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Book Details
Abstract
Owing to climate change related uncertainties and anticipated population growth, different parts of the developing and the developed world (particularly urban areas) are experiencing water shortages or flooding and security of fit-for-purpose supplies is becoming a major issue. The emphasis on decentralized alternative water supply systems has increased considerably. Most of the information on such systems is either scattered or focuses on large scale reuse with little consideration given to decentralized small to medium scale systems.
Alternative Water Supply Systems brings together recent research into the available and innovative options and additionally shares experiences from a wide range of contexts from both developed and developing countries. Alternative Water Supply Systems covers technical, social, financial and institutional aspects associated with decentralized alternative water supply systems. These include systems for greywater recycling, rainwater harvesting, recovery of water through condensation and sewer mining. A number of case studies from the UK, the USA, Australia and the developing world are presented to discuss associated environmental and health implications.
The book provides insights into a range of aspects associated with alternative water supply systems and an evidence base (through case studies) on potential water savings and trade-offs. The information organized in the book is aimed at facilitating wider uptake of context specific alternatives at a decentralized scale mainly in urban areas. This book is a key reference for postgraduate level students and researchers interested in environmental engineering, water resources management, urban planning and resource efficiency, water demand management, building service engineering and sustainable architecture. It provides practical insights for water professionals such as systems designers, operators, and decision makers responsible for planning and delivering sustainable water management in urban areas through the implementation of decentralized water recycling.
Authors: Fayyaz Ali Memon, Centre for Water Systems, University of Exeter, UK and Sarah Ward, Centre for Water Systems, University of Exeter, UK
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| Contributors | xix | ||
| Preface | xxix | ||
| Section I: Rainwater Harvesting and Condensate Recovery Systems | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1: Performance and economics of internally plumbed rainwater tanks: An Australian perspective | 3 | ||
| 1.1 Introduction | 3 | ||
| 1.2 Background | 4 | ||
| 1.2.1 IPRWT systems in Australia | 5 | ||
| 1.2.2 RWH and IPRWTs around the globe | 5 | ||
| 1.3 Australian Case Study | 7 | ||
| 1.3.1 Context of investigation | 7 | ||
| 1.3.2 Data gathering and end-use study experimental procedure | 8 | ||
| 1.3.2.1 Instrumentation | 9 | ||
| 1.3.2.2 Data transfer and storage | 9 | ||
| 1.3.2.3 End-use analysis process | 9 | ||
| 1.3.2.4 End-use results summary | 9 | ||
| 1.3.2.5 Rain tank pump energy pilot study | 10 | ||
| 1.3.3 IPRWT modelling | 10 | ||
| 1.3.3.1 Rainwater TANK model | 10 | ||
| 1.3.3.2 RainTank model | 11 | ||
| 1.3.3.3 Modelling input parameters | 12 | ||
| 1.3.3.4 IPRWT end-use breakdown | 12 | ||
| 1.3.4 Life cycle cost analysis | 13 | ||
| 1.3.4.1 IPRWT capital cost estimates | 14 | ||
| 1.3.4.2 IPRWT operating and maintenance costs | 14 | ||
| 1.3.4.3 NPV LCC base case financial model parameters | 16 | ||
| 1.3.4.4 Life cycle cost results | 16 | ||
| 1.3.5 Sensitivity analysis | 16 | ||
| 1.4 International Comparisons | 18 | ||
| 1.5 Discussion | 19 | ||
| 1.6 Summary and Conclusions | 20 | ||
| References | 21 | ||
