPICAL DRAW SOLUTIONS IN INTEGRATED FO PROCESSES | 198 | ||
| 5.1.5.1 Seawater desalination | 198 | ||
| 5.1.5.2 Wastewater reclamation | 200 | ||
| 5.1.5.3 Protein enrichment | 201 | ||
| 5.1.5.4 Power regeneration | 202 | ||
| 5.1.6 CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE | 203 | ||
| 5.1.7 SUMMARY | 205 | ||
| 5.1.8 NOMENCLATURE | 205 | ||
| 5.1.8.1 Greek symbols | 206 | ||
| 5.1.9 REFERENCES | 206 | ||
| Chapter 5.2: Cellulose acetate membrane: minimized internal concentration polarization | 215 | ||
| 5.2.1 INTRODUCTION | 215 | ||
| 5.2.2 EXPERIMENTAL | 217 | ||
| 5.2.2.1 Materials | 217 | ||
| 5.2.2.2 Membrane preparation | 218 | ||
| 5.2.2.3 Forward osmosis and fouling tests | 218 | ||
| 5.2.2.4 Pure water permeability, salt rejection and salt permeability tests | 219 | ||
| 5.2.2.5 Pore size and pore size distribution | 219 | ||
| 5.2.2.6 Water contact angle | 220 | ||
| 5.2.2.7 Porosity P | 220 | ||
| 5.2.2.8 Field emission scanning electronic microscopy (FESEM) | 221 | ||
| 5.2.2.9 Atomic force microscope (AFM) | 221 | ||
| 5.2.2.10 Positron annihilation spectroscopy (PAS) | 221 | ||
| 5.2.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 222 | ||
| 5.2.3.1 Morphology influenced by different substrates and phase inversion conditions | 222 | ||
| 5.2.3.2 Morphology characterized by PALS | 226 | ||
| 5.2.3.3 Pore size and pore size distribution | 227 | ||
| 5.2.3.4 PWP, NaCl rejection and FO performance of different membranes | 228 | ||
| 5.2.3.5 Modeling of FO performance and structural parameter St | 232 | ||
| 5.2.3.6 Single vs. double dense-layer structure in the FO-MBR integrated system | 238 | ||
| 5.2.4 SUMMARY | 240 | ||
| 5.2.5 REFERENCES | 240 | ||
| Part 6: Modeling | 245 | ||
| Chapter 6.1: Modeling water flux | 247 | ||
| 6.1.1 INTRODUCTION | 247 | ||
| 6.1.2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR PERMEATE FLUX | 249 | ||
| 6.1.2.1 External concentration polarization | 249 | ||
| 6.1.2.2 Internal concentration polarization | 251 | ||
| 6.1.2.3 Model parameters | 253 | ||
| 6.1.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 253 | ||
| 6.1.3.1 Dense symmetric membrane | 254 | ||
| 6.1.3.2 Asymmetric membrane in PRO mode | 255 | ||
| 6.1.3.3 Asymmetric membrane in FO mode | 258 | ||
| 6.1.3.4 Implications for improved membrane design | 261 | ||
| 6.1.4 SUMMARY | 263 | ||
| 6.1.5 REFERENCES | 263 | ||
| Chapter 6.2: Biofouling in FO systems: An experimental and numerical study | 265 | ||
| 6.2.1 INTRODUCTION | 265 | ||
| 6.2.2 EXPERIMENTAL | 267 | ||
| 6.2.2.1 Experimental setup | 267 | ||
| 6.2.2.2 Model description | 268 | ||
| 6.2.2.2.1 Model geometry | 268 | ||
| 6.2.2.2.2 Fluid flow | 269 | ||
| 6.2.2.2.3 Salt transport | 272 | ||
| 6.2.2.2.4 Biofilm development | 273 | ||
| 6.2.2.2.5 Model solution | 274 | ||
| 6.2.2.2.6 Simulation of batch operation | 274 | ||
| 6.2.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 274 | ||
| 6.2.3.1 Evaluation of the forward osmosis model | 275 | ||
| 6.2.3.1.1 Water flux increase with increasing osmotic pressure | 275 | ||
| 6.2.3.1.2 Flux decline in batch experiments | 275 | ||
