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Innovative Wastewater Treatment & Resource Recovery Technologies: Impacts on Energy, Economy and Environment

BOOK

Innovative Wastewater Treatment & Resource Recovery Technologies: Impacts on Energy, Economy and Environment

Juan M. Lema | Sonia Suarez Martinez

(2017)

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Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN
978-1-78040-787-6
Edition
1
Language
English
Pages
690
Subjects
The environment
Environmental science, engineering & technology
Water supply & treatment

Abstract

This book introduces the 3R concept applied to wastewater treatment and resource recovery under a double perspective. Firstly, it deals with innovative technologies leading to: Reducing energy requirements, space and impacts; Reusing water and sludge of sufficient quality; and Recovering resources such as energy, nutrients, metals and chemicals, including biopolymers. Besides targeting effective C,N&P removal, other issues such as organic micropollutants, gases and odours emissions are considered. Most of the technologies analysed have been tested at pilot- or at full-scale. Tools and methods for their Economic, Environmental, Legal and Social impact assessment are described. The 3R concept is also applied to Innovative Processes design, considering different levels of innovation: Retrofitting, where novel units are included in more conventional processes; Re-Thinking, which implies a substantial flowsheet modification; and Re-Imagining, with completely new conceptions. Tools are presented for Modelling, Optimising and Selecting the most suitable plant layout for each particular scenario from a holistic technical, economic and environmental point of view.

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Cover Cover
Contents v
List of contributors xix
About the editors xxix
Preface xxxi
Part 1: Reducing Requirements and Impacts 1
Part 1a: Reducing Energy Requirements 1
Chapter 1: Nutrient removal 3
1.1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1.1 Nutrient management regulation and implications on energy consumptions 3
1.1.2 Biological Nutrients Removal processes: microbial and energy overview 5
1.2 REDUCING ENERGY FOOTPRINT NOW, BY RETROFITTING 8
1.2.1 Sidestream technologies/systems 8
1.2.1.1 ELAN system: Pilot study and full scale retrofitting 8
1.2.1.2 Attached growth biofilm (RBC-MBBR) pilot study and full scale retrofitting 10
1.2.1.3 Short-Cut Enhanced Nutrient Abatement (S.C.E.N.A): pilot study and full scale retrofitting 12
1.2.2 Mainstream technologies/systems 15
1.2.2.1 Innovative (anoxic) BNR (BioP) including control automation 15
1.2.2.2 Ion exchange for P recovery: pilot study and full scale retrofitting 17
1.2.2.3 Via-nitrite mainstream biological nitrogen removal 18
1.3 REDUCING ENERGY FOOTPRINT TOMORROW BY RE-THINKING 19
1.3.1 Mainstream systems 19
1.3.1.1 Systems with AnAmmOx for mainstream application: pilot scale results and full scale perspective 19
1.3.1.2 AnoxAn: A novel anaerobic-anoxic reactor for biological nutrient removal 22
1.3.1.3 Domestic wastewater treatment with purple phototrophic bacteria 26
1.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS 28
1.5 REFERENCES 33
Chapter 2: Anaerobic treatment of municipal wastewater 40
2.1 INTRODUCTION 40
2.1.1 Energy nexus: Is anaerobic treatment a feasible way for municipal wastewater? 41
2.2 ANAEROBIC REACTOR TYPES FOR MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT 42
2.2.1 Anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) 42
2.2.2 Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket Reactor (UASB) 45
2.2.3 Expanded granular sludge bed reactor (EGSB) 46
