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Book Details
Abstract
Protecting drinking-water resources is the first barrier against pathogens and substances hazardous to health. Practitioners in drinking-water supply or surveillance - from the local and technical level up to senior management - have a key role in initiating collaboration with other sectors, such as environment, land-use planning, or agriculture towards safeguarding drinking-water sources. Protecting Groundwater for Health provides a structured approach to analysing hazards to groundwater quality, assessing the risk they may cause for a specific supply, setting priorities in addressing these, and developing management strategies for their control. For health professionals, it thus is a tool for access to environmental information needed for such a process, and for professionals from other sectors, it gives a point of entry for understanding health aspects of groundwater management. This book presents tools for developing strategies to protect groundwater for health by managing the quality of drinking-water sources. Section I covers the natural science background needed to understand which pathogens and chemicals are relevant to human health, how they are transported in the sub-surface and how they may be reduced, removed or retarded.         Section II provides guidance for compiling information needed to characterise the drinking-water catchment area in order to assess health hazards potentially reaching groundwater.         Section III provides conceptional guidance on prioritising both hazards and management responses.          Section IV provides an overview of the potential management actions that may be taken to protect drinking-water sources. These begin with their integration into a comprehensive Water Safety Plan that covers all supply steps from catchment to consumer.         Section V provides an overview of measures to prevent pollution from human activities in the catchment, beginning with the overarching issues of policy, land-use planning and implementation for protecting groundwater. Overviews are presented of the specific management approaches that help avoid groundwater pollution from the range of human activities in the catchment, i.e. agriculture, sanitation practices, industry, mining, military sites, waste disposal and traffic.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover\r | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| Structure of this book | xi | ||
| Acknowledgements | xiii | ||
| Acronyms and abbreviations | xvii | ||
| Section I:\rScientific background | 1 | ||
| 1:\rGroundwater and public health | 3 | ||
| 1.1 GROUNDWATER AS A SOURCE OF DRINKINGWATER | 4 | ||
| 1.2 THE PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT OF GROUNDWATER PROTECTION | 7 | ||
| 1.3 GROUNDWATER QUANTITY | 8 | ||
| 1.4 DISEASE DERIVED FROM GROUNDWATER USE | 9 | ||
| 1.4.1 Infectious disease transmission through groundwater | 9 | ||
| 1.4.2 Chemical hazards | 11 | ||
| 1.5 GROUNDWATER IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES TO REDUCE WATER-RELATED DISEASE | 13 | ||
| 1.6 GROUNDWATER IN THE WHO GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY | 15 | ||
| 1.7 REFERENCES | 16 | ||
