Waterborne Zoonoses

J. A. Contruvo; A. Dufour; G. Rees; Jamie Bartram; R. Carr; D. O. Cliver; G. F. Craun; Ronald Fayer; V. P. J. Gannon

BOOK

Waterborne Zoonoses

(2013)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-78040-586-5
Edition: 1
Language: English
Pages: 526
Subjects: The environment
Water supply & treatment
Mining technology & engineering

Abstract

Zoonoses are caused by microorganisms of animal origin that can also infect humans. Apart from human-to-human transmitted pathogens, they are the microorganisms of greatest concern in regard to threats to drinking-water and ambient water safety, now and in the future. A significant number of emerging and re-emerging waterborne zoonotic pathogens have been recognized over recent decades. SARS, E. coli O157:H7, and Cryptosporidium provide examples of zoonoses with waterborne routes of transmission. Developed from an expert workshop of 29 scientists convened by the World Health Organization and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Waterborne Zoonoses: Identification, Causes and Control provides a critical assessment of current knowledge about waterborne zoonoses and identifies strategies and research needs for controlling future emerging waterborne zoonoses. This book provides guidance to agriculturists, veterinarians, worldwide health agencies and water providers to anticipate potential future waterborne disease problems and to determine whether current practices will be protective or whether new approaches need to be deployed to better protect the health of both humans and animals. Contents Expert Consensus An Introduction To Emerging Waterborne Zoonoses and General Control Principles Water-Related Zoonosis Disease Impacts?Geographical Prevalence Epidemiological Data, Case-Studies, and Outbreaks Categories of Waterborne Disease Organisms Analysis of Zoonotic Microorganisms Prevention and Control of Waterborne Zoonoses Risk Assessment and Regulation Future Emerging Waterborne Zoonoses

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Cover\r	Cover
Contents	v
Preface	ix
Acknowledgements	xii
List of acronyms and abbreviations	xv
Section I:\rExpert consensus	1
1:\rExpert consensus	3
1.1 BACKGROUND	3
1.2 FUTURE PERSPECTIVE\r	5
1.2.1 Driving forces	5
1.2.2 Control strategies	7
1.3 EVALUATION OF ZOONOTIC WATERBORNE PATHOGENS	7
1.3.1 Approach	8
1.3.2 Pathogen adaptability	9
1.3.3 Introduction to the environment	9
1.3.4 Extent and proximity of animal reservoirs	10
1.3.5 Environmental resistance/persistence	10
1.3.6 Human behavioural factors promoting exposure	10
1.3.7 Outcome factors	11
1.3.8 Public health factors	12
1.4 PATHOGEN GROUPS\r	12
1.4.1 Viruses and prions	12
1.4.2 Bacteria	13
1.4.3 Fungi and microsporidia	13
1.4.4 Protozoa	13
1.4.5 Helminths	13
1.5 EXPOSURE/TRANSMISSION ROUTES	14
1.6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS	15
1.7 REFERENCES	16
Section II: An introduction to emerging waterborne zoonoses and general\rcontrol principles	17
2: Emerging zoonotic diseases and\rwater	19
2.1 FACTORS IN DISEASE EMERGENCE	19
2.2 ANIMAL AGRICULTURE AND POTENTIAL\rENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT	21
2.3 RISK ASSESSMENT AND STRATEGIES	24
2.4 REFERENCES	25
3:What are the criteria for determining whether a disease is zoonotic and\rwater related?	27