2.2.4 Anaerobic sequencing batch reactor (ASBR) 46
2.2.5 Anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) 47
2.2.6 Full scale applications 47
2.2.7 Pilot scale applications 48
2.2.8 Different lab-scale options – immobilization 51
2.3 MODELING OF ANAEROBIC TREATMENT SYSTEMS 52
2.3.1 Review of models 52
2.3.2 Model selection for a given application 53
2.4 PROBLEMS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 54
2.4.1 Problems 54
2.4.2 Suggestions 55
2.4.2.1 Source separation and anaerobic treatment of black water stream 55
2.4.2.2 A hybrid system: algae combined with anaerobic digester 56
2.5 FUTURE ASPECTS 56
2.6 CONCLUSIONS 57
2.7 REFERENCES 57
Chapter 3: Resource recovery from source separated domestic wastewater; energy, water, nutrients and organics 61
3.1 INTRODUCTION 61
3.2 RESOURCES AND POLLUTANTS IN DOMESTIC WASTEWATER 61
3.3 ANAEROBIC TREATMENT CORE TECHNOLOGY IN ‘NEW SANITATION’ 62
3.3.1 Organic sludge and heavy metals 62
3.3.2 Recovery of phosphorus during or after UASB treatment? 63
3.3.3 Removal or recovery of nitrogen? 63
3.4 REMOVAL OF MICROPOLLUTANTS FROM BLACK AND GREY WATER 64
3.5 MULTI-CRITERIA ASSESSMENT ON ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS IN NEW SANITATION 66
3.6 NEW SANITATION IN PRACTICE IN THE NETHERLANDS 69
3.7 CONCLUSIONS 73
3.8 REFERENCES 73
Chapter 4: Wastewater treatment in algal systems 76
4.1 INTRODUCTION 76
4.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROALGAE BASED SYSTEMS 77
4.2.1 Photosynthetic aeration, symbiosis and algal-bacterial interactions 77
4.2.2 Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous removal mechanisms 80
4.2.3 Strain selection 81
4.2.4 Influence of environmental parameters 82
4.3 MICROALGAE BASED SYSTEMS USED FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT 83
4.3.1 Bioreactors 83
4.3.2 CO2 addition, implications in the process 85
4.3.3 Harvesting of biomass 86
4.4 CONSIDERATIONS FOR A REAL SCALE INSTALLATION 89
4.5 CONCLUSIONS 91
4.6 REFERENCES 92
Chapter 5: Niches for bioelectrochemical systems in sewage treatment plants 96
5.1 INTRODUCTION 96
5.1.1 Microbial fuel cells 97
5.1.2 Microbial electrolysis cell 97
5.2 BES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS 98
5.2.1 Bioelectricity production 98
5.2.2 Bioelectrochemical hydrogen production in WWTP 100
5.2.3 Bioelectrochemical denitrification in WWTPs 102
5.2.3.1 Nitrogen removal in WWTPs using BES 102
5.2.3.2 Nitrogen recovery in WWTPs using BES 103
5.3 CONCLUSIONS 105
5.4 REFERENCES 106
Part 1b: Reducing Space 109
Chapter 6: Aerobic granular sludge reactors 111
6.1 INTRODUCTION 111
6.2 APPLICATIONS OF AEROBIC GRANULATION 112
6.2.1 Industrial wastewater treatment 112
6.2.2 Municipal wastewater treatment 114
6.2.3 Toxic compounds degradation and biosorption of dyestuffs and heavy metals 114
6.3 SCALE-UP: FROM THE LAB TO FULL SCALE 116
6.4 CRITICAL ASPECTS 119
6.5 MODELLING GRANULAR SLUDGE REACTORS 121
6.5.1 Bioconversion processes 121
6.5.2 Intragranule heterogeneity 122
6.5.3 Intergranule heterogeneity 123
6.5.4 Flow patterns inside the bulk fluid 124
6.6 CONCLUSIONS 124
6.7 REFERENCES 125
Chapter 7: Membranes in wastewater treatment 129
7.1 INTRODUCTION 129
7.1.1 MBR’s when does it make sense? 129
7.1.2 Energy demand reduction 129
7.1.3 Enhanced nutrients and/or refractory compounds removal 130
7.1.4 Synergistic effects utilization 130
7.2 INNOVATIVE USE OF MEMBRANES IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT 131
7.2.1 Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactors 131
7.2.1.1 Feasibility for the treatment of different wastewater streams 132
7.2.1.2 Barriers for widespread application 132
7.2.1.3 Membrane fouling 132
