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Book Details
Abstract
Early applications of desalination were small-scale plants deploying a range of technologies. However with the technological developments in Reverse Osmosis, most new plants use this technology because it has a proven history of use and low energy and capital costs compared with other available desalination technologies. This has led to the recent trend for larger seawater desalination plants in an effort to further reduce costs, and 1000 MLD seawater desalination plants are projected by 2020.
Efficient Desalination by Reverse Osmosis recognises that desalination by reverse osmosis has progressed significantly over the last decades and provides an up to date review of the state of the art for the reverse osmosis process. It covers issues that arise from desalination operations, environmental issues and ideas for research that will bring further improvements in this technology.
Efficient Desalination by Reverse Osmosis provides a complete guide to best practice from pre-treatment through to project delivery.
Editors: Stewart Burn, Visiting Scientist, CSIRO Manufacturing. Adjunct Professor, Institute of Sustainability and Innovation, Victoria University. Adjunct Professor, Department of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, RMIT University.
Stephen Gray, Director, Institute of Sustainability and Innovation, Victoria University.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Contents | v | ||
| Acknowledgements | xi | ||
| Chapter 1: Introduction: Desalination by reverse osmosis | 1 | ||
| REFERENCES | 4 | ||
| Chapter 2: The process of reverse osmosis | 5 | ||
| 2.1 INTRODUCTION | 5 | ||
| 2.2 OSMOTIC PRESSURE | 6 | ||
| 2.2.1 Calculation of osmotic pressure | 8 | ||
| 2.3 WATER FLOW | 9 | ||
| 2.3.1 Salt rejection | 10 | ||
| 2.3.2 Salt passage | 10 | ||
| 2.4 SALT FLOW | 11 | ||
| 2.5 RECOVERY | 13 | ||
| 2.6 CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION | 17 | ||
| 2.6.1 Control of concentration polarization | 19 | ||
| 2.6.2 Effects of concentration polarization | 20 | ||
| 2.6.3 Concentration polarization factor | 20 | ||
| 2.7 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT | 21 | ||
| 2.8 WATER TEMPERATURE | 23 | ||
| 2.9 SUMMARY | 25 | ||
| 2.10 REFERENCES | 25 | ||
| Chapter 3: Filtration technologies for pretreatment of seawater desalination based on reverse osmosis | 27 | ||
| 3.1 INTRODUCTION | 27 | ||
| 3.2 GRANULAR MEDIA FILTRATION | 30 | ||
| 3.2.1 Background | 30 | ||
| 3.2.2 Coagulation | 33 | ||
| 3.2.3 Coagulant type | 35 | ||
| 3.2.4 Filtration rates | 36 | ||
| 3.2.5 Media | 38 | ||
| 3.2.6 Backwash | 39 | ||
| 3.3 MEMBRANE FILTRATION | 39 | ||
| 3.3.1 Background | 39 | ||
| 3.3.2 Coagulation | 41 | ||
| 3.3.3 Flux and recovery | 43 | ||
| 3.3.4 Membranes | 46 | ||
| 3.3.5 Cleaning | 47 | ||
| 3.4 SELECTION OF SEAWATER FILTRATION PRETREATMENT | 50 | ||
| 3.4.1 Water quality | 50 | ||
| 3.4.2 Cost | 53 | ||
| 3.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION | 56 | ||
| 3.6 REFERENCES | 57 | ||
| Chapter 4: Reverse osmosis process’ design and applications | 61 | ||
| 4.1 OVERVIEW | 61 | ||
| 4.1.1 Single and multiple pass RO systems | 61 | ||
| 4.2 NF SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS | 64 | ||
| 4.3 BWRO SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS | 65 | ||
| 4.4 SEAWATER SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS | 67 | ||
| 4.4.1 Single-pass SWRO systems | 68 | ||
| 4.4.2 Two-pass SWRO systems | 68 | ||
| 4.4.3 Conventional full-two pass SWRO systems | 69 | ||
| 4.4.4 Split-partial two-pass SWRO systems | 69 | ||
