Safe Management of Shellfish and Harvest Waters

G. Rees; Kathy Pond; David Kay; Jamie Bartram; J. Santo Domingo; J. Cho

BOOK

Safe Management of Shellfish and Harvest Waters

(2009)

Additional Information

Book Details

ISBN: 978-1-78040-579-7
Edition: 1
Language: English
Pages: 360
Subjects: The environment
Water supply & treatment
Mining technology & engineering

Abstract

Developed from an expert workshop convened by the World Health Organization and US Environmental Protection Agency, Safe Management of Shellfish and Harvest Waters provides a thorough review of the issues surrounding public health concerns associated with shellfish consumption. The trade and consumption of bivalve shellfish is a global industry and is increasing. Human illness caused by infectious agents transmitted through animal or human sources through shellfish consumption has been recognized for many years.
Safe Management of Shellfish and Harvest Waters addresses contaminant sources and means of transmission to bivalve shellfish and where possible, identifies options to interrupt the cycle. The efficacy of current practices is discussed with the aid of case studies written by practitioners working in the field from a number of developed and developing countries. The need for the deployment of new approaches to protect human health from infectious diseases associated with the consumption of contaminated bivalve shellfish is discussed, focusing specifically on water management aspects and strategies.
Safe Management of Shellfish and Harvest Waters provides valuable information on the real health risks posed by shellfish consumption. It distills worldwide experience; identifies the challenges and opportunities that face the industry and suggests responses to those challenges. It provides the scientific basis for regulation and associated monitoring and risk reduction programmes to enable health agencies, water quality and shellfish regulatory agencies and other stakeholders worldwide to control and reduce the existing and potential future infectious disease problems through better management of shellfish waters. Safe Management of Shellfish and Harvest Waters will be invaluable for health agencies, water quality and shellfish regulatory agencies, and other environmental professionals working in the shellfish industry.
Access the OECD area on the IWA WaterWiki here: http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/UsefulResourcesforDevelopingCountries_0