7.2.1.4 Fouling mitigation 133
7.2.1.5 Mathematical modelling 133
7.2.1.6 Life Cycle Cost (LCC) 134
7.2.1.7 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 134
7.2.1.8 Challenges and future perspectives for the use of AnMBRs 135
7.2.2 Membranes for gas transfer 135
7.2.2.1 Into what is different about membranes for gas transferring 135
7.2.2.2 Types of membranes and configurations 137
7.2.2.3 Potential advantageous uses of gas transferring membranes in an WWTP 137
7.2.2.4 Challenges in the use of gas transferring membranes 138
7.2.3 Microbial Desalination Cells (MDC) – anionic and cationic exchange membranes 139
7.2.3.1 Principles and operation of MDCs 140
7.2.3.2 Performance of MDCs 141
7.2.3.3 Anionic and Cationic exchange membranes 142
7.2.3.4 Challenges and future perspectives for the use of MFC’s 144
7.3 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES 145
7.4 REFERENCES 150
Chapter 8: Enhanced primary treatment 155
8.1 INTRODUCTION 155
8.2 ENHANCED, HIGH-RATE PRIMARY TREATMENT 156
8.2.1 Chemically enhanced primary treatment 156
8.2.2 Microscreen-based technologies 157
8.2.2.1 Rotating belt filters 157
8.2.2.2 Rotating drum filters 158
8.2.2.3 Rotating disc filters 159
8.2.3 Vortex-based technologies 159
8.2.4 Inclined-surface settlers 160
8.3 PLANT-WIDE IMPACT OF ENHANCED PRIMARY PROCESSES 165
8.3.1 Impact on secondary stage aeration demand 165
8.3.2 Impact on production, properties, and anaerobic degradability of sludge 165
8.3.3 Impact on nutrient removal 168
8.3.4 Impact on power consumption and greenhouse gas emissions 168
8.3.4.1 Calculation assumptions: 169
8.4 MINI-ASSESSMENT 174
8.5 REFERENCES 174
Part 1c: Reducing Impacts 177
Chapter 9: Innovative primary and secondary sewage treatment technologies for organic micropollutants abatement 179
9.1 INTRODUCTION 179
9.2 ENHANCEMENT OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SEWAGE TREATMENT FOR ORGANIC MICROPOLLUTANTS ELIMINATION 183
9.2.1 Enhanced primary clarification 183
9.2.2 Role of nitrifiers on organic micropollutants biotransformation 185
9.2.3 Membrane bioreactors 187
9.2.4 Granular sludge reactors 191
9.2.5 Partial nitritation – Anammox process 193
9.2.6 Anaerobic treatment 195
9.2.7 Hybrid systems 198
9.3 FATE OF TRANSFORMATION PRODUCTS DURING SEWAGE TREATMENT 201
9.4 MODELLING MICROPOLLUTANTS FATE DURING SEWAGE TREATMENT 205
9.5 CONCLUSION 209
9.6 REFERENCES 210
Chapter 10: Post-treatment for micropollutants removal 214
10.1 INTRODUCTION 214
10.2 CHEMICAL METHODS 215
10.2.1 Ozonation 215
10.2.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes 218
10.3 PHYSICAL METHODS 219
10.3.1 Adsorption to activated carbon 219
10.3.1.1 PAC 220
10.3.1.2 GAC 224
10.3.2 Membrane filtration 226
10.4 COSTS 226
10.5 CONCLUSIONS 228
10.6 REFERENCES 229
Chapter 11: Technologies limiting gas and odour emissions 233
11.1 INTRODUCTION 233
11.2 PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGIES 233
11.2.1 Absorption 233
11.2.2 Adsorption 235
11.2.3 Incineration 237
11.2.4 Advantages and drawbacks of physical-chemical techniques 238
11.3 MATURE BIOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGIES 239
11.3.1 Biofilters 239
11.3.2 Biotrickling filters 240
11.3.3 Bioscrubbers 242
11.3.4 Advantages and drawbacks of mature biological technologies 243
11.4 EMERGING BIOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGIES 243
11.4.1 Two-phase partitioning bioreactors 243
11.4.2 Activated sludge diffusion 245
11.4.3 Membrane bioreactors 247
11.4.4 Activated sludge and oxidized ammonium recycling 248
11.4.5 Advantages and drawbacks of emerging biological technologies 249
11.5 CONCLUSIONS 249
11.6 REFERENCES 252
Chapter 12: Reducing the impact of sludge 255