| 4.4.5 Product water quality of single and two-pass SWRO systems | 71 | ||
| 4.4.6 Four-stage SWRO systems | 74 | ||
| 4.4.7 Two-stage SWRO systems | 75 | ||
| 4.4.8 Hybrid SWRO systems with multiple passes and stages | 76 | ||
| 4.5 THREE-CENTER RO SYSTEM CONFIGURATION | 78 | ||
| 4.6 REFERENCES | 81 | ||
| Chapter 5: Fouling in reverse osmosis | 83 | ||
| 5.1 INTRODUCTION | 83 | ||
| 5.2 INORGANIC SPECIES | 84 | ||
| 5.3 COLLOIDAL MATERIAL | 85 | ||
| 5.4 ADSORPTION OF ORGANICS | 86 | ||
| 5.5 BIOFOULING | 87 | ||
| 5.6 ADVANCES IN MEMBRANE AUTOPSY | 89 | ||
| 5.7 PRE-TREATMENTS | 91 | ||
| 5.7.1 Scale control | 92 | ||
| 5.7.2 Conventional coagulation/sedimentation/filtration | 93 | ||
| 5.7.3 Dissolved air flotation | 94 | ||
| 5.7.4 Ion exchange | 95 | ||
| 5.7.5 Low pressure MF or UF membranes | 96 | ||
| 5.7.6 High pressure NF membranes | 97 | ||
| 5.7.7 Combined technologies | 97 | ||
| 5.7.8 Comparison of conventional and membrane pre-treatment | 98 | ||
| 5.8 ANTI-FOULING MEMBRANES | 100 | ||
| 5.8.1 Increased hydrophilic character | 100 | ||
| 5.8.2 Charge modification | 105 | ||
| 5.8.3 Antibacterial surfaces | 108 | ||
| 5.8.4 Challenges | 110 | ||
| 5.9 CONCLUSIONS | 110 | ||
| 5.10 REFERENCES | 111 | ||
| Chapter 6: Reverse osmosis beneficiation | 119 | ||
| 6.1 INTRODUCTION | 119 | ||
| 6.2 ENGINEERED OSMOSIS PROCESSES | 120 | ||
| 6.2.1 Osmotically-driven processes: applications, benefits and limitations | 121 | ||
| 6.2.2 Integrated FO and RO processes | 122 | ||
| 6.3 RENEWABLE SOURCES AS ENERGY ENHANCEMENT FACILITIES FOR REVERSE OSMOSIS PROCESS | 125 | ||
| 6.3.1 Wind-powered RO plants | 125 | ||
| 6.3.2 Solar-powered and photovoltaic | 126 | ||
| 6.3.3 Wave energy | 127 | ||
| 6.4 REVERSE OSMOSIS CONCENTRATE | 128 | ||
| 6.4.1 Forward osmosis | 128 | ||
| 6.4.2 Pressure retarded osmosis | 129 | ||
| 6.4.3 Membrane distillation | 131 | ||
| 6.4.3.1 Basic principle of membrane distillation | 131 | ||
| 6.4.3.2 MD configurations | 131 | ||
| 6.4.3.3 Membrane characteristics | 132 | ||
| 6.4.3.4 Energy sources in membrane distillation | 132 | ||
| 6.4.3.5 An integrated membrane distillation and reverse osmosis process | 133 | ||
| 6.4.3.6 Membrane distillation crystallization | 134 | ||
| 6.5 CONCLUSIONS | 135 | ||
| 6.6 REFERENCES | 135 | ||
| Chapter 7: Brine management | 145 | ||
| 7.1 INTRODUCTION | 145 | ||
| 7.2 CHALLENGES IN BRINES MANAGEMENT | 148 | ||
| 7.2.1 Location limitation of available options | 148 | ||
| 7.2.2 Cost of options | 151 | ||
| 7.2.3 Regulatory requirements and limitations | 155 | ||
| 7.3 TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO BRINES MANAGEMENT AMELIORATION | 157 | ||
| 7.3.1 Brine volume reduction by decreasing brine scaling potential | 157 | ||
| 7.3.1.1 Chemical precipitation | 158 | ||
| 7.3.2 Seeded precipitation | 159 | ||
| 7.3.3 Adsorption | 160 | ||
| 7.3.4 Ion exchange | 161 | ||
| 7.3.5 Biological sulphate reduction | 161 | ||
| 7.3.6 Low pH operation | 161 | ||
| 7.3.7 Lime softening pre-treatment with interstage ion exchange removal of multivalent cations and high pH RO operation (HERO process) | 162 | ||
| 7.3.8 Two stage RO concentrate lime softening with interstage recycling (ARROW process) | 163 | ||
| 7.4 BRINE VOLUME REDUCTION THROUGH MEMBRANE BASED PROCESSES THAT CAN TOLERATE HIGH SCALING POTENTIAL | 164 | ||
| 7.4.1 Electodialysis reversal (EDR) | 164 | ||
| 7.4.2 Electrodialysis metathesis (EDM) | 164 | ||
| 7.4.3 Vibratory shear enhanced processing (VSEP) | 165 | ||
| 7.4.4 Slurry precipitation and recycle reverse osmosis (SPARRO) | 166 | ||
| 7.4.5 Membrane distillation (MD) | 167 | ||