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
Cover\r	Cover
Contents	v
Preface	vii
Acknowledgements	ix
1:\rExpert consensus	1
1.1 CONTEXT OF THE WORKSHOP	1
1.2 PUBLIC HEALTH FACTORS	3
1.3 HARVESTING AREA MANAGEMENT OPTIONS AND RESPONSES	4
1.4 SOURCE IDENTIFICATION, SANITARY SURVEYS AND PROFILING	5
1.5 MONITORING: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES	6
1.6 POST-CONTAMINATION PURIFICATION PROCESSES	8
1.7 COORDINATION OF AGENCIES AND COMMUNICATION	8
1.8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS	9
2:\rBivalves: Global production and trade trends	11
2.1 PRODUCTION TRENDS	11
2.2 TRADE	13
2.2.1 Asia	13
2.2.2 European Union	16
2.2.3 United States	17
2.3 TRADE ISSUES	18
2.4 CONCLUSIONS	19
2.5 REFERENCES	19
3:\rAdverse health outcomes	21
3.1 BACTERIAL AND VIRAL GASTROENTERITIS RELATED TO WASTEWATER AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL	22
3.1.1 Viral gastroenteritis	24
3.1.2 Bacterial gastroenteritis	24
3.2 SHELLFISH-VECTORED ILLNESSES RELATED TO AUTOCHTHONOUS BACTERIA	25
3.2.1 Vibrio spp. infections	25
3.2.2 Seasonal pattern and distribution of	26
3.3 POST-HARVEST CONTAMINATION OF SHELLFISH BY BACTERIA	27
3.4 HUMAN WATERBORNE PARASITES AND MOLLUSCAN SHELLFISH	27
3.4.1 The public health threat from molluscan shellfish contaminated with Cryptosporidium spp.\r	29
3.4.2 Methods used for identification of human protozoan parasites in molluscan shellfish	29
3.5 BIAS IN REPORTING OF MOLLUSCAN SHELLFISH-VECTORED ILLNESSES	30
3.6 METHODS OF SHELLFISH SANITIZATION	31
3.7 WHY ARE ILLNESSES CAUSED BY SHELLFISH CONSUMPTION NOT ANTICIPATED TO DECLINE IN THE FUTURE?	31
3.8 CONCLUSIONS	33
3.9 REFERENCES	34
4:\rDriving forces and risk management	39
4.1 SCOPE OF THE MONOGRAPH	40
4.2 MANAGEMENT OPTIONS AND INTERVENTIONS\r	41
4.2.1 Sources of potential sewage contamination	41
4.2.2 Current management responses	42
4.2.3 Source protection	43
4.2.4 Source management	43
4.2.5 Shellfish management	44
4.3 RISK MANAGEMENT\r	44
4.3.1 Risk management components	44
4.3.2 Monitoring milieu	45
4.3.3 The commercial imperative	45
4.3.4 The challenge	46
4.4 OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE	46
4.4.1 Primary conflicts	46
4.4.2 Requirements of control mechanisms	47
4.4.3 Requirements of science	47
4.5 CONCLUSIONS	48
4.6 REFERENCES	49
5:\rIdentification of primary sources of faecal pollution	51
5.1 DEFINITION	52
5.2 IMPORTANCE TO SHELLFISH INDUSTRY	52
5.3 TYPES OF CONTAMINATION	53
5.3.1 Human /wastewater	53
5.3.2 Domestic animals	54
5.3.3 Wildlife	55
5.3.4 Other sources	55
5.4 METHODS DESCRIPTION	56
5.4.1 Library dependent methods (LDMs)	57
5.4.2 Library independent methods	65
5.4.2.1 Culture dependent LIMs	66
5.4.2.2 Culture independent LIMs	67
5.4.2.3 Limitations and critical issues regarding LIMs	69
5.4.3 Targeted organisms for faecal source identification	70
5.4.3.1 Bacteria	70
5.4.3.2 Viruses	71
5.4.3.3 Protozoa	73
5.4.3.4 Alternate targets	73
5.4.4 Targeted sampling	75
5.5 DECIDING WHICH METHOD TO USE	75
5.6 FAECAL SOURCE IDENTIFICATION IN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES	76
5.7 CONCLUSIONS: CURRENT NEEDS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN SOURCE IDENTIFICATION	78
5.8 REFERENCES	80
6:\rComponents of microbiological monitoring programmes	91
6.1 SAMPLE MATRIX – SEAWATER OR SHELLFISH?	93
6.1.1 Seawater	93
6.1.2 Shellfish	94
6.1.3 Seawater and shellfish	95
6.1.4 Seawater and shellfish equivalence	96
6.2 SAMPLING PLANS	96
6.2.1 Spatial effects	97
6.2.2 Temporal effects	97
6.2.3 Randomised or targeted sampling	98