12.1 INTRODUCTION 255
12.2 PROCESSES IN THE WATER LINE (A,B) 257
12.2.1 Lysis-cryptic growth 258
12.2.1.1 Chemical oxidation 258
12.2.1.2 Enzymatic reactions 258
12.2.1.3 Mechanical treatment 259
12.2.2 Maintenance metabolism 259
12.2.3 Uncoupling metabolism 260
12.2.3.1 Chemical uncoupler 260
12.2.3.2 Side stream anaerobic reactor 261
12.2.4 Predation on bacteria 261
12.3 PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES IN THE SLUDGE LINE (C,D,E,F) 262
12.3.1 Physical pre-treatments 262
12.3.1.1 High pressure homogeneizers 262
12.3.1.2 Ultrasonic treatment 263
12.3.1.3 Grinding – Stirred ball mills 263
12.3.1.4 Lysis centrifugation 264
12.3.1.5 Focused-pulse technology 264
12.3.1.6 Thermal hydrolysis 264
12.3.1.7 Chemical oxidation 265
12.3.1.8 Alkaline hydrolysis 266
12.3.1.9 Biological pre-treatment 266
12.4 TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENHANCING SLUDGE STABILIZATION (G) 267
12.4.1 Thermophilic anaerobic digestion: effect of thermal pre-treatment 267
12.4.2 Temperature-phased anaerobic digestion 268
12.4.3 Sequential anaerobic-aerobic digestion of waste and mixed sludge 271
12.5 WET OXIDATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE COUPLED WITH ANAEROBIC DIGESTION OF LIQUID RESIDUE (H) 273
12.5.1 Wet oxidation and its role in sewage sludge treatment 273
12.5.2 WO of sewage sludge: effect of process parameters 274
12.5.3 Reaction kinetics and process modelling 275
12.5.4 Treatment/Disposal of residues 275
12.6 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PROCESSES 276
12.6.1 Enhanced hydrolysis. Processes in the sludge line 277
12.6.2 Enhanced sludge stabilization processes 278
12.7 REFERENCES 279
Part 2: Re-using Water and Sludge 283
Chapter 13: Producing high-quality recycled water 285
13.1 INTRODUCTION 285
13.2 WATER QUALITY CONSTITUENTS OF CONCERN AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS 285
13.3 TREATMENT SCHEMES FOR POTABLE WATER REUSE 287
13.4 ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF POTABLE WATER REUSE SCHEMES 288
13.5 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF POTABLE WATER REUSE SCHEMES/ENERGY POTENTIAL 290
13.6 STATE-OF-THE-ART WATER QUALITY MONITORING APPROACHES FOR HIGH-QUALITY RECYCLED WATER 291
13.7 CONCLUSIONS 294
13.8 REFERENCES 294
Chapter 14: Producing sludge for agricultural applications 296
14.1 INTRODUCTION 296
14.2 SLUDGE PRODUCTION PROCESSES 300
14.2.1 Sludge production 301
14.2.1.1 Primary sludge production 301
14.2.1.2 Biological sludge production 301
14.2.2 Characteristics of sewage sludge 303
14.3 SLUDGE PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES 304
14.3.1 Sludge pre-treatment technologies 304
14.3.2 Effects of pretreatment on the agricultural use and value of sludge 304
14.3.2.1 Organic Matter Reduction 305
14.3.2.2 Nutrients Solubilization 305
14.3.2.3 Pathogen and Indicator Reductions 305
14.3.2.4 Trace Organic Contaminants Removal 306
14.3.2.5 Heavy Metals 306
14.4 SLUDGE TREATMENT PROCESSES 307
14.4.1 Biological processes 307
14.4.1.1 Anaerobic digestion 307
14.4.1.2 Composting 308
14.4.1.3 Vermicomposting 309
14.4.1.4 Bioleaching 309
14.4.2 Drying processes 310
14.4.3 Thermal processes 310
14.4.3.1 Incineration 311
14.4.3.2 Pyrolysis and Gasification 311
14.4.4 Chemical processes 312
14.5 GENERAL EFFECTS OF BIOSOLIDS ON AGRICULTURE 313
14.5.1 Effect on agricultural productivity and soil fertility 313
14.5.2 Health risks involved in application of sludge in agriculture 314
14.6 CASE STUDIES ON AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION OF SLUDGE 316
14.7 CONCLUSIONS 318
14.8 REFERENCES 318
Part 3: Recovering Resource: Energy and Chemicals 323