3.1 INTRODUCTION	27
3.2 ZOONOSES	28
3.3 WATER-RELATED DISEASE	30
3.3.1 Environmental transmission of infectious agents	30
3.3.2 Bradley’s classification of water-related diseases	31
3.3.3 Other water-related transmission routes	34
3.4 CRITERIA FOR ZOONOTIC WATER-RELATED\rDISEASE	35
3.5 APPLICATION TO SELECTED EXAMPLES	36
3.5.1 Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)	37
3.5.2 Pfiesteria species	39
3.5.3 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)	41
3.6 SUMMARY	43
3.7 REFERENCES	43
4: Impacts of anthropogenic and environmental factors on the\rdistribution of zoonoses	46
4.1 INTRODUCTION	46
4.2 PATHOGEN RESERVOIRS AND MOBILITY	47
4.2.1 Population growth and urbanization	49
4.2.2 International and national conflicts	50
4.2.3 Travel	50
4.3 TRADE	51
4.4 AGRICULTURAL AND HUSBANDRY PRACTICES	52
4.5 WATER CONTROL AND IRRIGATION	53
4.6 CHANGING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR	53
4.7 INFRASTRUCTURE CHANGES	54
4.8 DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES	55
4.9 PATHOGEN CHARACTERISTICS\r	57
4.9.1 Genetic mutations	57
4.9.2 Drug resistance	58
4.10 THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE	58
4.10.1 Seasonality	59
4.10.2 Heavy rainfall and floods	60
4.10.3 Temperature	61
4.11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION	61
4.12 REFERENCES	62
5: The control envelope and risk\rmanagement	66
5.1 INTRODUCTION	66
5.2 CONTROL ENVELOPE	67
5.2.1 Livestock and animal management	70
5.2.1.1 Pathogen–human factors	70
5.2.1.2 Technology/management interventions	71
5.2.1.3 Examples of factors that might lead to a breach in thecontrol envelope	71
5.2.2 Source water protection	71
5.2.2.1 Pathogen–human factors	71
5.2.2.2 Technological/management factors	72
5.2.2.3 Examples of factors that might lead to a breach in the\rcontrol envelope	73
5.2.3 Water storage, treatment, and distribution	74
5.2.3.1 Pathogen–human factors	74
5.2.3.2 Technological/management interventions	75
5.2.3.3 Examples of factors that might lead to a breach in the\rcontrol envelope	75
5.2.4 Point of use/household	76
5.2.4.1 Pathogen–human factors	76
5.2.4.2 Technological/management interventions	77
5.2.4.3 Examples of factors that might lead to a breach in thecontrol envelope	77
5.2.5 Pathogen properties that influence the control envelope	77
5.2.6 Human characteristics and their impact on the control\renvelope	79
5.3 RISK MANAGEMENT	80
5.3.1 HACCP	81
5.3.2 Epidemiological evidence and QMRA	82
5.3.3 Water safety plans	82
5.3.4 Disease surveillance and targeted studies	84
5.3.5 International networks	85
5.4 CONCLUSION	86
5.5 REFERENCES	87
Section III: Water-related zoonosis disease\rimpacts — geographical prevalence	91
6: Tropical organisms in\rAsia/Africa/South America	93
6.1 INTRODUCTION	93
6.2 PARASITES\r	94
6.2.1 Ascaris	94
6.2.2 Cryptosporidium and Giardia\r	95
6.2.3 Toxoplasma	99
6.2.4 Blastocystis	100
6.2.5 Strongyloides	100
6.3 BACTERIA	101
6.3.1 Salmonella and Shigella	101
6.3.2 Campylobacter	102
6.3.3 Escherichia coli	102
6.3.4 Brucella	103
6.4 VIRUSES	103
6.4.1 Menangle virus and Tioman virus	103
6.4.2 Hendra virus	103
6.4.3 Australian bat lyssavirus	104
6.4.4 Highly pathogenic avian influenza	104
6.4.5 Nipah virus	104
6.4.6 Haemorrhagic fevers and hantavirus	105
6.4.7 Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)	105