| 6.2.3.1.3 Flux decline in repeated batch studies with biofilm formation | 276 | ||
| 6.2.3.2 Biofilm effect on FO performance | 278 | ||
| 6.2.3.2.1 Impact of biofilm on water flux and concentration polarization | 278 | ||
| 6.2.3.2.2 Effect of biofilm properties | 280 | ||
| 6.2.3.2.3 Biofilm roughness and membrane surface coverage | 282 | ||
| 6.2.3.2.4 Impact of biofilm location on flux | 283 | ||
| 6.2.4 SUMMARY | 286 | ||
| 6.2.5 REFERENCES | 286 | ||
| Part 7: Outlook | 291 | ||
| Chapter 7.1: Emerging applications for greater sustainability | 293 | ||
| 7.1.1 INTRODUCTION | 293 | ||
| 7.1.2 OSMOTIC DILUTION FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION | 294 | ||
| 7.1.3 OSMOSIS ENGINEERED FOR PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT | 297 | ||
| 7.1.4 MEMBRANES AT SEA: FUEL FROM WASTE | 299 | ||
| 7.1.5 OSMOTIC AUGMENTATION OF WATER RESOURCES FOR AGRICULTURE | 301 | ||
| 7.1.6 OUTLOOK | 303 | ||
| 7.1.7 SUMMARY | 304 | ||
| 7.1.8 REFERENCES | 304 | ||
| Chapter 7.2: Life cycle cost assessment | 307 | ||
| 7.2.1 INTRODUCTION | 307 | ||
| 7.2.2 METHODOLOGY | 310 | ||
| 7.2.2.1 Life cycle cost methodology | 310 | ||
| 7.2.2.2 Technologies analyzed | 311 | ||
| 7.2.2.3 OPEX and CAPEX calculations | 312 | ||
| 7.2.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | 315 | ||
| 7.2.3.1 Life cycle cost analysis and sensitivity evaluation | 315 | ||
| 7.2.3.1.1 OPEX and CAPEX: total cost comparison | 315 | ||
| 7.2.3.1.2 Sensitivity analysis based on FO membrane flux and module cost | 317 | ||
| 7.2.3.2 Biogas production | 321 | ||
| 7.2.3.3 Water quality versus public perception | 322 | ||
| 7.2.3.4 Wastewater recovery and reuse: successful projects | 324 | ||
| 7.2.3.5 Co-location | 325 | ||
| 7.2.4 SUMMARY | 325 | ||
| 7.2.5 REFERENCES | 326 | ||
| Chapter 7.3: Niches in seawater desalination and wastewater reuse | 331 | ||
| 7.3.1 INTRODUCTION | 331 | ||
| 7.3.1.1 Increasing need for fresh water along coasts | 331 | ||
| 7.3.1.2 Current membrane systems in the water industry: reverse osmosis | 331 | ||
| 7.3.1.3 Forward osmosis hybrid systems: an opportunity | 332 | ||
| 7.3.2 DESALINATION APPLICATIONS | 334 | ||
| 7.3.2.1 Direct desalination | 334 | ||
| 7.3.2.2 Indirect desalination | 339 | ||
| 7.3.3 IMPAIRED-QUALITY WATER TREATMENT AND REUSE APPLICATIONS | 342 | ||
| 7.3.3.1 Water harvesting from municipal wastewater | 342 | ||
| 7.3.3.2 Industrial wastewater reclamation and reuse | 348 | ||
| 7.3.3.3 Other applications for impaired-quality water treatment | 349 | ||
| 7.3.4 ENERGY AND ECONOMICS OF FO SYSTEMS | 350 | ||
| 7.3.5 PRESSURE RETARDED OSMOSIS: SPECIAL FO APPLICATION FOR ENERGY RECOVERY IN WATER INDUSTRY | 352 | ||
| 7.3.5.1 Generating power with PRO | 352 | ||
| 7.3.5.2 Large-scale applications of PRO | 354 | ||
| 7.3.5.3 PRO membranes | 356 | ||
| 7.3.6 MAJOR CHALLENGES FOR COMMERCIALIZATION | 357 | ||
| 7.3.7 SUMMARY | 359 | ||
| 7.3.8 REFERENCES | 360 | ||
| Supplementary material | 369 | ||
| Chapter 2.1 | 369 | ||
| Chapter 3.1 | 370 | ||
| Chapter 3.3 | 370 | ||
| Index | 371 |