| 2:\rGroundwater occurrence and hydrogeological environments | 21 | ||
| 2.1 GROUNDWATER IN THE HYDROLOGICAL SYSTEM\r | 22 | ||
| 2.1.1 The hydrological cycle | 22 | ||
| 2.1.2 Groundwater in the hydrological cycle | 24 | ||
| 2.2 GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE AND MOVEMENT\r | 26 | ||
| 2.2.1 Groundwater occurrence and storage | 26 | ||
| 2.2.2 Groundwater movement | 30 | ||
| 2.3 GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE AND RECHARGE | 34 | ||
| 2.4 GROUNDWATER FLOW SYSTEMS | 36 | ||
| 2.5 GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS AND AQUIFER TYPES | 38 | ||
| 2.6 REFERENCES | 46 | ||
| 3: Pathogens: Health relevance, \rtransport and attenuation | 49 | ||
| 3.1 MICROBIAL PATHOGENS AND MICROBIALINDICATOR ORGANISMS | 50 | ||
| 3.2 DISTRIBUTION OF PATHOGENS AND FAECAL\rINDICATORS IN GROUNDWATER | 55 | ||
| 3.3 TRANSPORT AND ATTENUATION OF\rMICROORGANISMS IN THE UNDERGROUND | 60 | ||
| 3.3.1 Transport and attenuation of pathogens in the unsaturated\rzone | 61 | ||
| 3.3.2 Transport and attenuation of pathogens in the saturated\rzone | 65 | ||
| 3.3.3 Summary of major factors influencing pathogen transport\rand attenuation mechanisms in the underground | 71 | ||
| 3.4 REFERENCES | 76 | ||
| 4:\rChemicals: Health relevance, transport\rand attenuation | 81 | ||
| 4.1 SUBSURFACE TRANSPORT AND ATTENUATION OF CHEMICALS | 82 | ||
| 4.1.1 Natural hydrochemical conditions | 83 | ||
| 4.1.2 Conceptual models and attenuation processes | 85 | ||
| 4.2 NATURAL INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS | 90 | ||
| 4.2.1 Arsenic | 91 | ||
| 4.2.2 Fluoride | 93 | ||
| 4.2.3 Selenium | 95 | ||
| 4.2.4 Radon | 97 | ||
| 4.2.5 Uranium | 98 | ||
| 4.3 NITROGEN SPECIES | 99 | ||
| 4.4 METALS | 102 | ||
| 4.5 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS | 105 | ||
| 4.5.1 Conceptual transport models for non aqueous phase liquids | 105 | ||
| 4.5.2 General aspects of transport and attenuation of organics | 109 | ||
| 4.5.3 Organic chemicals of major concern in groundwater | 114 | ||
| 4.5.4 Aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX) | 116 | ||
| 4.5.5 Chlorinated hydrocarbons | 121 | ||
| 4.6 PESTICIDES | 125 | ||
| 4.7 EMERGING ISSUES\r | 129 | ||
| 4.7.1 Pharmaceuticals | 129 | ||
| 4.7.2 Endocrine disrupting compounds | 129 | ||
| 4.8 REFERENCES | 131 | ||
| 5:\rSocioeconomic, institutional and legal aspects in groundwater assessment and protection | 139 | ||
| 5.1 SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS: ISSUES OF POVERTY AND WEALTH | 140 | ||
| 5.1.1 Livelihood concepts | 142 | ||
| 5.1.2 Source of livelihoods | 143 | ||
| 5.2 POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY | 144 | ||
| 5.3 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND CONSULTATION | 144 | ||
| 5.3.1 Consultation | 146 | ||
| 5.3.2 Participation | 146 | ||
| 5.4 LAND TENURE AND PROPERTY RIGHTS | 147 | ||
| 5.4.1 Private land ownership | 148 | ||
| 5.4.2 Customary land rights | 148 | ||
| 5.4.3 Publicly owned land | 148 | ||
| 5.4.4 Informal settlements | 149 | ||
| 5.5 VALUING AND COSTING GROUNDWATER PROTECTION | 149 | ||
| 5.6 SETTING GOALS AND OBJECTIVES – HOW MUCH WILL BE PROTECTED? | 151 | ||