6.5 CONCLUSIONS	106
6.6 REFERENCES	108
7: Incidence of the major zoonotic diseases transmitted by water in Mexico, Central America, and the\rCaribbean	113
7.1 INTRODUCTION	113
7.2 COUNTRY-SPECIFIC INFORMATION	115
7.2.1 Mexico	115
7.2.2 Costa Rica	115
7.2.3 Cuba	116
7.2.4 Dominican Republic	116
7.2.5 Nicaragua	117
7.2.6 El Salvador	117
7.2.7 Panama	117
7.2.8 Honduras	117
7.2.9 Guatemala	118
7.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	118
7.4 REFERENCES	119
8: Waterborne outbreaks caused by\rzoonotic pathogens in the USA	120
8.1 INTRODUCTION	120
8.2 PRINCIPAL WATERBORNE ZOONOTIC PATHOGENS\r	121
8.2.1 Protozoa	121
8.2.2 Bacteria	123
8.2.3 Viruses	124
8.2.4 Acute gastroenteritis of unknown origin	125
8.3 WATERBORNE OUTBREAKS REPORTED IN THE USA	125
8.3.1 Waterborne outbreaks caused by zoonotic agents	127
8.3.1.1 Drinking-water outbreaks	128
8.3.1.2 Outbreaks associated with untreated recreational water	129
8.4 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS	130
8.4.1 Waterborne risks of zoonotic protozoa	131
8.4.2 Waterborne risks of zoonotic bacteria	132
8.4.3 Recommendations	133
8.5 REFERENCES	134
9:\rSymptoms, treatments, and health consequences of waterborne zoonotic diseases	136
9.1 INTRODUCTION	136
9.2 BACTERIAL WATERBORNE ZOONOTIC DISEASES:\rSUMMARIES	137
9.2.1 Campylobacteriosis	137
9.2.1.1 Causative agent	137
9.2.1.2 Symptoms	137
9.2.1.3 Treatment	138
9.2.1.4 Consequences	138
9.2.2 E. coli (gastroenteritis and infective)	139
9.2.2.1 Causative agents	139
9.2.2.2 Symptoms	139
9.2.2.3 Treatments	139
9.2.2.4 Consequences	140
9.2.3 Salmonellosis	140
9.2.3.1 Causative agent	140
9.2.3.2 Symptoms	140
9.2.3.3 Treatments	140
9.2.3.4 Consequences	141
9.2.4 Leptospirosis	141
9.2.4.1 Causative agent	141
9.2.4.2 Symptoms	141
9.2.4.3 Treatments	142
9.3 PROTOZOAN WATERBORNE ZOONOTIC DISEASES:\rSUMMARIES	142
9.3.1 Cryptosporidiosis	142
9.3.1.1 Causative agent	142
9.3.1.2 Symptoms	142
9.3.1.3 Treatments	142
9.3.2 Cyclosporiasis	143
9.3.2.1 Causative agent	143
9.3.2.2 Symptoms	143
9.3.2.3 Treatments	143
9.3.2.4 Consequences	143
9.3.3 Giardiasis	144
9.3.3.1 Causative agent	144
9.3.3.2 Symptoms	144
9.3.3.3 Treatments	144
9.3.4 Toxoplasmosis	144
9.3.4.1 Causative agent	144
9.3.4.2 Symptoms	144
9.3.4.3 Ocular toxoplasmosis	145
9.3.4.4 Congenital toxoplasmosis due to acute symptomatic or\rasymptomatic infections of the mother during pregnancy	145
9.3.4.5 Treatments	146
9.3.4.6 Recommended treatments for infants	146
9.3.4.7 Consequences	148
9.4 REFERENCES	148
Section IV: Epidemiological data, case-studies,\rand outbreaks	151
10: Epidemiological studies and\rsurveillance	154
10.1 INTRODUCTION	154
10.2 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL CONCERNS	155
10.2.1 Disease models	157
10.2.2 Risk models	158
10.3 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SURVEILLANCE	159
10.3.1 Waterborne disease surveillance	162
10.3.2 Veterinary surveillance	163
10.4 INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION	164
10.5 CONCLUSIONS	164
10.6 REFERENCES	165
11: Zoonoses in Scotland — food,\rwater, or contact?	167
11.1 INTRODUCTION	167
11.2 ZOONOSES IN SCOTLAND	169
11.3 SURVEILLANCE	170
11.3.1 Statutory reporting	170
11.3.2 Laboratory reporting	171
11.3.2.1 Salmonella	172
11.3.2.2 Campylobacter	176
11.3.2.3 E. coli O157	177