6.3 SAMPLING METHODS AND SAMPLE TRANSPORT	98
6.4 MICROBIOLOGICAL TESTING	99
6.4.1 Validation of alternative methods	100
6.4.2 Accreditation and proficiency testing	101
6.5 INTERPRETATION OF MONITORING PROGRAMME DATA\r	101
6.5.1 Time series data sets	101
6.5.2 Analytical tolerance	102
6.6 MONITORING IN RELATION TO POLLUTION AND ILLNESS EVENTS	103
6.7 MONITORING FOR PATHOGENS	104
6.8 INTERACTION WITH MITIGATION STRATEGIES	105
6.9 INTERACTION WITH OTHER MONITORING STRATEGIES	105
6.10 CONCLUSIONS – RESEARCH GAPS AND FUTURE CHALLENGES	106
6.11 REFERENCES	107
7:\r Real-time monitoring technologies for indicator bacteria and pathogens in shellfish and shellfish harvesting waters	109
7.1 MOLECULAR APPROACH	112
7.2 CHEMILUMINESCENCE APPROACH	114
7.3 ENZYMATIC APPROACH	115
7.4 CONCLUSIONS	117
7.5 REFERENCES	119
8:\rSanitary profiling of shellfish harvesting areas	121
8.1 INTERNATIONAL APPLICATION	122
8.2 THE CATCHMENT CONTEXT	124
8.3 ASSESSMENT OF INPUT FLUXES	125
8.3.1 Human sewage discharges	126
8.3.2 Diffuse catchment sources of faecal indicator organisms	128
8.3.3 Managing the complexity	130
8.4 CONTENTS OF A SANITARY PROFILE	135
8.5 SANITARY SURVEYS AND PATHOGENS	137
8.6 SANITARY SURVEYS AS A PRECURSOR TO ESTABLISHING A SHELLFISH AQUACULTURE OPERATION	138
8.7 CONCLUSIONS	139
8.8 REFERENCES	140
9:\rDepuration and relaying	145
9.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE	146
9.2 THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK	148
9.2.1 Ascribing a pollution limit for shellfish to be depurated or relayed	149
9.2.2 Regulation of the depuration and relaying processes	151
9.3 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF THE DEPURATION PROCESS\r	152
9.3.1 Basic principles	152
9.3.2 Suitability of shellfish intended for depuration	153
9.3.3 Physiological parameters	154
9.3.3.1 Dissolved oxygen	154
9.3.3.2 Loading	155
9.3.3.3 Shellfish to water ratio	155
9.3.3.4 Water flow	155
9.3.3.5 Salinity	156
9.3.3.6 Temperature	156
9.3.3.7 Turbidity	157
9.3.3.8 No disturbance	157
9.3.4 Parameters to ensure effective decontamination and avoid re-contamination	157
9.3.4.1 Physical environment	157
9.3.4.2 Drain down	157
9.3.4.3 Use of a batch system	157
9.3.4.4 Seawater quality and recycling	158
9.3.5 Design of depuration systems – typical system operation	158
9.3.6 Design of depuration systems – some example systems in use in the United Kingdom	160
9.3.6.1 Shallow tank	160
9.3.6.2 Multi-layer system	161
9.3.6.3 Stack system	161
9.3.6.4 Bulk bin	162
9.3.7 Seawater disinfection	164
9.3.7.1 Chlorination	164
9.3.7.2 Ultraviolet irradiation	164
9.3.7.3 Ozonation	165
9.3.7.4 Iodophors	166
9.3.8 Commissioning and testing new systems	166
9.3.9 Microbiological criteria for ongoing compliance testing	166
9.3.10 International perspective	167
9.4 REMOVAL OF PATHOGENS BY DEPURATION\r	169
9.4.1 Control of bacterial infections through depuration	169
9.4.2 Removal of viruses during depuration	170
9.5 HACCP FOR DEPURATION SYSTEMS	173
9.6 RELAYING	174
9.7 CONCLUSIONS	175
9.8 REFERENCES	176
10:\rOverview of legislative principles and measures	183
10.1 PRINCIPLE LEGISLATIVE SYSTEMS	184
10.2 INTERACTION WITH OTHER LEGISLATION	185
10.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING SHELLFISH HYGIENE CONTROLS	186
10.3.1 Classification of harvesting areas	186
10.3.2 Mitigation strategies	187
10.3.3 Responsibilities	187
10.3.4 Traceability	188
10.3.5 Communication	188
10.3.6 Funding	189
10.4 EU LEGISLATION	189
10.4.1 Classification of production and relaying areas	191
