BOOK
Rainwater Tank Systems for Urban Water Supply
Ashok K. Sharma | Donald Begbie | Ted Gardner
(2015)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Rainwater tank systems have been widely adopted across the world to provide a safe local source of water in underdeveloped rural areas, a substitution for mains water for non potable end uses in water stressed urban areas, as well as providing flooding control in monsoonal climates such as Korea, or combined sewer systems such as Germany. The importance of these systems in cities has grown, as water managers seek to provide a range of decentralised solutions to supply constraints of current water supply systems, whilst reducing the impact of urban development on the natural environment, and increasing resilience to the impacts of climate change. Rainwater tank systems are now often implemented under integrated urban water management (IUWM) and water sensitive urban design (WSUD) philosophies, which take a holistic view of the urban water cycle.
Rainwater Tank Systems for Urban Water Supply is based on a comprehensive, multi-million dollar research program that was undertaken in South East Queensland (SEQ) Australia in response to the Millennium drought when the water supply level in the regions drinking water dams dropped to 17% in July 2007 and the area came close to running out of water. In particular, the book provides insights and detailed analysis of design, modelling, implementation, operation, energy usage, economics, management, health risk, social perceptions and implications for water quality/quantity of roof water runoff.
The approaches and methodologies included in Rainwater Tank Systems for Urban Water Supply inform and validate research programs, and provide insights on the expected performance and potential pitfalls of the adoption of rainwater tanks systems including: actual harvested yield and resulting mains water savings, optimal sizing for rainwater storages and roof collection systems, expected water quality and implications for managing public health risks, modelling tools available for decision support, operation and management approaches of a decentralised asset at the household scale and community acceptance.
The book is suitable for use at undergraduate and post graduate levels and is of particular interest to water professionals across the globe, who are involved in the strategic water planning for a town, city or a region. It is a valuable resource for developers, civil designers, water planners, architects and plumbers seeking to implement sustainable water servicing approaches for residential, industrial and commercial developments.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| Editors | xiii | ||
| List of Authors | xv | ||
| Foreword | xxi | ||
| Preface | xxiii | ||
| Editorial | xxv | ||
| Chapter 1: Rainwater harvesting systems for urban developments | 1 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 1 | ||
| 1.1 INTRODUCTION | 1 | ||
| 1.2 INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES WITH RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS | 3 | ||
| 1.3 THE AUSTRALIAN EXPERIENCE WITH RAINWATER TANK SYSTEMS | 5 | ||
| 1.4 KEY ISSUES FOR GREATER UPTAKE OF RAINWATER TANK SYSTEMS | 7 | ||
| 1.4.1 Estimating rainwater system yield and mains water savings | 7 | ||
| 1.4.2 Understanding the risks associated with rainwater quality | 8 | ||
| 1.4.3 Guidelines for managing risks of rainwater use | 9 | ||
| 1.4.4 Evaluating the cost-effectiveness of rainwater tanks | 10 | ||
| 1.4.5 Understanding the indirect costs and benefits of rainwater tanks (externalities) | 11 | ||