11.3.2.4 Cryptosporidium	180
11.3.2.5 Giardia	181
11.3.3 Outbreak investigation	183
11.3.3.1 A waterborne outbreak of E. coli O157	185
11.3.3.2 A waterborne outbreak of Cryptosporidium spp.	186
11.3.4 Enhanced investigation	187
11.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	188
11.5 REFERENCES	189
12: Potential public health risk of Campylobacter and other zoonotic waterborne infections in New Zealand\r	191
12.1 INTRODUCTION	191
12.2 SETTING	193
12.2.1 Epidemiological debate	194
12.3 WHAT DO WE KNOW?	196
12.3.1 Campylobacter ecology study	198
12.3.2 Deposition/yield studies	199
12.3.3 Potential public health impact of pastoral farming	200
12.4 WHAT DO WE NEED TO KNOW?	200
12.5 MANAGEMENT RESPONSE	201
12.6 REFERENCES	202
Appendix 12.1. Ministry of Health zoonoses pamphlet (2003)	206
Section V: Categories of waterborne disease\rorganisms	209
BACTERIA	210
Escherichia coli	210
Salmonella	210
VIRUSES	211
PROTOZOA	211
HELMINTHS	212
13: Verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli and other \rdiarrhoeagenic E. coli	213
13.1 INTRODUCTION	213
13.2 VEROCYTOTOXIN-PRODUCING E. COLI	215
13.2.1 Microbiology and epidemiology	215
13.2.1.1 Microbiology	216
13.2.1.2 Epidemiology	216
13.2.2 Domestic and wild animals as reservoir for VTEC	217
13.2.3 Waterborne transmission of E. coli O157:H7 and other\rVTEC	218
13.3 CONCLUSION	224
13.4 REFERENCES	225
14: Salmonella and other enteric\rorganisms	228
14.1 INTRODUCTION	228
14.2 DEFINITION	229
14.3 NOMENCLATURE	230
14.4 DISEASE/HOST SPECIFICITY/VIRULENCE	230
14.5 EPIDEMIOLOGY	231
14.6 ANIMAL RESERVOIRS	232
14.6.1 Livestock	232
14.6.1.1 Poultry	232
14.6.1.2 Cattle	233
14.6.1.3 Sheep	234
14.6.1.4 Pigs	235
14.6.2 Other animals	235
14.7 WATER AS A VEHICLE	235
14.7.1 Natural waters	236
14.7.1.1 Surface waters	236
14.7.1.2 Groundwater	236
14.7.1.3 Cisterns	236
14.7.1.4 Estuarine areas	236
14.7.1.5 Coastal waters	236
14.7.2 Food processing effluent	237
14.7.3 Animal effluent	237
14.7.4 Other effluents	237
14.8 DETECTION IN WATER	237
14.9 EMERGING PROBLEMS	238
14.10 ZOONOTIC SPECIES (NOT SALMONELLA)	238
14.10.1 Yersinia enterocolitica	239
14.11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION	239
14.12 REFERENCES	240
15: Prospects of waterborne viral\rzoonoses	242
15.1 INTRODUCTION	242
15.1.1 Virus specificity	243
15.1.2 In vitro infectivity	243
15.2 WATERBORNE ZOONOSES	244
15.2.1 Virus replication	244
15.2.2 Genetic variation	245
15.2.3 Criteria	245
15.3 CANDIDATE AGENTS	246
15.3.1 Apparently human reservoir — possible animal carriage	246
15.3.2 Bovine reservoir — possible transmission to humans	247
15.3.3 Swine reservoir — possible transmission to humans	247
15.3.4 Poultry reservoir — possible transmission to humans	249
15.3.5 Wild animal reservoir — possible transmission to\rhumans	249
15.3.6 Rodent reservoir — possible transmission to humans	250
15.4 CONCLUSIONS	251
15.5 REFERENCES	252
16:\rWaterborne zoonotic protozoa	255
16.1 INTRODUCTION	255
16.2 MICROSPORIDIA	256
16.2.1 Biology, life cycle, and transmission	257
16.2.2 Prevalence and distribution	257
16.2.3 Microsporidiosis: disease and treatment	257
16.2.4 Detection of spores	258
16.2.5 Spores in water	258
16.2.6 Possible environmental sources	259
16.3 AMOEBAE	259
16.3.1 Entamoeba histolytica	260
16.3.1.1 Biology, life cycle, and transmission	260