10.4.2 Monitoring of production and relay areas	191
10.4.3 Decisions after monitoring	191
10.4.4 Additional monitoring requirements	191
10.4.5 Recording and exchange of information	192
10.4.6 Food business operators own checks	192
10.4.7 Controls on harvesting, storage and transport	192
10.4.7.1 Harvesting	192
10.4.7.2 Storage and transport	193
10.4.8 Standards for depuration, relaying and heat treatment	193
10.4.8.1 Depuration	193
10.4.8.2 Relaying	194
10.4.8.3 Heat treatment	194
10.4.9 General hygiene standards	195
10.4.10 End product standards	195
10.4.11 Documentation (‘‘paper trail’’)	196
10.4.12 Imports from third countries	197
10.5 UNITED STATES NATIONAL SHELLFISH SANITATION PROGRAMME\r	197
10.5.1 United States legislation	197
10.5.2 Classification of harvesting areas	198
10.5.3 Harvesting and transport	199
10.5.4 Holding, shucking, heat shocking and packing	199
10.5.5 Depuration	199
10.5.6 Documentation	200
10.5.7 Control of laboratories	201
10.6 CONTROLS OUTSIDE THE EU AND UNITED STATES	201
10.7 CONCLUSIONS	201
10.8 REFERENCES	202
11:\rOfficial control monitoring programmes for live bivalve molluscs – legislative and regulatory approaches: Scotland	205
11.1 BACKGROUND AND CENTRAL COMPETENT AUTHORITY ROLE IN SHELLFISH CONTROLS – THE FOOD STANDARDS AGENCY	206
11.1.1 Overview of programme	206
11.2 MICROBIOLOGICAL OFFICIAL CONTROL MONITORING PROGRAMMES MANAGED BY THE FOOD STANDARDS AGENCY SCOTLAND	207
11.2.1 Classification of new shellfish production areas	209
11.3 RESPONSIBILITIES AND INTERACTION WITH OTHER AGENCIES\r	210
11.3.1 Interaction with the Local Food Authority	210
11.3.2 Interaction with consumers	211
11.3.3 Interaction with industry	211
11.3.4 Interaction with other official bodies	212
11.4 MITIGATION MEASURES\r	212
11.4.1 Action where samples results are outside the\rclassification limit	212
11.4.2 Treatment measures	213
11.4.3 Control of production	213
11.4.4 Product traceability and product recall procedures	214
11.5 COMMUNICATION OF OFFICIAL CONTROL RESULTS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS	215
11.6 CONCLUSIONS – STRENGHTS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE FOOD STANDARDS AGENCY CURRENT SYSTEM	215
11.7 REFERENCES	216
12:\rOfficial control monitoring programmes for live bivalve molluscs – legislative and regulatory approaches: Canada	217
12.1 BACKGROUND AND CENTRAL COMPETENT AUTHORITY’S ROLE IN THE CANADIAN SHELLFISH SANITATION PROGRAMME	218
12.1.1 Overview of programme	219
12.2 OFFICIAL CONTROL MONITORING PROGRAMMES MANAGED BY THE CSSP PARTNERING ORGANIZATIONS	219
12.2.1 Classification of new shellfish production areas	220
12.2.2 Classification of live bivalve mollusc production areas	221
12.2.2.1 Annual classification process overview	221
12.2.3 Identification of production and relaying areas	222
12.3 SUMMARY OF CANADIAN MONITORING PROGRAMMES	222
12.4 RESPONSIBILITIES AND INTERACTION WITH OTHER AGENCIES\r	224
12.4.1 Interaction with the Local Food Authority	224
12.4.2 Interaction with consumers	225
12.4.3 Interaction with industry	226
12.5 MITIGATION MEASURES\r	227
12.5.1 CSSP measures when molluscs exceed microbiological guidelines	227
12.5.2 Treatment measures	227
12.5.2.1 Depuration	228
12.5.2.2 Relaying	228
12.5.2.3 Other treatments	228
12.6 PRODUCT TRACEABILITY AND PRODUCT RECALL PROCEDURES	228
12.7 EMERGENCY CLOSURE	230
12.8 CONCLUSIONS – CSSP CHALLENGES	230
12.9 REFERENCES	231
13:\rOfficial control monitoring programmes for live bivalve molluscs – legislative and regulatory approaches: New Zealand	233