Chapter 15: Recovering energy from sludge 325
15.1 INTRODUCTION 325
15.1.1 Sewage sludge definition and production 326
15.1.2 Legislation issues applied to SS and current status 327
15.1.3 Legislative constraints and policy goals 329
15.2 BIOLOGICAL BASED TECHNOLOGIES 330
15.2.1 Advanced thermal/high pressure pre-treatments to enhance energy recovery in AD processes 330
15.2.1.1 General features and technology basis 330
15.2.1.2 Commercial thermal pre-treatments comparison 331
15.2.1.3 Economic evaluation 332
15.2.2 Co-digestion of sewage sludge with non-sludge organic wastes 333
15.2.3 Bio-drying of sewage sludge to produce biomass fuel 337
15.3 THERMAL BASED TECHNOLOGIES 340
15.3.1 Gasification 340
15.3.2 Pyrolysis 342
15.3.3 Supercritical water processing 344
15.4 CONCLUSIONS 348
15.5 REFERENCES 352
Chapter 16: Metal recovery from sludge: Problem or opportunity 355
16.1 INTRODUCTION 355
16.2 LEACHING OF METALS FROM SLUDGE 358
16.2.1 Chemical leaching 358
16.2.2 Bioleaching 358
16.3 REMOVAL OF METAL FROM THE LEACHATE WITHOUT METAL RECOVERY 359
16.3.1 Metal precipitation 359
16.3.2 Metal adsorption 361
16.4 METAL RECOVERY 362
16.4.1 Removal of impurities from leach solution 362
16.4.2 Metal separation 362
16.4.2.1 Liquid- liquid extraction 362
16.4.2.2 Electrodialysis 363
16.4.2.3 Membrane filtration 364
16.4.3 Metal recovery technologies 364
16.4.3.1 Electrowinning 364
16.4.3.2 Bio electrochemical methods 365
16.5 USE OF SLUDGE AFTER CHEMICAL LEACHING OR BIOLEACHING 366
16.6 CONCLUSIONS 366
16.7 REFERENCES 367
Chapter 17: Nutrients recovery from wastewater streams 369
17.1 INTRODUCTION 369
17.2 RECOVERY OF AMMONIA BASED PRODUCTS 370
17.2.1 Processes 370
17.2.1.1 Air stripping 370
17.2.1.2 Steam stripping 371
17.2.1.3 Membrane processes 373
17.2.2 Products 374
17.2.2.1 Ammonium sulphate 374
17.2.2.2 Ammonia water 375
17.2.2.3 Ammonium nitrate 375
17.3 RECOVERY OF PHOSPHORUS BASED PRODUCTS 377
17.3.1 Struvite 377
17.3.1.1 Production process and existing experience 378
17.3.1.2 Struvite production in full-scale installations 380
17.3.1.3 Novel processes for struvite production based on biological processes 381
17.3.1.4 Product end-uses 383
17.3.2 Potassium phosphate 383
17.3.2.1 Production process and existing experience 383
17.3.2.2 Lab-scale experience on synthetic and real urine 383
17.3.2.3 Full-scale implementation on calf manure 384
17.3.2.4 Product end-uses 384
17.3.2.5 Future perspectives 384
17.3.3 Calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite 385
17.3.3.1 Production process and existing experience 385
17.3.3.2 Product end-uses 385
17.3.4 Recovery of phosphorus compounds from sludge ashes 386
17.3.4.1 Thermochemical processes 387
17.3.4.2 Wet-chemical processes 390
17.3.4.3 Future perspectives 392
17.4 CONCLUSIONS 394
17.5 REFERENCES 394
Chapter 18: Recovery of organic added value products from wastewater 399
18.1 INTRODUCTION 399
18.1.1 Potential feedstocks in wastewater treatment plants 399
18.1.2 Most studied processes 401
18.1.2.1 Acids and alcohols 401
18.1.2.2 Biopolymers 403
18.1.2.3 Methane 403
18.2 PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGIES 403
18.2.1 Acids and alcohols 403
18.2.2 PHA 405
18.2.3 Reported pilot/demonstration/industrial scale plants 406
18.3 QUANTITY, QUALITY AND APPLICATIONS 408
18.3.1 PHA 408
18.3.1.1 Feedstock requirements for sustainable productivity 408
18.3.1.2 Effects of operation parameters on polymer quality 409
18.3.1.3 Applications depending on polymer quality 410
18.3.2 Acids and alcohols 412
18.3.2.1 Feedstock requirements for sustainable productivity 412
18.3.2.2 Effects of operation parameters 412
18.3.2.3 Applications depending on acid and alcohols quality 414