16.3.1.2 Prevalence and distribution	260
16.3.1.3 Amoebiasis	261
16.4 FLAGELLATES	261
16.4.1 Giardia	261
16.4.1.1 Biology, life cycle, and transmission	261
16.4.1.2 Prevalence and distribution	262
16.4.1.3 Giardiasis	263
16.4.1.4 Giardia cysts in water and their survival	263
16.4.1.5 Giardia in the marine environment: Evidence from sea\rmammal infections	264
16.4.1.6 Reducing environmental contamination	264
16.4.1.7 Regulations	265
16.5 THE PHYLUM APICOMPLEXA	265
16.5.1 Toxoplasma	265
16.5.1.1 Biology and life cycle	265
16.5.1.2 Distribution and prevalence	266
16.5.1.3 Toxoplasmosis	266
16.5.1.4 Transmission	266
16.5.1.5 Environmental source and prevalence	267
16.5.1.6 Oocyst survival under environmental conditions	267
16.5.1.7 Waterborne disease	267
16.5.1.8 Detection of oocysts in water	268
16.5.1.9 Sea mammal infections: evidence of T. gondii in the marine\renvironment	268
16.5.1.10 Reducing or preventing environmental contamination	269
16.5.1.11 Regulations	269
16.5.2 Cryptosporidium	269
16.5.2.1 Biology, life cycle, and transmission	270
16.5.2.2 Prevalence and distribution	270
16.5.2.3 Cryptosporidiosis	271
16.5.2.4 Oocyst survival	271
16.5.2.5 Dispersal of oocysts	272
16.5.2.6 Waterborne disease	273
16.5.2.7 Detection of oocysts in water	274
16.5.2.8 Reducing or preventing environmental contamination	274
16.5.2.9 Regulations	274
16.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	275
16.7 REFERENCES	276
17:\rCyclosporiasis	283
17.1 INTRODUCTION	283
17.2 PARASITE	284
17.3 LIFE CYCLE	284
17.4 DISEASE	284
17.5 DIAGNOSIS	285
17.6 TREATMENT	285
17.7 EPIDEMIOLOGY	286
17.8 SUMMARY	287
17.9 REFERENCES	288
18:\rMajor helminth zoonoses in water	291
18.1 INTRODUCTION	291
18.2 LIFE CYCLES	292
18.3 ROUTE OF TRANSMISSION	292
18.4 NEMATODES	293
18.4.1 Ascaris lumbricoides and A. suum	294
18.4.2 Toxocara canis and T. cati	294
18.4.3 Baylisascaris procyonis and other non-human ascarids	295
18.4.4 Trichuris trichiura	295
18.4.5 Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus	296
18.4.6 Strongyloides stercoralis	296
18.4.7 Angiostrongylus cantonensis and A. costaricensis	296
18.4.8 Capillaria hepatica	297
18.4.9 Dracunculus medinensis	297
18.5 TREMATODES	298
18.5.1 Schistosoma	298
18.5.2 Cercarial dermatitis	299
18.5.3 Fasciola hepatica	299
18.5.4 Miscellaneous	300
18.6 CESTODES	300
18.6.1 Cyclophyllid cestodes	300
18.6.1.1 Taenia solium and Taenia saginata	301
18.6.1.2 Echinococcosis	301
18.6.2 Pseudophyllid cestodes	303
18.7 REFERENCES	303
19:\rHuman fascioliasis	305
19.1 INTRODUCTION	305
19.2 TRANSMISSION	306
19.3 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION	307
19.4 EPIDEMIOLOGY	308
19.5 FASCIOLID ADAPTATION CAPACITIES, DISEASE\rEXPANSION, AND DRUG RESISTANCE	309
19.6 RESERVOIR HOSTS	310
19.6.1 Normal definitive hosts	310
19.6.2 Adaptation to new definitive hosts	310
19.7 FRESHWATER SNAIL VECTORS	311
19.7.1 Original and alternative lymnaeid vectors	311
19.7.2 Lymnaeid colonization capacities and fascioliasis\rexpansion	312
19.7.3 New tools for lymnaeid classification and genotyping	313
19.8 HUMAN CONTAMINATION	314
19.8.1 Transmission foci	314
19.8.2 Human infection sources	314
19.9 COLONIZATION OF DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS	317
19.10 CONCLUSION	318
19.11 REFERENCES	318
20: Leptospirosis and other potential\rzoonoses in water	323