13.1 BACKGROUND AND CENTRAL COMPETENT AUTHORITY’S ROLE IN SHELLFISH CONTROLS: THE NEW ZEALAND FOOD SAFETY AUTHORITY	234
13.1.1 The New Zealand bivalve molluscan shellfish industry	235
13.1.2 New Zealand shellfish programme culture	235
13.2 OFFICIAL CONTROL MONITORING PROGRAMMES FOR BMS	236
13.2.1 BMSRCS regulations	236
13.2.2 BMSRCS specifications	237
13.2.3 Sanitary survey and classification	237
13.2.4 Annual review of the sanitary survey	239
13.2.5 Samples and sample stations	240
13.2.6 Bacteriological standards for BMS and water	240
13.2.7 Conditional classification	242
13.2.8 Sewage management	242
13.2.9 Pathogen management	243
13.3 CONCLUSIONS	243
13.4 REFERENCES	244
14:\rCurrent management practices	245
14.1 APPROACHES TO SHELLFISH MANAGEMENT IN SCOTLAND, CANADA AND NEW ZEALAND – REPRISE	246
14.1.1 Responsible authority	246
14.1.2 Shellfish production quantum	246
14.1.3 Categories of shellfish waters	247
14.1.4 Sanitary surveys and annual review	247
14.1.5 Monitoring programmes	248
14.1.6 Other aspects – communication, mitigation and liaison with stakeholders	248
14.2 A SURVEY OF CURRENTLY ACHIEVED MANAGEMENT PRACTICE IN SELECTED LOCATIONS	249
14.2.1 Controls on cultivated bivalves in China	249
14.2.1.1 Legislative mechanisms	250
14.2.1.2 Monitoring protocols	250
14.2.1.3 Requirements for depuration and dispatch centres	251
14.2.1.4 Implementing the legislation	251
14.2.1.5 Responsible authority	252
14.2.1.6 Implications of non-compliance	252
14.2.1.7 Assessment for classification of harvesting areas – legislative backdrop\r	253
14.2.1.8 Sampling regimes	255
14.2.1.9 Local competent authorities and licensing of ‘‘depuration\rand dispatch centres’’	255
14.2.1.10 Current infrastructure – reference and monitoring laboratories\r	256
14.2.1.11 Summary of the situation in China	256
14.2.2 Mediterranean states	257
14.2.2.1 Mediterranean states that are also EU member states	258
14.2.2.2 Other Mediterranean states	260
14.2.3 India – a system under development	262
14.3 CONCLUSIONS	263
14.5 REFERENCES	264
15:\rExperience from recreational waters	267
15.1 GUIDELINES DEVELOPMENT	268
15.2 CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS	270
15.2.1 Real-time prediction of water quality	273
15.2.1.1 Simple univariate ‘trigger’ systems	273
15.2.1.2 Multivariate regression based systems	274
15.2.2 Source apportionment studies	275
15.2.2.1 Using satellite data for catchment delivery modelling	277
15.2.3 Linked catchment and nearshore modelling	285
15.2.4 Remediation of faecal indicator fluxes from coastal catchments	287
15.3 CONCLUSIONS	288
15.4 REFERENCES	290
16: Microbial modelling in coastal environments and early warning systems: useful tools to limit shellfish microbial contamination\r	297
16.1 MODELLING ENTERIC MICROORGANISMS IN COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS	298
16.1.1 Statistical models	299
16.1.2 Process-based dynamic models	300
16.1.2.1. Hydrodynamic models	300
16.1.2.2 Dispersion models	301
16.1.2.3. Parameters specific to a microbial application	302
16.1.2.4. Model use	306
16.2 EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS FOR SHELLFISH PRODUCTION SITES	307
16.3 CONCLUSIONS	310
16.4 REFERENCES	311
17:\rFramework for change	319
17.1 THE MANAGEMENT CHALLENGE	320
17.2 NEW TOOLS AND APPROACHES	321
17.3 THE DEVELOPING AGENDA	324
17.4 CONCLUSIONS – CURRENT STATE OF PLAY AND WAY FORWARD	326
17.5 REFERENCES	327
Index	331

Safe Management of Shellfish and Harvest Waters

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