| 5.7 INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES | 152 | ||
| 5.8 LEGAL FRAMEWORK | 153 | ||
| 5.9 REFERENCES | 154 | ||
| Section II:\rUnderstanding the drinking-water catchment | 157 | ||
| 6:\rCollecting information for characterizing the catchment and assessing pollution potential | 159 | ||
| 6.1 TYPES OF INFORMATION AND ACCESS TO IT | 160 | ||
| 6.1.1 Site and catchment inspection | 161 | ||
| 6.1.2 Consulting the public | 161 | ||
| 6.1.3 Evaluating existing data | 162 | ||
| 6.1.4 Generating new water quality data | 164 | ||
| 6.2 THE NEED FOR COLLABORATION | 166 | ||
| 6.3 SUFFICIENCY AND QUALITY OF INFORMATION – DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY | 169 | ||
| 6.4 SUMMARY – HOW TO PROCEED | 171 | ||
| 6.5 REFERENCES | 174 | ||
| 7:\rCharacterization of the socioeconomic, institutional and legal setting | 175 | ||
| 7.1 DEFINING SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS | 175 | ||
| 7.2 INSTITUTIONAL AND STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS | 180 | ||
| 7.2.1 The government environment | 181 | ||
| 7.2.2 The non-governmental sector | 184 | ||
| 7.2.3 Governance | 184 | ||
| 7.3 MANAGING STAKEHOLDER DISCUSSIONS – LEVELLING THE PLAYING FIELD | 185 | ||
| 7.4 DEVELOPING PUBLIC PARTICIPATION | 185 | ||
| 7.5 ANALYSIS OF LAND USE AND GROUNDWATER USE FOR POLICY DEVELOPMENT | 188 | ||
| 7.5.1 Importance of groundwater for domestic supply | 189 | ||
| 7.5.2 Private supplies | 190 | ||
| 7.5.3 Long-term sector plans | 191 | ||
| 7.6 VALUING GROUNDWATER PROTECTION | 191 | ||
| 7.7 CHECKLIST | 193 | ||
| 7.8 REFERENCES | 195 | ||
| 8:\rAssessment of aquifer pollution vulnerability and susceptibility to the impacts of abstraction | 199 | ||
| 8.1 DEFINING, CHARACTERIZING AND MAPPING GROUNDWATER VULNERABILITY\r | 200 | ||
| 8.1.1 Vulnerability of groundwater to pollution | 200 | ||
| 8.1.2 Defining aquifer pollution vulnerability | 202 | ||
| 8.1.3 Classifying aquifer vulnerability | 203 | ||
| 8.1.4 Mapping aquifer vulnerability | 207 | ||
| 8.1.5 Case study: Groundwater vulnerability mapping in the Irbid area in Northern Jordan | 209 | ||
| 8.2 INFORMATION NEEDS AND DATA SOURCES FOR VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT\r | 213 | ||
| 8.2.1 Regional geological and hydrogeological setting | 213 | ||
| 8.2.2 Groundwater flow systems | 214 | ||
| 8.2.3 Physical geography and topography | 216 | ||
| 8.2.4 Characteristics of the soil | 217 | ||
| 8.3 ESTIMATING GROUNDWATER RECHARGE | 219 | ||
| 8.3.1 Recharge components and processes | 220 | ||
| 8.3.2 Methods for estimating recharge | 221 | ||
| 8.4 NATURAL HYDROCHEMICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS | 223 | ||
| 8.5 CHARACTERIZING GROUNDWATER ABSTRACTION | 225 | ||
| 8.5.1 Groundwater abstraction types | 225 | ||
| 8.5.2 Groundwater abstraction and pollutant pathways | 226 | ||
| 8.5.3 Abstraction types and groundwater protection | 227 | ||
| 8.6 SUSCEPTIBILITY OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCES TO DEGRADATION\r | 228 | ||
| 8.6.1 Scope and scale of resource degradation | 228 | ||
| 8.6.2 Deterioration of groundwater quality | 230 | ||
| 8.6.3 Other effects of excessive abstraction | 234 | ||
| 8.6.4 Impacts of abstraction and hydrogeological environments | 235 | ||