20.1 INTRODUCTION	323
20.2 LEPTOSPIROSIS	324
20.3 MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM SUBSPECIES\rPARATUBERCULOSIS	324
20.4 MICROSPORIDIA, A RISK FOR SENSITIVE\rPOPULATIONS	326
20.5 VIRUSES AND SWINE	328
20.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	330
20.7 REFERENCES	330
Section VI: Analysis of zoonotic\rmicroorganisms	335
21: Managing risk of waterborne zoonotic disease through water\rquality surveillance	338
21.1 WHAT IS THE RISK?	338
21.2 EMERGING PATHOGENS	339
21.3 ANIMAL VERSUS HUMAN FAECAL\rCONTAMINATION	340
21.4 LIMITATIONS OF PATHOGEN DETECTION\rMETHODS	342
21.5 LIMITATIONS TO USE OF FAECAL BACTERIAL\rINDICATORS	342
21.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	344
21.7 REFERENCES	345
22:\rFaecal source identification	349
22.1 INTRODUCTION	349
22.2 CHEMICAL METHODS OF FAECAL SOURCE\rIDENTIFICATION	350
22.3 MICROBIAL METHODS OF FAECAL SOURCE\rIDENTIFICATION	351
22.3.1 Library-dependent, culture-dependent methods	352
22.3.1.1 Phenotypic methods: MAR and CUP	352
22.3.1.2 Genotypic methods	352
22.3.2 Library-independent, culture-dependent methods	354
22.3.2.1 Viral methods	354
22.3.3 Advantages and limitations of culture-based methods	354
22.3.4 Culture-independent methods	355
22.3.4.1 Viral methods	355
22.3.4.2 Bacteroidetes faecal markers	355
22.3.4.3 Toxin genes from E. coli	356
22.3.4.4 Bifidobacterium	357
22.3.4.5 Community sampling	357
22.3.5 Advantages and limitations of culture-independent\rmethods	358
22.4 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FAECAL SOURCE\rIDENTIFICATION METHODS: THE SCCWRP STUDY	358
22.5 AN IMPORTANT LIMITATION OF FAECAL SOURCE\rIDENTIFICATION METHODS	360
22.6 REFERENCES	361
23: Rapid methods for the detection and enumeration of microorganisms in\rwater	367
23.1 INTRODUCTION	367
23.2 MODIFICATIONS TO CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS	368
23.3 NEW MICROBIOLOGICAL TESTING TECHNIQUES	370
23.3.1 Genetic methods: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	371
23.3.2 Biosensors	373
23.4 WATER APPLICATIONS: CONCLUSIONS	374
23.5 REFERENCES	375
Section VII: Prevention and control of\rwaterborne zoonoses	377
24 Control of zoonotic waterborne\rpathogens in animal reservoirs	380
24.1 INTRODUCTION	380
24.2 RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH WATERBORNE\rILLNESS	381
24.3 METHODS OF CONTROL OF ZOONOTIC WATERBORNE PATHOGENS IN ANIMAL\rRESERVOIRS	385
24.3.1 International and national zoonotic pathogen control\rprogrammes	385
24.3.2 On-farm zoonotic pathogen control programmes	386
24.3.3 On-farm zoonotic pathogen control	387
24.3.3.1 Specific pathogen-free animals	387
24.3.3.2 Biosecurity	388
24.3.3.3 Antimicrobials	389
24.3.3.4 Immunoprophylaxis	390
24.3.3.5 Competitive exclusion	391
24.3.3.6 Other pathogen control methods	392
24.4 CONTROL OF ZOONOTIC PATHOGENS IN\rWILDLIFE	393
24.5 ARE TSES POTENTIAL WATERBORNE\rPATHOGENS?	394
24.5.1 Characteristics of TSEs	394
24.5.2 Risks of acquiring BSE from drinking-water sources	396
24.5.3 BSE eradication plan	398
24.5.4 Scrapie eradication plan	398
24.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	399
24.7 RECOMMENDATIONS	400
24.8 REFERENCES	401
25 Control of zoonotic pathogens in\ranimal wastes	409
25.1 ANIMAL AGRICULTURE SYSTEMS	409
25.1.1 Grazing systems	410