18.4 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 415
18.5 CONCLUSIONS 416
18.6 REFERENCES 417
Part 4: Economic, Environmental, Legal and Social Impacts 421
Chapter 19: The impact of innovation on wastewater treatment economics 423
19.1 INTRODUCTION 423
19.2 COSTS OF IMPROVING/INNOVATION IN WWTPs 424
19.2.1 Internal costs 424
19.2.1.1 Engineering approach 424
19.2.1.2 Parametric approach 425
19.2.1.3 Case studies 425
19.2.2 External costs 427
19.3 BENEFITS OF IMPROVING/INNOVATION IN WWTPs 428
19.3.1 Internal benefit 428
19.3.2 External benefit 428
19.3.2.1 Conventional valuation methods 429
19.3.2.2 Shadow price of pollutants 429
19.3.2.3 Case studies 430
19.4 NET PRESENT VALUE 431
19.5 FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES 431
19.6 CONCLUSIONS 433
19.7 REFERENCES 434
Chapter 20: Assessing environmental impacts and benefits of wastewater treatment plants 437
20.1 INTRODUCTION 437
20.2 APPLICATION OF LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS AND PROCESSES 441
a) Goal and scope definition 442
b) Life cycle inventory 443
c) Life Cycle Impact Assessment 444
d) Interpretation and communication of LCA results 445
20.3 CASE STUDIES 446
20.3.1 Fact sheet: LCA of conventional WWTP 446
20.3.1.1 Goal and scope definition 446
20.3.2 Fact sheet: LCA study on WWTP upgrade for elimination of organic micropollutants 449
20.3.2.1 Goal and scope definition 449
20.3.3 Fact sheet: Simplified LCA study focussing on operational energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions of a new energy-positive wastewater treatment scheme 450
20.3.3.1 Goal and scope definition 451
20.3.4 Fact sheet: LCA study on phosphorus recovery from sewage sludge, sludge liquor, or incineration ash 453
20.3.4.1 Goal and scope definition 453
20.4 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK 456
20.5 REFERENCES 456
Chapter 21: Determining benchmarks in wastewater treatment plants using life cycle assessment 459
21.1 INTRODUCTION 459
21.2 JOINT APPLICATION OF LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND DATA ENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES 460
21.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 461
21.3.1 The five-step LCA + DEA method 461
21.3.2 DEA model selection and matrices build up 462
21.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 463
21.4.1 Inventory data and DEA computation 463
21.4.2 Environmental and operational performance 463
21.4.3 Factors affecting WWTPs efficiency 465
21.5 CONCLUSIONS 466
21.6 REFERENCES 466
Chapter 22: Public perceptions of recycled water 468
22.1 INTRODUCTION 468
22.1.1 Public perceptions – a road block on the journey to recycled water schemes? 468
22.1.2 How perceptions are formed – the importance of emotions 468
22.1.3 Importance of considering public perceptions 469
22.2 WHAT DO THE PUBLIC THINK ABOUT RECYCLED WATER? 469
22.2.1 Are people willing to use recycled water? 469
22.2.1.1 The role of context – different levels of support for different types of water uses 470
22.2.1.2 The role of language – different levels of support for different types of descriptions 471
22.2.2 Why are some people unwilling to use recycled water? 471
22.2.2.1 Association with sewage and human waste 471
22.2.2.2 General safety and health risks 472
22.2.2.3 Microbial and chemical contamination 472
22.2.2.4 Aesthetic features – colour, taste and odour 472
22.2.2.5 Environmental benefits and impacts 473
22.2.2.6 Price 473
22.3 WHAT INFLUENCES PERCEPTIONS ABOUT RECYCLED WATER? 473
22.3.1 Socio-demographics 474
22.3.1.1 Gender 474
22.3.1.2 Age 475
22.3.1.3 Education 475
22.3.2 Experience of water shortages 475
22.3.3 Knowledge 476
22.3.4 Exposure to information and expertise 476