| 8.7 CHECKLIST | 236 | ||
| 8.8 REFERENCES | 239 | ||
| 9:\rAgriculture: Potential hazards and\rinformation needs | 243 | ||
| 9.1 USE OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS | 244 | ||
| 9.2 DISPOSAL OF ANIMAL CARCASSES | 252 | ||
| 9.3 ANIMAL FEEDLOTS | 253 | ||
| 9.4 USE OF WASTEWATER AND SEWAGE SLUDGE ON LAND AND IN AQUACULTURE | 255 | ||
| 9.5 USE OF PESTICIDES | 257 | ||
| 9.6 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE | 263 | ||
| 9.7 CHECKLIST | 265 | ||
| 9.8 REFERENCES | 270 | ||
| 10:\rHuman excreta and sanitation: Potential hazards and information needs | 275 | ||
| 10.1 CONTAMINANTS OF CONCERN FROM SANITATION SYSTEMS\r | 277 | ||
| 10.1.1 Pathogens | 277 | ||
| 10.1.2 Chemical contaminants | 278 | ||
| 10.2 TYPES OF SANITATION AND THEIR POTENTIAL TO CONTAMINATE GROUNDWATER | 280 | ||
| 10.2.1 Open air defecation | 280 | ||
| 10.2.2 On-site sanitation | 281 | ||
| 10.2.3 Off-site sanitation: Sewerage and centralized treatment | 290 | ||
| 10.3 ASSESSING THE RISKS TO GROUNDWATER\r | 298 | ||
| 10.3.1 Assessing risk from on-site sanitation | 298 | ||
| 10.3.2 Assessing the risks to groundwater from sewerage | 299 | ||
| 10.4 ANALYTICAL INDICATION OF HUMAN EXCRETA AND SEWAGE IN GROUNDWATER | 300 | ||
| 10.5 CHECKLIST | 301 | ||
| 10.6 REFERENCES | 304 | ||
| 11: Industry, mining and military sites: Potential hazards and information\rneeds | 309 | ||
| 11.1 INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES | 310 | ||
| 11.1.1 Types of industrial facilities and potential impacts to groundwater | 311 | ||
| 11.1.2 Types of industrial practices potentially impacting on groundwater quality | 313 | ||
| 11.2 MINING ACTIVITIES | 318 | ||
| 11.2.1 Operation of mines: Chemical processes and potential impacts to groundwater | 320 | ||
| 11.2.2 Closure of deep mines | 325 | ||
| 11.2.3 Closure of open pit mines | 326 | ||
| 11.2.4 Predicting post-mining groundwater quality | 327 | ||
| 11.3 MILITARY FACILITIES AND ACTIVITIES | 328 | ||
| 11.3.1 Potential groundwater contaminants from military production sites | 330 | ||
| 11.3.2 Potential groundwater contaminants from military operation sites | 332 | ||
| 11.4 CHECKLIST | 333 | ||
| 11.5 REFERENCES | 336 | ||
| 12:Waste disposal and landfill: Potential\rhazards and information needs | 339 | ||
| 12.1 TYPES OF SOLID WASTE | 340 | ||
| 12.2 WASTE STORAGE, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL\rSITES | 344 | ||
| 12.3 FACTORS GOVERNING CONTAMINATION OF\rGROUNDWATER BY DISPOSAL OF WASTE | 345 | ||
| 12.3.1 Waste composition and loading | 345 | ||
| 12.3.2 Leachate production | 347 | ||
| 12.3.3 Leachate migration | 351 | ||
| 12.4 ASSESSING GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION\rASSOCIATED WITH WASTE SITES | 354 | ||
| 12.5 CHECKLIST | 356 | ||
| 12.6 REFERENCES | 360 | ||
| 13: Traffic and transport: Potential hazards and information needs\r | 363 | ||
| 13.1 GROUNDWATER POLLUTANTS FROM TRAFFIC | 364 | ||
| 13.2 TRAFFIC- AND TRANSPORT-RELATED\rACTIVITIES POLLUTING GROUNDWATER | 367 | ||
| 13.3 PATHWAYS OF POLLUTANTS INTO\rGROUNDWATER | 368 | ||
| 13.4 CHECKLIST | 369 | ||
| 13.5 REFERENCES | 372 | ||
| Section III:\rSituation analysis | 373 | ||
| 14:\rAssessment of groundwater pollution potential | 375 | ||