| 7.4.6 Forward osmosis (FO) | 168 | ||
| 7.5 BRINE VOLUME REDUCTION VIA THERMALLY BASED PROCESSES | 169 | ||
| 7.6 CONCLUSIONS | 170 | ||
| 7.7 REFERENCES | 171 | ||
| Chapter 8: Impact of seawater desalination by reverse osmosis on the marine environment | 177 | ||
| 8.1 INTRODUCTION | 177 | ||
| 8.2 THE SWRO PROCESS | 178 | ||
| 8.3 REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH PERTAINING TO SWRO | 180 | ||
| 8.3.1 Salinity and temperature of the receiving waters | 180 | ||
| 8.3.2 Hypersalinity effects on biota | 182 | ||
| 8.3.3 Effects other than salinity | 184 | ||
| 8.4 CASE STUDIES | 186 | ||
| 8.4.1 Israel, South Eastern Mediterranean Sea | 186 | ||
| 8.4.2 Cockburn Sound, Western Australia, Indian Ocean | 189 | ||
| 8.4.3 Southern California, USA | 191 | ||
| 8.5 OUTLOOK | 192 | ||
| 8.5.1 Desalination technology | 193 | ||
| 8.5.2 Research | 193 | ||
| 8.5.3 In situ monitoring | 194 | ||
| 8.5.4 Integration | 195 | ||
| 8.6 REFERENCES | 195 | ||
| Chapter 9: Charting the future course for reverse osmosis and nanofiltraton membranes – opportunities and challenges | 203 | ||
| 9.1 EMERGING NEEDS | 203 | ||
| 9.1.1 Existing desalination technologies | 203 | ||
| 9.1.2 Balancing acute and chronic water quality risks | 204 | ||
| 9.1.3 Emerging membrane technologies | 204 | ||
| 9.2 FORWARD OSMOSIS AND PRESSURE RETARDED OSMOSIS | 205 | ||
| 9.2.1 Applications in desalination and water purification | 208 | ||
| 9.2.2 Wastewater treatment | 209 | ||
| 9.2.3 Moving forward with FO and PRO | 210 | ||
| 9.3 NOVEL NANOCOMPOSITE MEMBRANES | 212 | ||
| 9.3.1 Mixed matrix membranes | 212 | ||
| 9.3.2 Carbon nanotube membranes | 213 | ||
| 9.3.3 Application | 213 | ||
| 9.4 CAPACITIVE DEIONIZATION | 214 | ||
| 9.4.1 Electrosorption | 214 | ||
| 9.4.2 Considerations | 215 | ||
| 9.4.3 Innovations and limitations | 216 | ||
| 9.5 HOLLOW FIBER NANOFILTRATION | 216 | ||
| 9.5.1 Spiral-wound membrane softening membranes | 216 | ||
| 9.5.2 Hollow-fiber ultrafiltration membranes | 217 | ||
| 9.5.3 Emerging hollow-fiber nanofiltration membrane technology | 218 | ||
| 9.5.4 Pilot testing demonstrates partial divalent removals | 219 | ||
| 9.5.5 Emergence of HF-NF as a viable technology | 220 | ||
| 9.6 MICROBIAL DESALINATION AND REVERSE ELECTRODIALYSIS | 220 | ||
| 9.7 ADAPTIVE CONTROL | 224 | ||
| 9.8 PROVIDING OPPORTUNITIES AND OVERCOMING CHALLENGES | 225 | ||
| 9.9 REFERENCES | 226 | ||
| Chapter 10: Desalination – reverse osmosis versus the rest | 233 | ||
| 10.1 INTRODUCTION | 233 | ||
| 10.2 CONVENTIONAL SEAWATER REVERSE OSMOSIS (SWRO) DESALINATION TECHNOLOGY | 234 | ||
| 10.2.1 Minimum desalination energy | 235 | ||
| 10.2.2 Improving energy efficiency of conventional SWRO | 236 | ||
| 10.3 ALTERNATIVE DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES | 237 | ||
| 10.3.1 Biomimetic techniques | 237 | ||
| 10.3.2 Electrochemical desalination | 239 | ||
| 10.3.3 Engineered osmosis | 241 | ||
| 10.3.4 Membrane distillation | 244 | ||
| 10.3.5 Other emerging desalination technologies | 245 | ||
| 10.3.5.1 Nanotechnology-based membrane technologies | 245 | ||
| 10.3.5.2 Closed circuit desalination | 246 | ||
| 10.3.5.3 Combined heating, cooling and desalination | 247 | ||
| 10.3.5.4 Adsorption desalination | 247 | ||
| 10.3.5.5 Gas hydrate desalination | 247 | ||
| 10.3.5.6 Deep sea desalination | 247 | ||
| 10.4 OTHER ISSUES OF RELEVANCE | 248 | ||
| 10.5 LEVERAGING WATER-ENERGY-WASTE NEXUS FOR THE FUTURE OF DESALINATION | 249 | ||
| 10.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 251 | ||
| 10.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 251 | ||
| 10.8 REFERENCES | 251 |