| 1.4.6 Impact of rainwater systems on stormwater flows and nutrient loads | 12 | ||
| 1.4.7 Impact of rainwater tank systems on centralised water systems and water quality | 13 | ||
| 1.4.8 Energy consumption in rainwater tank systems | 13 | ||
| 1.5 CONCLUSIONS | 14 | ||
| 1.6 REFERENCES | 14 | ||
| Chapter 2: Rainwater tank modelling | 19 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 19 | ||
| 2.1 INTRODUCTION | 19 | ||
| 2.2 GENERAL CONCEPTS UNDERLYING A RAIN WATER TANK MODEL | 20 | ||
| 2.3 ASPECTS OF SOME EXISTING RAIN WATER TANK MODELS | 24 | ||
| 2.3.1 Time-step and climate data inputs | 24 | ||
| 2.3.2 Water demand data inputs | 25 | ||
| 2.3.3 Roof runoff modelling | 27 | ||
| 2.3.4 Tank water balance configurations | 27 | ||
| 2.3.5 Model outputs | 28 | ||
| 2.4 INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT VARIABLES IN THE TANK SIMULATION | 29 | ||
| 2.4.1 Time-step and spill rule | 30 | ||
| 2.4.2 Roof area | 33 | ||
| 2.4.3 Tank size | 33 | ||
| 2.4.4 Demand | 34 | ||
| 2.4.5 Initial and continuing losses | 35 | ||
| 2.4.6 Simulation length | 36 | ||
| 2.4.7 Validation | 37 | ||
| 2.5 UPSCALING OF RAINWATER TANK BEHAVIOUR TO MULTIPLE TANKS | 39 | ||
| 2.6 CONCLUSIONS | 41 | ||
| 2.7 REFERENCES | 42 | ||
| Chapter 3: Quantifying mains water savings from residential rainwater tanks | 47 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 47 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 48 | ||
| 3.1.1 Why quantify mains water savings? | 48 | ||
| 3.1.2 Previous studies on mains water savings | 48 | ||
| 3.1.3 Chapter objectives and scope | 50 | ||
| 3.2 CASE STUDY 1 – DESKTOP ANALYSIS OF MAINS WATER SAVINGS | 50 | ||
| 3.2.1 Background | 50 | ||
| 3.2.1.1 Research objectives and hypothesis | 51 | ||
| 3.2.2 Methods | 51 | ||
| 3.2.2.1 Site locations and data collection | 51 | ||
| 3.2.2.2 Identification of sample cohorts | 52 | ||
| 3.2.2.3 Statistical analysis | 53 | ||
| 3.2.2.4 Overcoming limitations with data availability | 54 | ||
| 3.2.2.4.1 Bottom-up end use calculations | 54 | ||
| 3.2.2.4.2 Rainwater tank modelling | 55 | ||
| 3.2.3 Results | 55 | ||
| 3.2.4 Discussion and implications | 57 | ||
| 3.2.4.1 Influence of water restrictions | 57 | ||
| 3.2.5 Limitations of Case Study 1 | 57 | ||
| 3.2.6 Concluding remarks | 58 | ||
| 3.3 CASE STUDY 2 – BENCHMARK ANALYSIS OF MAINS WATER SAVINGS | 58 | ||
| 3.3.1 Background | 58 | ||
| 3.3.2 Research aims | 58 | ||
| 3.3.3 Methods | 59 | ||
| 3.3.3.1 Data collection and participant details | 59 | ||
| 3.3.3.2 Assessment procedure | 59 | ||
| 3.3.4 Results and discussion | 60 | ||
| 3.3.4.1 Water consumption data for MRT dwellings | 60 | ||
| 3.3.4.2 Benchmark analysis of mains water savings for MRT households | 60 | ||
| 3.3.5 Challenges and limitations | 62 | ||
| 3.3.6 Concluding remarks | 62 | ||
| 3.4 CASE STUDY 3 – WATER SAVINGS FROM REBATED RAINWATER TANKS | 63 | ||
| 3.4.1 Background | 63 | ||
| 3.4.1.1 Research aims | 63 | ||
| 3.4.2 Methods | 63 | ||
| 3.4.2.1 Data sources and pre-processing | 63 | ||
| 3.4.2.2 Analysis procedure | 64 | ||
| 3.4.3 Mains water savings results | 65 | ||
| 3.4.4 Interpretation and implications | 66 | ||
| 3.4.5 Challenges and limitations | 67 | ||
| 3.4.6 Concluding remarks | 67 | ||
| 3.5 KEY CONSIDERATIONS IN QUANTIFYING MAINS SAVINGS | 68 | ||
| 3.5.1 Quality of the datasets | 68 | ||
| 3.5.1.1 Desktop approach only | 68 | ||
| 3.5.1.2 Field measurement approach | 69 | ||
| 3.5.2 Mixed method and analyses | 70 | ||
| 3.5.3 Sample size v quality of datasets | 70 | ||
| 3.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS | 70 | ||
| 3.7 REFERENCES | 71 | ||