22.3.5 Trust in institutions and technology 477
22.3.5.1 Organisational trust – governments and water authorities 477
22.3.5.2 Scientific trust – water-treatment technology and scientists 477
22.3.6 Values and social norms 477
22.3.6.1 Environmental values 478
22.3.6.2 Social norms 478
22.4 INTERVENING TO IMPROVE PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS OF RECYCLED WATER 478
22.4.1 Providing information 478
22.4.2 Psychological approaches to communication 479
22.4.3 Community dialogue 480
22.4.3.1 Dialogue targeting risk perceptions 480
22.4.3.2 Dialogue targeting community needs 481
22.4.4 Ensure fair and transparent processes for planning and decision making 481
22.4.5 Provide opportunities to experience recycled water 482
22.4.6 Building public support – features of successful programs 482
22.4.6.1 Groundwater Replenishment System – Orange County Water District, United States 483
22.4.6.2 Aquifer recharge trial – Perth, Australia 483
22.4.6.3 Introduction of NEWater – Singapore 484
22.5 CONCLUSIONS 485
22.6 REFERENCES 485
Chapter 23: Greenhouse and odour emissions 488
23.1 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS DURING WASTEWATER TREATMENT 488
23.1.1 Introduction 488
23.1.2 Operational factors affecting direct GHG emissions during wastewater treatment 489
23.1.2.1 Factors affecting N2O production during aerobic conditions by nitrifiers 489
23.1.2.2 Factors affecting N2O production during anoxic conditions by denitrifiers 491
23.1.2.3 Factors affecting CH4 production 492
23.1.3 GHG monitoring methodologies 493
23.1.3.1 The Floating hood + gas analyser approach 493
23.1.3.2 Estimating N2O emissions through N2O dissolved data 495
23.1.3.3 Plant integrated measurements 496
23.1.4 Mitigation of direct GHG emissions 496
23.2 ODOUR EMISSIONS DURING WASTEWATER TREATMENT 497
23.2.1 Introduction 497
23.2.2 Odour characterization: sensorial and chemical analysis 499
23.2.2.1 Analytical techniques 499
23.2.2.2 Sensorial techniques 500
23.2.2.3 Mixed sensorial and analytical techniques 501
23.2.2.4 Field and laboratory applications of analytical and sensorial techniques 501
23.2.3 Impact assessment 502
23.2.3.1 Measuring odour impact at the receptor location 502
23.2.3.2 Evaluation of odour impact from source by dispersion modelling 502
23.2.3.3 Odour impact assessment 503
23.2.4 Minimization, mitigation and treatment of odourous emissions 503
23.2.4.1 Minimization of odour formation 503
23.2.4.2 Impact minimization 505
23.2.4.3 Odour abatement 505
23.3 CONCLUSIONS 506
23.4 REFERENCES 506
Chapter 24: The impact and risks of micropollutants in the environment 510
24.1 INTRODUCTION 510
24.2 LEGAL AND ANALYTICAL ASPECTS 513
24.3 OCCURRENCE OF MICROPOLLUTANTS IN TREATED EFFLUENTS, SLUDGE, SURFACE AND GROUND WATER 514
24.4 FATE OF SELECTED COMPOUNDS 517
24.4.1 Biodegradation 518
24.4.2 Sorption 519
24.4.3 Photodegradation: direct and indirect 520
24.4.4 Hydrolysis 521
24.5 ECOTOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS 521
24.5.1 Whole effects approach 524
24.5.1.1 Estrogenic activity 524
24.5.1.2 Mutagenic activity 526
24.6 RISK ASSESSMENT OF MICROPOLLUTANTS: THE MOST CRITICAL COMPOUNDS 526
24.7 FINAL REMARKS AND CONCLUSIONS 528
24.8 REFERENCES 530
Chapter 25: Legal and policy frameworks for the management of wastewater 534
25.1 INTRODUCTION 534
25.1.1 Structures for ownership and regulation 535
25.1.2 Regulation and liability 535
25.2 REGULATION OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITIES 536
25.2.1 General environmental law 536
25.2.2 Specific regulation of wastewater treatment 537
25.2.2.1 The European Union urban waste water treatment directive 537
25.2.2.2 The USA 538