| Chapter 2: Evaluating rain tank pump performance at a micro-component level | 25 | ||
| 2.1 Introduction | 25 | ||
| 2.2 Background | 26 | ||
| 2.2.1 Pump energy intensity and associated costs | 26 | ||
| 2.2.2 Common configurations for rainwater tank systems | 27 | ||
| 2.2.3 Previous studies | 28 | ||
| 2.3 Australian End-Use Pump Performance Study | 29 | ||
| 2.3.1 Research objectives | 29 | ||
| 2.3.2 Methodology | 30 | ||
| 2.3.2.1 Sample selection process | 30 | ||
| 2.3.2.2 Study sample | 31 | ||
| 2.3.2.3 Water and energy data capture | 31 | ||
| 2.3.2.4 Data preparation and processing | 31 | ||
| 2.3.3 Results and analysis | 35 | ||
| 2.3.3.1 Rainwater use event sample size | 35 | ||
| 2.3.3.2 Total sample water end-use results | 35 | ||
| 2.3.3.3 Individual home end-use results | 36 | ||
| 2.4 Alternative Supply Spectrum Comparisons | 41 | ||
| 2.5 Discussion and Conclusions | 42 | ||
| References | 43 | ||
| Chapter 3: The verification of a behavioural model for simulating the hydraulic performance of rainwater harvesting systems | 47 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction | 47 | ||
| 3.2 The Rainwater Harvesting System and Instrumentation | 48 | ||
| 3.3 Field Testing Results and Discussion | 50 | ||
| 3.4 Modelling System Performance | 54 | ||
| 3.5 Verification of the Rainwater Harvesting System Model | 55 | ||
| 3.5.1 Time interval sensitivity | 56 | ||
| 3.5.2 Rainfall loss sensitivity | 57 | ||
| 3.5.3 WC demand sensitivity | 57 | ||
| 3.6 Design Curves | 58 | ||
| 3.7 Discussion | 59 | ||
| 3.8 Conclusions | 60 | ||
| References | 60 | ||
| Chapter 4: Rainwater harvesting for domestic water demand and stormwater management | 63 | ||
| 4.1 Introduction\r | 63 | ||
| 4.1.1 Types of RWH\r | 64 | ||
| 4.1.2 The background research\r | 65 | ||
| 4.2 Uncertainties Associated with Designing RWH tanks for Stormwater Control\r | 66 | ||
| 4.3 The Stormwater Sizing Methodology\r | 67 | ||
| 4.4 The Pilot Study – Hanwell Fields (Banbury, UK)\r | 68 | ||
| 4.4.1 Design of individual tanks (models 1 & 2)\r | 69 | ||
| 4.4.2 The importance of actual vs. assumed occupancy for the performance of RWH stormwater control systems\r | 70 | ||
| 4.4.3 Model 1 – performance of the design scenario: tanks for individual properties with occupancy levels based on mean occupancy statistics\r | 71 | ||
| 4.4.4 Model 2 – performance of the actual scenario for individual tanks | 77 | ||
| 4.4.5 Model 3 – performance of the design scenario for a communal tank | 78 | ||
| 4.5 A Methodology for Assessing Uncertainty of Property Occupancy\r | 80 | ||
| 4.6 Active Management of RWH Systems\r | 81 | ||
| 4.6.1 Active control decision rules\r | 82 | ||
| 4.7 Conclusions\r | 82 | ||
| References | 83 | ||
| Chapter 5: Rainwater harvesting for toilet flushing in UK Schools: Opportunities for combining with water efficiency education | 85 | ||
| 5.1 Introduction | 85 | ||
| 5.2 Water use in Schools | 87 | ||
| 5.3 Configuration of RWH Systems in UK School Buildings | 88 | ||
| 5.4 Benefits of RWH in the UK Context | 91 | ||
| 5.5 Engaging with Pupils to Encourage Water Efficient Behaviour | 91 | ||
| 5.6 Retrofitting RWH Systems into London Schools | 94 | ||
| 5.7 Be a Water Detective | 96 | ||
| 5.7.1 Project background and context | 96 | ||
| 5.7.2 Water use benchmarking and discussion with teachers/facilities staff | 97 | ||
| 5.7.3 Be Water Aware school assembly | 98 | ||
| 5.7.4 Leaflet | 99 | ||
| 5.7.5 Be a Water Detective Water audit | 100 | ||
| 5.8 The Water Audit | 101 | ||
| 5.8.1 Behaviour | 101 | ||
| 5.8.2 Appliances | 104 | ||
| 5.8.3 Engagement and responsiveness | 105 | ||
| 5.9 Saving Six Litres of Water a Day – What Does it Mean in Practice? | 106 | ||