| Chapter 4: Monitoring of household rainwater tank systems for rainwater usage | 73 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 73 | ||
| 4.1 INTRODUCTION | 73 | ||
| 4.2 MONITORING OF WATER USAGE IN RAINWATER TANK SYSTEMS | 74 | ||
| 4.2.1 Drivers for monitoring | 75 | ||
| 4.2.2 Case studies in Australia | 75 | ||
| 4.2.2.1 Sydney Water, Sydney | 76 | ||
| 4.2.2.2 UWSRA, South East Queensland | 76 | ||
| 4.3 RAINWATER SYSTEM COMPONENTS, ACCESSORIES AND CONFIGURATIONS | 76 | ||
| 4.4 EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES | 78 | ||
| 4.4.1 Monitoring methods | 78 | ||
| 4.4.2 Instrumentation | 79 | ||
| 4.4.2.1 Water meter | 79 | ||
| 4.4.2.2 Electricity meter | 80 | ||
| 4.4.2.3 Data logger | 82 | ||
| 4.4.2.4 Rainfall measuring devices | 82 | ||
| 4.4.2.5 Other monitoring equipment | 83 | ||
| 4.4.2.6 Protective casing | 85 | ||
| 4.4.2.7 Recent developments in monitoring instrumentation | 85 | ||
| 4.4.3 Sample number and ethics approval | 86 | ||
| 4.4.4 Site inspections and audits | 86 | ||
| 4.4.5 Correlation with weather and seasonal patterns | 86 | ||
| 4.4.6 Monitoring duration and intervals | 87 | ||
| 4.5 DATA MANAGEMENT | 88 | ||
| 4.5.1 Data cleansing and validation | 88 | ||
| 4.5.2 Data analysis | 89 | ||
| 4.6 CASE STUDY 1: RAINWATER TANK MONITORING, SOUTH EAST QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA | 89 | ||
| 4.6.1 Data analysis and results | 90 | ||
| 4.7 CASE STUDY 2: SYDNEY WATER, SYDNEY, NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA | 93 | ||
| 4.7.1 Data analysis and results | 94 | ||
| 4.8 OTHER COST CONSIDERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH MONITORING | 95 | ||
| 4.9 CONCLUSION | 96 | ||
| 4.10 REFERENCES | 97 | ||
| Chapter 5: Physical verification of household rainwater tank systems | 101 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 101 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 101 | ||
| 5.2 RAINWATER TANK INSTALLATION COMPLIANCE MONITORING FRAMEWORK | 103 | ||
| 5.2.1 Sydney BASIX assessment | 103 | ||
| 5.2.2 Queensland Development Code Performance criteria | 104 | ||
| 5.2.3 Rainwater tank installation audit protocol | 105 | ||
| 5.3 APPLICATION OF THE METHOD TO THE SEQ CASE STUDY AREA | 110 | ||
| 5.3.1 Context | 110 | ||
| 5.3.2 Data collection | 111 | ||
| 5.4 RESULTS | 112 | ||
| 5.4.1 General rainwater tank characteristics | 112 | ||
| 5.4.2 Rainwater tank storage volume | 112 | ||
| 5.4.3 Connected roof area | 115 | ||
| 5.4.4 Connection to toilets, washing machines and external use | 119 | ||
| 5.4.5 Continuous supply | 119 | ||
| 5.4.6 Water quality protection | 119 | ||
| 5.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION | 121 | ||
| 5.6 REFERENCES | 123 | ||
| Chapter 6 : Understanding energy usage in rainwater tank systems through laboratory and household monitoring | 127 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 127 | ||
| 6.1 ENERGY USAGE IN RAINWATER SYSTEMS | 127 | ||
| 6.2 RAINWATER SYSTEM SET-UP | 129 | ||
| 6.3 ENERGY USE ESTIMATION | 133 | ||
| 6.3.1 Factors impacting energy consumption | 133 | ||
| 6.3.2 Pump performance | 133 | ||
| 6.3.3 Pump design and characteristics | 133 | ||
| 6.3.4 End use water requirements | 136 | ||
| 6.3.5 Dwelling occupancy and characteristics | 140 | ||
| 6.3.6 Friction losses | 141 | ||
| 6.3.7 Other components | 141 | ||
| 6.3.7.1 Pressure vessels | 141 | ||
| 6.3.7.2 Header tanks | 143 | ||
| 6.3.7.3 Different types of storages (under-floor bladders, gutter storage) | 144 | ||
| 6.4 REDUCING ENERGY USE FOR RAINWATER SYSTEMS – LESSONS FROM AUSTRALIA | 145 | ||