25.1.2 Mixed farming systems	411
25.1.3 Industrial farming systems	411
25.2 PATHOGENS	411
25.2.1 Pathways for pathogen movement on and off farms	412
25.3 ANIMAL WASTE TREATMENT PROCESSES	412
25.3.1 Composting	413
25.3.2 Air drying	413
25.3.3 Facultative lagoons/storage	413
25.3.4 Anaerobic digestion	413
25.3.5 Aerobic digesters	414
25.3.6 Lime stabilization	414
25.4 EFFICIENCY OF ANIMAL WASTE TREATMENT\rSYSTEMS IN PATHOGEN REDUCTION	414
25.4.1 Pathogen reductions by manure treatment and\rmanagement processes	416
25.5 APPLICATION TO FIELDS	416
25.6 POLICIES ON ANIMAL WASTES	418
25.7 WASTES FROM DEAD ANIMALS AS SOURCES OF\rWATERBORNE INFECTIOUS AGENTS	419
25.7.1 Control of disease transmission	420
25.7.2 Die-offs and mass culling of infected animals	421
25.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	421
25.9 REFERENCES	422
26 Control of zoonotic diseases in\rdrinking-water	426
26.1 INTRODUCTION	426
26.2 COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION/SEDIMENTATION	427
26.3 FILTRATION	427
26.3.1 Membrane processes	428
26.4 DISINFECTANTS	429
26.4.1 Chlorine	430
26.4.2 Chloramine	432
26.4.3 Chlorine dioxide	432
26.4.4 Ultraviolet light	432
26.5 SPECIAL CONCERNS FOR GROUNDWATER SOURCES	433
26.6 SPECIAL CONCERNS REGARDING AFO\rFACILITIES	433
26.7 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS	434
26.7.1 Design of distribution systems	434
26.7.2 Management of distribution systems	435
26.8 REFERENCES	435
Section VIII:\rRisk assessment and regulation	437
27: A regulatory perspective on zoonotic\rpathogens in water	439
27.1 INTRODUCTION	439
27.2 NEED FOR REGULATORY APPROACHES TO\rCONTROL ANIMAL-BORNE PATHOGENS	440
27.3 REGULATORY CONTROL OF WATER RISKS	441
27.4 EXAMPLES OF REGULATORY APPROACHES	441
27.5 ISSUES TO ADDRESS BEFORE ESTABLISHING\rCONTROLS	445
27.6 REQUIREMENTS FOR CRITERIA WHERE ANIMAL\rPATHOGENS/INDICATORS ARE NEEDED	446
27.7 HEALTH CRITERIA AND STANDARDS SETTING	448
27.8 CONCLUSIONS	450
27.9 REFERENCES	451
28: The Stockholm framework for guidelines for microbial\rcontaminants in drinking-water	452
28.1 INTRODUCTION	452
28.2 DISABILITY-ADJUSTED LIFE YEARS (DALYS)	455
28.3 WHAT IS AN ACCEPTABLE (TOLERABLE) RISK?	456
28.4 TOLERABLE MICROBIAL RISK	457
28.5 CONCLUSION	458
28.6 REFERENCES	458
29: Quantitative microbial risk\rassessment issues	460
29.1 INTRODUCTION	460
29.2 CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS CASE-STUDY	461
29.3 UNCERTAINTY IN QRA	464
29.3.1 Dose–response	464
29.3.2 Calculation methods	465
29.4 CONCLUSIONS	468
29.5 REFERENCES	468
Section IX: Future emerging waterborne\rzoonoses	471
30: Waterborne Zoonoses: Emerging pathogens and emerging patterns of\rinfection	472
30.1 INTRODUCTION	472
30.2 EMERGING PATTERNS OF INFECTION	474
30.3 CAN WE PREDICT WHICH ZOONOSES WILL\rEMERGE?	475
30.3.1 Changes in zoonotic waterborne pathogens	475
30.3.2 Repeated nucleic acid segments	476
30.3.3 Genetic exchange	476
30.3.4 Mobile genetic elements and recombination	477
30.3.5 Changes in the environment	477
30.3.6 Changes in the human or animal host	478
30.4 WATERBORNE ZOONOSES LIKELY TO EMERGE OR RE-EMERGE\r	478
30.4.1 Bacteria	478
30.4.2 Parasites	479
30.4.3 Viruses	480
30.4.4 Prions	481
30.5 CONCLUSION	482
30.6 REFERENCES	482
Index	485

Waterborne Zoonoses

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