| 5.9.1 Saving 6 litres of water from a shallower bath | 106 | ||
| 5.9.2 Saving six litres of water from a shorter shower | 107 | ||
| 5.9.3 Saving six litres from brushing teeth | 108 | ||
| 5.9.4 Saving 6 litres of water from efficient washing up habits | 108 | ||
| 5.9.5 Savings from WC flush | 108 | ||
| 5.9.6 CO2 savings | 108 | ||
| 5.10 Discussion | 110 | ||
| 5.11 Final Remarks | 112 | ||
| References | 112 | ||
| Chapter 6: Community participation in decentralised rainwater systems: A mexican case study | 117 | ||
| 6.1 Introduction\r | 117 | ||
| 6.2 Background\r | 118 | ||
| 6.2.1 Site description\r | 118 | ||
| 6.2.2 System design\r | 119 | ||
| 6.3 System Evaluation\r | 120 | ||
| 6.3.1 Water quality\r | 120 | ||
| 6.3.2 Abandoned systems\r | 122 | ||
| 6.4 Reasons for Failure\r | 124 | ||
| 6.5 Community Participation and Leadership\r | 125 | ||
| 6.5.1 Training and succession\r | 127 | ||
| 6.5.2 Technical complexities\r | 128 | ||
| 6.6 Conclusions\r | 129 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 129 | ||
| References | 130 | ||
| Chapter 7: Assessing domestic rainwater harvesting storage cost and geographic availability in Uganda’s Rakai District | 131 | ||
| 7.1 Introduction | 131 | ||
| 7.1.1 Self supply | 131 | ||
| 7.1.2 Domestic rainwater harvesting | 131 | ||
| 7.1.3 The Ugandan context | 132 | ||
| 7.1.4 Motivation and objectives | 132 | ||
| 7.2 Domestic Rainwater Harvesting in Uganda | 133 | ||
| 7.3 Method | 134 | ||
| 7.4 Results | 137 | ||
| 7.4.1 Traditional/informal storage methods | 137 | ||
| 7.4.2 Manufactured products | 138 | ||
| 7.4.2.1 Fifty-five gallon metal drums | 139 | ||
| 7.4.2.2 Corrugated iron tanks | 140 | ||
| 7.4.2.3 Plastic tanks | 140 | ||
| 7.4.3 Built-in-place products | 141 | ||
| 7.4.3.1 Mortar jars | 141 | ||
| 7.4.3.2 Tarpaulin tanks | 143 | ||
| 7.4.3.3 Ferrocement tanks | 143 | ||
| 7.4.3.4 Partially below ground ferrocement tanks (PBG) | 144 | ||
| 7.4.3.5 Interlocking stabilised soil brick (ISSB) | 144 | ||
| 7.5 Discussion | 145 | ||
| 7.5.1 Technologies | 145 | ||
| 7.5.2 Access | 145 | ||
| 7.5.3 Cost | 146 | ||
| 7.6 Conclusions | 149 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 151 | ||
| References | 151 | ||
| Chapter 8: Incentivising and charging for rainwater harvesting – three international perspectives | 153 | ||
| 8.1 Introduction | 153 | ||
| 8.2 First International Perspective – UK | 154 | ||
| 8.2.1 Legislation and emerging markets | 154 | ||
| 8.2.2 Incentives and charging mechanisms | 155 | ||
| 8.3 Second International Perspective – Brazil | 157 | ||
| 8.3.1 Legislation and market | 157 | ||
| 8.3.2 Incentives and charging mechanisms | 158 | ||
| 8.4 Third International Perspective - USA | 159 | ||
| 8.4.1 Legislation and market | 159 | ||
| 8.4.2 Incentives and charging mechanisms | 161 | ||
| 8.5 Conclusions | 165 | ||
| References | 166 | ||
| Chapter 9: Air conditioning condensate recovery and reuse for non-potable applications | 169 | ||
| 9.1 Introduction | 169 | ||
| 9.2 Motivation | 170 | ||
| 9.2.1 A solution to urban water supply issues | 170 | ||
| 9.2.2 A water-energy infrastructure synergy | 170 | ||
| 9.3 Quantity: Volume Potential | 171 | ||
| 9.4 Quality: Fit-for-Purpose | 173 | ||
| 9.4.1 Microbial concerns | 173 | ||
| 9.4.2 Metals | 174 | ||
| 9.4.3 Other issues | 174 | ||
| 9.5 Uses and Benefits | 175 | ||
| 9.6 Case Studies | 176 | ||
| 9.6.1 Case study: University of Tampa | 176 | ||
| Project 1: Alternative water for irrigation and landscape features | 176 | ||
| Project 2: Utility plant process make-up water | 178 | ||
| 9.6.2 Case study: University of South Florida | 179 | ||
| 9.6.3 Case study: Mercer University | 182 | ||
| Project: Senior design project | 182 | ||