| 6.4.1 Policy considerations for rainwater system energy use | 146 | ||
| 6.5 CONCLUSIONS | 146 | ||
| 6.6 REFERENCES | 147 | ||
| Chapter 7: Management and operational needs for urban rainwater tanks | 151 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 151 | ||
| 7.1 THE NEED FOR MANAGING RAINWATER TANKS | 151 | ||
| 7.2 ISSUES TO CONSIDER IN THE MANAGEMENT OF URBAN RAINWATER TANKS | 152 | ||
| 7.3 PRIVATE OWNERSHIP VS PUBLIC BENEFIT | 155 | ||
| 7.4 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONDITION | 156 | ||
| 7.4.1 Maintenance | 156 | ||
| 7.4.2 Design | 156 | ||
| 7.4.3 Installation | 157 | ||
| 7.5 LOCAL CONTEXT | 158 | ||
| 7.5.1 Local regulatory environment | 158 | ||
| 7.5.2 Understanding behaviour | 159 | ||
| 7.5.2.1 Motivation | 159 | ||
| 7.5.2.2 Self-efficacy | 160 | ||
| 7.5.2.3 External influences | 161 | ||
| 7.6 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK | 161 | ||
| 7.7 APPLICATION OF THE RESEARCH FRAMEWORK: THE SOUTH EAST QUEENSLAND CASE STUDY | 163 | ||
| 7.7.1 South East Queensland context | 163 | ||
| 7.7.1.1 Historical context | 164 | ||
| 7.7.1.2 Regulatory and practical context | 164 | ||
| 7.7.1.3 Tank stock and general condition | 165 | ||
| 7.7.2 Definition of strategies | 166 | ||
| 7.7.2.1 Industry and government stakeholder engagement: Workshop | 166 | ||
| 7.7.2.2 Community stakeholder engagement: Focus groups | 167 | ||
| 7.7.3 Assessing strategies | 168 | ||
| 7.7.3.1 Establishing success criteria for strategies | 169 | ||
| 7.7.3.2 Survey of householders | 169 | ||
| 7.7.3.3 Synthesising the data and using models for evaluation of strategies | 171 | ||
| 7.8 DISCUSSION | 175 | ||
| 7.9 CONCLUSIONS | 177 | ||
| 7.10 REFERENCES | 178 | ||
| Chapter 8: Public perceptions, motivational drivers, and maintenance behaviour for urban rainwater tanks | 181 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 181 | ||
| 8.1 INTRODUCTION | 181 | ||
| 8.2 PAST SOCIAL RESEARCH ON RAINWATER USE IN URBAN AUSTRALIA | 183 | ||
| 8.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE, ADOPTION AND MAINTENANCE OF RAINWATER TANKS | 184 | ||
| 8.4 INVESTIGATING PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE OF RAINWATER TANKS: QUALITATIVE METHODS | 186 | ||
| 8.4.1 Identifying facilitators and barriers to rainwater tank adoption in South East Queensland | 186 | ||
| 8.4.2 Case study findings | 188 | ||
| 8.5 INVESTIGATING PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE OF RAINWATER TANKS: QUANTITATIVE METHODS | 190 | ||
| 8.5.1 Predictors of rainwater tank adoption in South East Queensland | 190 | ||
| 8.5.2 Case study findings | 192 | ||
| 8.5.2.1 Psychological predictors of rainwater tank adoption | 192 | ||
| 8.5.2.2 Willingness to pay for a rainwater tank | 193 | ||
| 8.6 IDENTIFYING MOTIVATIONAL DRIVERS OF RAINWATER TANK MAINTENANCE: QUANTITATIVE METHODS | 194 | ||
| 8.6.1 Drivers of rainwater tank maintenance behaviour for mandated tank owners | 195 | ||
| 8.6.2 Case study results | 196 | ||
| 8.6.3 Drivers of rainwater tank maintenance behaviour for retrofitted versus mandated tanks | 198 | ||
| 8.6.4 Case study results | 199 | ||
| 8.7 CONCLUSION | 200 | ||
| 8.7.1 How can we influence public acceptance and adoption of rainwater tanks? | 201 | ||
| 8.7.2 How can we encourage more effective maintenance of domestic rainwater tanks? | 202 | ||
| 8.8 REFERENCES | 203 | ||
| Chapter 9: Chemical quality of rainwater in rain tanks | 207 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 207 | ||
| 9.1 INTRODUCTION | 207 | ||
| 9.1.1 The uses of tank water | 208 | ||
| 9.1.2 Water quality guidelines | 209 | ||