| 14.1 THE OVERALL ASSESSMENT PROCESS | 376 | ||
| 14.2 COMPONENTS OF ASSESSMENT OF POLLUTANT LOADING | 378 | ||
| 14.3 OUTCOME OF ASSESSING POLLUTION POTENTIAL | 389 | ||
| 14.4 USING GROUNDWATER QUALITY MONITORING TO SUPPORT THE ASSESSMENT | 391 | ||
| 14.5 THE BARBADOS CASE STUDY | 391 | ||
| 14.6 THE PERTH CASE STUDY | 401 | ||
| 14.7 REFERENCES | 408 | ||
| 15:\rEstablishing groundwater management priorities | 411 | ||
| 15.1 ENSURING THE SUITABILITY OF INFORMATION | 412 | ||
| 15.2 PRIORITIZING POLLUTANTS IN GROUNDWATER WITH RESPECT TO URGENCY OF MANAGEMENT RESPONSES | 414 | ||
| 15.3 SELECTION OF MANAGEMENT OPTIONS | 419 | ||
| 15.4 DOCUMENTATION AND REPORTING | 425 | ||
| 15.5 REFERENCES | 426 | ||
| Section IV:\rApproaches to drinking-water source protection management | 429 | ||
| 16:\rWater Safety Plans: Risk management approaches for the delivery of safe drinking-water from groundwater sources | 431 | ||
| 16.1 END-PRODUCT TESTING AND THE NEED FOR A RISK MANAGEMENT APPROACH | 433 | ||
| 16.2 SCOPE OF WATER SAFETY PLANS | 433 | ||
| 16.3 PRELIMINARY STEPS FOR DEVELOPING WATER SAFETY PLANS\r | 436 | ||
| Section V: Approaches to pollution source management | 535 | ||
| 20:\rPolicy and legal systems to protect groundwater | 537 | ||
| 20.1 GROUNDWATER PROTECTION POLICIES | 538 | ||
| 20.1.1 Institutional issues for policy development | 541 | ||
| 20.1.2 Capacity-building to support institutional delivery | 541 | ||
| 20.1.3 International groundwaters | 543 | ||
| 20.2 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR GROUNDWATER PROTECTION | 546 | ||
| 20.2.1 Environmental legislation | 546 | ||
| 20.2.2 Legislative reform | 546 | ||
| 20.2.3 The law relating to groundwater ownership and abstraction rights | 547 | ||
| 20.3 CONSULTATION AND PARTICIPATION | 548 | ||
| 20.4 LAND USE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT | 551 | ||
| 20.4.1 Regulatory approaches to controlling land use in sensitive areas | 551 | ||
| 20.4.2 Other land use measures for pollution control | 553 | ||
| 20.5 TOOLS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL | 553 | ||
| 20.5.1 End of pipe controls | 554 | ||
| 20.5.2 Integrated pollution control approach for industry | 555 | ||
| 20.5.3 Prohibitions | 556 | ||
| 20.5.4 Prevention of diffuse pollution of groundwater through Codes of Practice | 556 | ||
| 20.5.5 Prevention of diffuse pollution of groundwater through regulations | 557 | ||
| 20.5.6 Water quality objectives | 557 | ||
| 20.5.7 Controls on product specifications | 558 | ||
| 20.6 ENFORCEMENT | 558 | ||
| 20.7 MANAGEMENT PLANS FOR DISASTERS AND INCIDENTS | 559 | ||
| 20.8 REFERENCES | 561 | ||
| 21:\rAgriculture: Control and protection | 563 | ||
| 21.1 PATHOGEN MANAGEMENT ON AGRICULTURAL LAND | 565 | ||
| 21.2 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON AGRICULTURAL LAND | 569 | ||
| 21.3 MANAGEMENT OF WASTEWATER AND HUMAN EXCRETA USED ON LAND AND IN AQUACULTURE | 573 | ||
| 21.4 NUTRIENT AND PATHOGEN MANAGEMENT ON GRAZING LAND | 575 | ||
| 21.5 MANAGEMENT OF ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATIONS AND DAIRIES | 577 | ||
| 21.6 PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT | 579 | ||