| 9.6.4 Additional condensate recovery and reuse examples | 182 | ||
| 9.7 Lessons Learnt and Discussion | 184 | ||
| 9.8 Future Research | 185 | ||
| 9.9 Conclusion | 186 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 186 | ||
| References | 187 | ||
| Section II: Greywater Recycling Systems | 191 | ||
| Chapter 10: Greywater reuse: Risk identification, quantification and management | 193 | ||
| 10.1 Introduction | 193 | ||
| 10.2 Greywater Characterisation and Major Risks Associated with its Reuse | 194 | ||
| 10.3 Short Review of Existing Treatment Technologies | 196 | ||
| 10.4 Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) | 196 | ||
| 10.5 Design for Reliability and Reliability Analysis | 206 | ||
| 10.5.1 Using a fault tree analysis to identify system failures | 206 | ||
| 10.5.2 Using a fault tree analysis to redesign the system | 207 | ||
| 10.5.3 Reliability of a full-scale onsite system – Case study | 209 | ||
| 10.5.3.1 Reliability of a greywater biological treatment system | 210 | ||
| 10.5.3.2 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) of failures, reliability and Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) | 213 | ||
| 10.6 Summary and Outlook | 213 | ||
| References | 214 | ||
| Chapter 11: Greywater recycling: Guidelines for safe adoption | 217 | ||
| 11.1 Introduction | 217 | ||
| 11.2 Greywater Quality | 218 | ||
| 11.3 Greywater Treatment Systems | 221 | ||
| 11.3.1 Biological systems | 221 | ||
| 11.3.2 Chemical systems | 222 | ||
| 11.3.3 Physical systems | 222 | ||
| 11.4 International Regulations and Guidelines | 223 | ||
| 11.5 Comparison of International Standards and Testing Protocols | 229 | ||
| 11.5.1 British standards BS 8525 | 229 | ||
| 11.5.2 New South wales accreditation guidelines | 231 | ||
| 11.5.3 Commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation greywater technology testing protocol | 233 | ||
| 11.6 Conclusion | 235 | ||
| Acknowledgement | 236 | ||
| References | 236 | ||
| Chapter 12: Membrane processes for greywater recycling | 241 | ||
| 12.1 Introduction | 241 | ||
| 12.2 Greywater Quality and Reuse Standards | 242 | ||
| 12.3 Treatment Performance | 244 | ||
| 12.3.1 Direct filtration | 244 | ||
| 12.3.2 Hybrid membrane systems | 249 | ||
| 12.4 Operation, Maintenance and Costs | 254 | ||
| 12.4.1 Operation and maintenance | 255 | ||
| 12.4.1.1 Fouling control measures | 255 | ||
| 12.4.1.2 Direct filtration | 256 | ||
| 12.4.1.3 Hybrid systems | 257 | ||
| 12.4.2 Energy and costs | 259 | ||
| 12.5 Conclusion | 260 | ||
| References | 261 | ||
| Chapter 13: Energy and carbon implications of water saving micro-components and greywater reuse systems | 265 | ||
| 13.1 Introduction | 265 | ||
| 13.2 Drivers for Water Efficiency | 266 | ||
| 13.3 Domestic Water Consumption and Associated Energy Footprint | 266 | ||
| 13.4 Water Efficiency Policy and Enabling Technologies | 267 | ||
| 13.5 Greywater Treatment and Reuse Systems | 269 | ||
| 13.6 Assessment Methodology | 272 | ||
| 13.6.1 Quantification of water volumes | 272 | ||
| 13.6.2 Estimation of energy and carbon load | 273 | ||
| 13.6.3 Application of a multi-objective optimisation based assessment tool | 274 | ||
| 13.7 Results and Discussion | 276 | ||
| 13.8 Conclusions | 282 | ||
| References | 283 | ||
| Section III: Wastewater Reuse Systems | 287 | ||
| Chapter 14: Introduction to sewer mining: Technology and health risks | 289 | ||
| 14.1 Introduction | 289 | ||
| 14.2 Advantages of Sewer Mining | 290 | ||
| 14.2.1 Reduced transportation costs | 290 | ||
| 14.2.2 Improved treatment of organic solids | 292 | ||
| 14.2.3 Enhanced resilience and disaster recovery | 292 | ||
| 14.2.4 Volume stripping and deferred capital investment | 294 | ||