| 9.2 WATER QUALITY FROM RAINFALL TO ROOF TO TANK | 210 | ||
| 9.2.1 Rainwater and atmospheric influences on inflow quality | 210 | ||
| 9.2.2 The effect of roof material on the quality of tank inflows | 211 | ||
| 9.2.3 A statistical overview of roof runoff quality | 212 | ||
| 9.2.4 Improving tank inflow quality | 215 | ||
| 9.2.5 The rain tank as a water treatment device | 216 | ||
| 9.3 MEASUREMENTS OF RAIN TANK WATER QUALITY | 217 | ||
| 9.3.1 Introduction | 217 | ||
| 9.3.2 Studies of tank water quality: A summary | 217 | ||
| 9.3.3 Meta-analysis: Proportion of tanks with high lead concentrations | 219 | ||
| 9.3.4 pH of tank water and relationship with lead concentration | 221 | ||
| 9.3.5 Quality aspects of tank supply to hot water systems | 221 | ||
| 9.4 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WATER SUPPLIED BY RAIN TANKS | 223 | ||
| 9.5 CONCLUSION | 223 | ||
| 9.6 REFERENCES | 224 | ||
| Chapter 10: Microbiological quality and associated health risks with the use of roof-captured rainwater | 229 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 229 | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION | 229 | ||
| 10.2 FAECAL INDICATORS AND PATHOGENS IN ROOF-CAPTURED RAINWATER | 230 | ||
| 10.2.1 Faecal indicators | 230 | ||
| 10.2.2 Bacterial pathogens | 232 | ||
| 10.2.3 Opportunistic bacterial pathogens | 233 | ||
| 10.2.4 Protozoa pathogens | 234 | ||
| 10.2.5 Likely sources of Escherichia coli harboring toxin genes in rainwater tanks | 235 | ||
| 10.2.6 Presence and source of faecal indicators and zoonotic pathogens in household drinking water taps fed from rainwater tanks in South East Queensland | 237 | ||
| 10.2.7 Inactivation of faecal indicator bacteria in a roof-captured rainwater system | 238 | ||
| 10.3 HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH ROOF CAPTURED RAINWATER | 242 | ||
| 10.3.1 Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment to determine health risk from the use of roof-captured rainwater | 245 | ||
| 10.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS | 248 | ||
| 10.5 REFERENCES | 249 | ||
| Chapter 11: Cluster-scale rainwater harvesting | 253 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 253 | ||
| 11.1 INTRODUCTION | 253 | ||
| 11.2 LITERATURE REVIEW | 255 | ||
| 11.2.1 Examples of cluster-scale rainwater harvesting | 255 | ||
| 11.2.2 Impediments and benefits | 256 | ||
| 11.3 CASE STUDIES OF CLUSTER-SCALE HARVESTING | 257 | ||
| 11.3.1 Capo di Monte | 257 | ||
| 11.3.2 Wannon water’s roof water harvesting project | 259 | ||
| 11.3.3 Christie walk | 260 | ||
| 11.3.4 Fitzgibbon chase potable roof water (PotaRoo) scheme | 261 | ||
| 11.3.4.1 Rainwater collection | 261 | ||
| 11.3.4.2 Water balance | 262 | ||
| 11.3.4.3 Collection system | 262 | ||
| 11.3.4.4 Storage systems | 263 | ||
| 11.3.4.5 Distribution and treatment system | 263 | ||
| 11.3.4.6 Supply of potable water | 263 | ||
| 11.4 MODELLING THE PERFORMANCE OF INDIVIDUAL VS. CLUSTER RAINWATER HARVESTING | 263 | ||
| 11.5 METHOD FOR THE DESIGN OF CSRH SYSTEMS | 264 | ||
| 11.5.1 Designing the CSRH system | 264 | ||
| 11.5.1.1 Rainwater collection pipes | 266 | ||
| 11.5.1.2 Rainwater storage tanks | 266 | ||
| 11.5.1.3 Rainwater distribution systems | 267 | ||
| 11.5.1.4 Pump capacities | 267 | ||
| 11.6 WATER TREATMENT | 268 | ||
| 11.6.1 Preliminary treatment and filtration | 268 | ||
| 11.6.2 Disinfection | 269 | ||
| 11.6.3 Post-treatment methods | 269 | ||
| 11.7 MANAGEMENT OF CSRH SYSTEMS | 269 | ||
| 11.8 CONCLUSIONS | 271 | ||
| 11.9 REFERENCES | 271 | ||
| Chapter 12: Economics of individual and communal rainwater tank systems | 275 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 275 | ||