25.2.2.3 Canada 538
25.2.2.4 Trade effluents 539
25.3 REGULATION OF ONSITE SANITATION 539
25.3.1 Impacts on groundwater 540
25.4 SLUDGE DISPOSAL AND REUSE 541
25.4.1 Solid waste disposal 541
25.4.2 Agricultural use 541
25.4.3 Marine wastewater discharge from vessels 542
25.5 REUSE OF WASTEWATER 543
25.5.1 Regulation of greywater reuse 544
25.5.2 Reuse as drinking water 545
25.6 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY IN THE WASTEWATER SECTOR 546
25.6.1 Mitigation considerations 546
25.6.2 Adaptation considerations 547
25.7 REGULATION OF CONTAMINANTS OF EMERGING CONCERN 548
25.8 CONCLUSIONS 549
25.9 REFERENCES 549
Part 5: Conceiving, Comparing and Selecting Efficient Processes 553
Chapter 26: Environmental decision support systems 555
26.1 INTRODUCTION 555
26.2 LEVELS OF DECISION 556
26.3 COMPLEXITY OF THE DECISIONS 557
26.4 WHAT IS AN EDSS? 559
26.5 WHY USING AN EDSS? 560
26.6 HOW TO BUILD AN EDSS? 561
26.7 NOVEDAR_EDSS: AN EDSS FOR SELECTION OF WWTP CONFIGURATIONS 562
26.8 NOVEDARPLUS_EDSS: AN EDSS FOR THE ‘3R’ PARADIGM 564
26.9 CASE STUDIES 566
26.9.1 Case study 568
Objective 568
Scenario definition 568
Results 568
Analysis performed under different criteria 570
Results under different conditions 570
Influent conditions 570
Effluent requirements 570
Conclusion 571
26.9.2 Case study 571
Objective 572
Scenario definition 572
Results 573
Conclusion 575
26.9.3 Case study 575
Objective 575
Scenario definition 577
Results 577
Shortlist selection of alternatives 578
26.10 CONCLUSIONS 579
26.11 REFERENCES 580
Chapter 27: Superstructure-based optimization tool for plant design and retrofitting 581
27.1 INTRODUCTION 581
27.2 SUPERSTRUCTURE-BASED OPTIMIZATION FRAMEWORK 582
27.3 CASE STUDY APPLICATION 587
27.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 597
27.5 REFERENCES 597
Chapter 28: Model-based comparative assessment of innovative processes 599
28.1 INTRODUCTION 599
28.2 E-PWM METHODOLOGY 600
28.2.1 Category selection 600
28.2.2 Unit-process models selection 601
28.2.3 Actuator models selection 604
28.2.4 Evaluation criteria 604
28.3 MODEL-BASED COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF CONVENTIONAL AND INNOVATIVE PLANT LAYOUTS 607
28.3.1 Conventional WWTP 608
28.3.2 Upgraded WWTP 609
28.3.3 A new WWT concept: C/N/P decoupling WWTP 611
28.4 MODEL BASED ANALYSIS AND OPTIMISATION OF PLANT OPERATION 613
28.5 CASE STUDY DEMONSTRATION: ANALYSIS AND OPTIMISATION OF A CONVENTIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT 614
Step 1: Definition of the operational objective and requirements 614
Step 2: Determination of the degrees of freedom for operation and control 614
Step 3: Study the effect of the degrees of freedom on the objectives and the constraints 615
Step 4: Match the degrees of freedom with the constraints 618
Step 5: Use the remaining degrees of freedom to optimise the process 619
28.6 CONCLUSIONS 619
28.7 REFERENCES 620
Annex 1: E-course: Micropollutants in water 622
Annex 2: Implementing an ecoefficiency tool for the holistic design and assessment of the water cycle 625
A2.1 INTRODUCTION 625
A2.2 TOOL FEATURES 626
A2.3 DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PLANT (DWTP) 627
A2.4 SUPPLY NETWORK 628
A2.5 SEWER NETWORK 630
A2.6 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT (WWTP) 630
A2.7 VIEWING THE RESULTS OF A PROJECT 631
Annex 3: NOVEDAR_EDSS: Intelligent/expert screening of process technologies 635
A3.1 INTRODUCTION 635
A3.2 PROBLEM DEFINITION 636
A3.3 ALTERNATIVE GENERATION 640
A3.4 ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION 642
A3.5 NEW FEATURES AND CHARACTERISTICS: NOVEDARPLUS_EDSS 644
Index 648

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