| 21.7 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT AND DRAINAGE | 581 | ||
| 21.8 MONITORING AND VERIFICATION OF MEASURES CONTROLLING AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES | 582 | ||
| 21.9 REFERENCES | 585 | ||
| 22:\rHuman excreta and sanitation: Control and protection | 587 | ||
| 22.1 BALANCING INVESTMENT DECISIONS | 588 | ||
| 22.2 SELECTING THE RIGHT SANITATION TECHNOLOGY | 590 | ||
| 22.3 MEASURES FOR CONTROLLING RISKS FROM ONSITE SANITATION | 591 | ||
| 22.3.1 Siting of on-site sanitation facilities | 592 | ||
| 22.3.2 Engineering design to control pollution in high-risk areas | 597 | ||
| 22.4 MEASURES FOR CONTROLLING RISKS FROM SEPTIC TANKS AND AQUAPRIVIES | 600 | ||
| 22.5 MEASURES FOR PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF SEWER LEAKAGE | 601 | ||
| 22.5.1 Sewer management | 603 | ||
| 22.5.2 Controlling exfiltration | 603 | ||
| 22.5.3 Control of sewer leakage | 604 | ||
| 22.5.4 Open drains | 604 | ||
| 22.5.5 Surface water management | 604 | ||
| 22.6 CONTROL MEASURES FOR SEWAGE TREATMENT | 605 | ||
| 22.6.1 Conventional treatment works | 605 | ||
| 22.6.2 Waste stabilization ponds and reedbeds | 606 | ||
| 22.7 MONITORING AND VERIFICATION OF MEASURES CONTROLLING SANITATION SYSTEMS | 607 | ||
| 22.8 REFERENCES | 609 | ||
| 23:\rIndustry, mining and military sites: Control and protection | 613 | ||
| 23.1 INDUSTRIAL AND MILITARY SITES | 615 | ||
| 23.1.1 Strategies for pollution prevention and environmental management | 615 | ||
| 23.1.2 Choice of site | 617 | ||
| 23.1.3 Design and construction for prevention of spills and leakage | 618 | ||
| 23.1.4 Operational controls | 619 | ||
| 23.1.5 Decommissioning of contaminated sites | 621 | ||
| 23.1.6 Clean-up and remediation of contamination | 622 | ||
| 23.2 MINING | 623 | ||
| 23.2.1 Deep mines | 624 | ||
| 23.2.2 Open pit mines | 625 | ||
| 23.2.3 Acid mine leachate | 625 | ||
| 23.2.4 Heaps, piles, mills and tailings | 626 | ||
| 23.2.5 In situ leaching | 627 | ||
| 23.3 MONITORING AND VERIFICATION OF MEASURES CONTROLLING INDUSTRY, MINING AND MILITARY SITES | 627 | ||
| 23.4 REFERENCES | 630 | ||
| 24:\rWaste disposal and landfill: Control and protection | 631 | ||
| 24.1 WASTE CONTROL | 631 | ||
| 24.2 SITING AND PLANNING OF LANDFILLS | 636 | ||
| 24.3 DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR LANDFILLS | 637 | ||
| 24.3.1 Containment strategy | 637 | ||
| 24.3.2 Attenuation strategy | 641 | ||
| 24.3.3 Choice of strategy | 643 | ||
| 24.4 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF LANDFILLS | 645 | ||
| 24.5 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND EDUCATION | 646 | ||
| 24.6 MONITORING AND VERIFICATION OF MEASURES CONTROLLING WASTE DISPOSAL AND LANDFILL | 647 | ||
| 24.7 REFERENCES | 650 | ||
| 25:\rTraffic and transport: Control and protection | 653 | ||
| 25.1 PLANNING AND REGULATIONS | 655 | ||
| 25.2 RUNOFF CONTROL | 656 | ||
| 25.3 DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES | 657 | ||
| 25.4 MINIMIZING USAGE OF HARMFUL CHEMICALS | 658 | ||
| 25.5 ACCIDENTAL SPILLAGE AND DISPOSAL | 659 | ||
| 25.6 MONITORING AND VERIFICATION OF MEASURES CONTROLLING TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORT | 659 | ||
| 25.7 REFERENCES | 662 | ||
| Index | 663 |