| 12.1 INTRODUCTION | 275 | ||
| 12.2 COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF INDIVIDUAL RAINWATER TANKS | 276 | ||
| 12.2.1 Method | 276 | ||
| 12.2.1.1 Step 1: Define the objectives and limitations | 276 | ||
| 12.2.1.2 Step 2: Define the data variation and uncertainty | 277 | ||
| 12.2.1.3 Step 3: Calculate the cost-effectiveness and test the sensitivity | 277 | ||
| 12.2.2 Case study – mandated rainwater tanks in South East Queensland, Australia | 277 | ||
| 12.2.2.1 Define the objectives and limitations | 277 | ||
| 12.2.2.2 Define the data variation and uncertainty | 279 | ||
| 12.2.2.3 Calculate the cost-effectiveness and test the sensitivity | 282 | ||
| 12.2.2.4 Alternative Scenario | 284 | ||
| 12.3 COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNAL RAINWATER TANKS | 285 | ||
| 12.3.1 Communal rainwater tank systems | 285 | ||
| 12.3.2 Method for cost-effectiveness estimation | 286 | ||
| 12.3.2.1 Case study – Results | 286 | ||
| 12.4 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF RAINWATER TANKS | 290 | ||
| 12.4.1 The role of cost-effectiveness assessment | 290 | ||
| 12.4.2 Cost-benefit analysis | 291 | ||
| 12.4.3 Proposed economic framework | 291 | ||
| 12.4.3.1 Cost streams | 291 | ||
| 12.4.3.2 Benefit streams | 292 | ||
| 12.4.3.2.1 Value to the user | 292 | ||
| 12.4.3.2.2 Reduced stormwater management costs | 293 | ||
| 12.4.3.2.3 Avoided and deferred potable system costs | 294 | ||
| 12.4.3.2.4 Improved potable system reliability | 294 | ||
| 12.4.3.2.5 Ecosystem services | 295 | ||
| 12.4.3.3 Qualitative benefits | 295 | ||
| 12.4.4 Case study – Toowoomba | 296 | ||
| 12.5 DISCUSSION | 297 | ||
| 12.6 CONCLUSIONS | 298 | ||
| 12.7 REFERENCES | 299 | ||
| Chapter 13: Impact of rainwater tanks on urban hydrology and stormwater quality | 301 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 301 | ||
| 13.1 INTRODUCTION | 301 | ||
| 13.2 IMPACTS OF URBANIZATION ON STREAM HYDROLOGY AND WATER QUALITY | 302 | ||
| 13.2.1 Stream hydrology | 302 | ||
| 13.2.2 Water quality | 302 | ||
| 13.2.3 Stream ecological consequences | 306 | ||
| 13.3 CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES TO URBAN STORMWATER MANAGEMENT IN AUSTRALIA | 306 | ||
| 13.4 HOW URBAN STORMWATER CAN BE MANAGED FOR URBAN STREAM PROTECTION OR RESTORATION | 308 | ||
| 13.4.1 Increase volumetric losses | 308 | ||
| 13.4.2 Increase infiltration (filtered-flow) | 308 | ||
| 13.4.3 Increase equivalent initial loss | 308 | ||
| 13.5 THE ROLE OF RAINWATER TANKS IN FLOW-REGIME MANAGEMENT | 309 | ||
| 13.5.1 Increase volumetric losses | 309 | ||
| 13.5.2 Increase infiltration (filtered-flow) | 309 | ||
| 13.5.3 Increase equivalent initial loss | 313 | ||
| 13.5.4 Water quality and tanks | 313 | ||
| 13.6 OTHER BENEFITS OF RAINWATER TANKS | 313 | ||
| 13.7 CONCLUSION | 314 | ||
| 13.8 REFERENCES | 314 | ||
| Chapter 14: Rainwater tanks in Australia: Their social/political context, a research overview, policy implications, future research needs, and application of findings to other countries | 319 | ||
| ABSTRACT | 319 | ||
| 14.1 INTRODUCTION | 320 | ||
| 14.2 DRIVERS FOR RAINWATER TANKS IMPLEMENTATION | 321 | ||
| 14.2.1 Australian context | 321 | ||
| 14.2.2 International context | 322 | ||
| 14.3 CURRENT AVAILABILITY OF WATER RESOURCES IN AUSTRALIA | 324 | ||
| 14.3.1 Changes in approach to alternative water supplies in Australia | 324 | ||
| 14.4 POLICY IMPLICATIONS FROM THE CHAPTERS | 326 | ||
| 14.5 LESSONS FOR OTHER COUNTRIES | 331 | ||
| 14.6 CONCLUSIONS | 333 | ||
| 14.7 REFERENCES | 333 | ||
| Index | 339 |