| 14.2.5 Fit for purpose treatment | 295 | ||
| 14.2.6 Right to reclaimed water | 297 | ||
| 14.3 Treatment Options for Sewer Mining | 297 | ||
| 14.4 Sewer Mining Risks | 300 | ||
| 14.4.1 Human health risks | 300 | ||
| 14.4.2 Environmental risks | 301 | ||
| 14.5 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) | 301 | ||
| 14.5.1 HACCP in the water industry | 303 | ||
| 14.6 Conclusion | 304 | ||
| References | 305 | ||
| Chapter 15: The Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park water recycling system, London | 309 | ||
| 15.1 Introduction and Project Overview | 309 | ||
| 15.2 The Old Ford Warer Recycling Plant and Reclaimed Water Network | 310 | ||
| 15.2.1 The source influent from the northern outfall sewer and the site | 310 | ||
| 15.2.2 Pre-treatment | 311 | ||
| 15.2.3 Membrane bioreactor | 312 | ||
| 15.2.4 Post-treatment | 312 | ||
| 15.2.5 The reclaimed water distribution network | 312 | ||
| 15.3 Reclaimed Water Quality | 314 | ||
| 15.4 Reclaimed Water Consumption | 317 | ||
| 15.5 Operational Experiences | 317 | ||
| 15.6 Reclaimed Water Safety Plan | 319 | ||
| 15.7 Recipient Collaboration | 321 | ||
| 15.8 Public Perception | 323 | ||
| 15.9 Cost-Benefit and Comparison with other Studies | 324 | ||
| 15.10 Lessons Learnt | 325 | ||
| 15.10.1 Advanced preparation, awareness and guidance | 325 | ||
| 15.10.2 Reclaimed water quality | 326 | ||
| 15.10.3 Communication and liaison | 327 | ||
| 15.11 Conclusions | 327 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 328 | ||
| References | 328 | ||
| Chapter 16: Decentralised wastewater treatment and reuse plants: Understanding their fugitive greenhouse gas emissions and environmental footprint | 329 | ||
| 16.1 Introduction | 329 | ||
| 16.2 Emission Mechanics of N2O and CH4 from Wastewater Treatment Systems | 330 | ||
| 16.2.1 Study specification and objectives | 332 | ||
| 16.3 Measurement Campaign Specification and Analysis Methodologies | 332 | ||
| 16.3.1 Reuse systems specifications | 332 | ||
| 16.3.2 Gas analysis instrumentation and sampling technique | 335 | ||
| 16.3.3 Wastewater GHG emissions modelling | 337 | ||
| 16.4 Measurement Campaign Results and Discussion | 338 | ||
| 16.4.1 Fugitive emissions | 338 | ||
| 16.4.2 Total carbon footprint for each reuse system | 344 | ||
| 16.4.3 Emissions mitigation and gas reuse strategies | 345 | ||
| 16.5 Conclusion | 346 | ||
| References | 347 | ||
| Chapter 17: Large-scale water reuse systems and energy | 351 | ||
| 17.1 Introduction | 351 | ||
| 17.2 Energy Footprint of the Urban Water Cycle | 352 | ||
| 17.2.1 Typical components of energy consumption in the urban water cycle | 352 | ||
| 17.2.2 Energy consumption of wastewater treatment and reuse | 353 | ||
| 17.2.3 Carbon footprint of wastewater treatment and reuse | 356 | ||
| 17.3 Key Energy Use Components of Wastewater Treatment and Reuse | 358 | ||
| 17.3.1 Typical distribution of energy consumption | 358 | ||
| 17.3.2 Energy consumption of large water recycling facilities | 358 | ||
| 17.4 Methods for Energy and Carbon Footprint Minimization | 360 | ||
| 17.5 Conclusions | 363 | ||
| References | 363 | ||
| Chapter 18: Risk mitigation for wastewater irrigation systems in low-income countries: Opportunities and limitations of the WHO guidelines | 367 | ||
| 18.1 Introduction | 367 | ||
| 18.2 Health Risks Associated with Wastewater Irrigation Systems in Low-Income Countries | 368 | ||
| 18.3 Risk Mitigation Perspectives from the WHO Guidelines | 370 | ||
| 18.3.1 The multiple-barrier approach | 370 | ||
| 18.3.2 Evidence of risk mitigation in the WHO guidelines | 371 | ||
| 18.4 Evidence from Field Studies in West Africa | 372 | ||
| 18.4.1 Farm-based risk mitigation measures | 372 | ||
| 18.4.1.1 Improving irrigation water quality at farms | 372 | ||
| 18.4.1.2 Drip irrigation | 374 | ||
| 18.4.1.3 Spray and sprinkler irrigation | 375 | ||
| 18.4.1.4 Pathogen die-off | 376 | ||
| 18.4.2 Post-harvest risk mitigation measures | 376 | ||
| 18.4.2.1 Produce peeling at markets | 376 | ||
| 18.4.2.2 Produce washing at markets | 377 | ||
| 18.4.2.3 Produce washing and disinfection at kitchens | 377 | ||
| 18.5 Adoption of Safe Re-use Practices | 380 | ||
| 18.5.1 Economic incentives | 380 | ||
| 18.5.2 Raising Awareness: ‘making visible the invisible’ | 381 | ||
| 18.5.3 Social marketing | 381 | ||
| 18.5.4 Land tenure security | 382 | ||
| 18.5.5 Training and extension | 382 | ||
| 18.5.6 Laws and regulations | 382 | ||
| 18.5.7 Effective communication | 383 | ||
| 18.6 Discussion and Conclusion | 384 | ||
| References | 385 | ||
| Section IV: Decision Making and Implementation | 391 | ||
| Chapter 19: Decision support systems for water reuse in smart building water cycle management | 393 | ||
| 19.1 Introduction | 393 | ||
| 19.2 Smart Building | 394 | ||
| 19.2.1 Building automation | 397 | ||
| 19.2.2 Relationship to green building | 398 | ||
| 19.3 The Building Water Cycle | 399 | ||
| 19.3.1 Building water demands | 401 | ||
| 19.3.2 Building water sources | 404 | ||
| 19.3.3 Usage patterns | 406 | ||
| 19.3.4 Integrated Building Water Management (IBWM) | 407 | ||
| 19.4 Decision Support Systems | 409 | ||
| 19.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages | 409 | ||
| 19.4.2 Role of DSSs in smart building water reuse and recycling | 410 | ||
| 19.4.3 Tools for building water management | 413 | ||
| 19.4.4 Incorporating IBWM into smart building DSSs | 415 | ||
| 19.5 Conclusion | 416 | ||
| References | 417 | ||
| Chapter 20: A blueprint for moving from building-scale to district-scale – San Francisco’s non-potable water programme | 421 | ||
| 20.1 Introduction | 421 | ||
| 20.2 Alternative Water Sources and End Uses Available On-Site | 422 | ||
| 20.2.1 Alternative water sources | 422 | ||
| 20.2.2 Non-potable end uses | 422 | ||
| 20.3 Water Use Reduction | 423 | ||
| 20.4 Green Building Movement as a Driver for On-Site Non-Potable Water Use | 424 | ||
| 20.5 Current Regulation of Alternative Water Sources | 426 | ||
| 20.6 Working Together – A Three-Pronged Approach to Collaboration | 427 | ||
| 20.7 Water Quality Requirements for On-Site Non-Potable Systems | 428 | ||
| 20.8 The SFPUC as a Resource | 429 | ||
| 20.9 On-Site Non-Potable Reuse at the SFPUC Headquarters | 429 | ||
| 20.9.1 Permitting the system | 430 | ||
| 20.9.2 The treatment system at SFPUC headquarters | 431 | ||
| 20.9.2.1 Treatment process | 432 | ||
| 20.9.2.2 Water quality results | 435 | ||
| 20.10 Moving Towards District-Scale Water Sharing in San Francisco | 437 | ||
| 20.10.1 Crossing property lines | 437 | ||
| 20.10.2 Selling water and public utilities | 438 | ||
| 20.10.3 Water rights | 438 | ||
| 20.10.4 Next steps | 438 | ||
| 20.11 Conclusions | 439 | ||
| References | 439 | ||
| Chapter 21: The socio-technology of alternative water systems | 441 | ||
| 21.1 Introduction | 441 | ||
| 21.2 Infrastructure, Society and the Environment | 442 | ||
| 21.3 Sustainability, Technology and Water | 444 | ||
| 21.4 Conventional Supply | 445 | ||
| 21.4.1 Case study: London, England | 446 | ||
| 21.5 Potable Reuse | 447 | ||
| 21.5.1 Case study: South-East Queensland, Australia | 448 | ||
| 21.6 District Non-Potable Water Reuse | 449 | ||
| 21.6.1 Case study: Old Ford water recycling plant, London | 450 | ||
| 21.7 Rainwater Harvesting | 451 | ||
| 21.7.1 Case study: Pimpama Coomera, Australia | 451 | ||
| 21.8 Discussion | 452 | ||
| 21.9 Conclusion | 454 | ||
| References | 457 | ||
| Index | 459 |